wealth from oceans

www.csiro.au

Subsea Pipelines
Collaboration Cluster
Advancing our knowledge of subsea pipeline technology
to support the oil and gas industry
Final report
2 
Executive summary 17 
Putting the Cluster’s
research into practice
4 
Introduction to the
Subsea Pipelines Cluster 21 
Commissioning
experimental equipment
6 
Training the offshore for ongoing pipeline
pipeline engineers testing in Australia
of the future
28 
Publications and
10 
Scientific and dissemination
engineering challenges
34 
Key papers
12 
Scientific outcomes
of the Flagship 46 
Awards
Collaborative Cluster
48 
Keynote presentations,
invited lectures and papers

49 
Hosting international
conference ISFOG

50 
The Partners

51 
Flagship Collaboration
fund

1
Executive summary
Offshore subsea pipelines are used to export oil and gas from the field to platform and
then from the platform to the mainland. As they are the sole conduit for the hydrocarbons
their stability and integrity are of critical economic and environmental importance.

More than 80 per cent of Australia’s

gas resources exist in deep, remote,
offshore areas and being able to realise
the full potential of these remote
resources relies on the development
of economically viable transportation
solutions. Technical solutions for
Australia’s offshore pipelines must
maintain structural integrity and
continuous supply of products across
hundreds of kilometres of seabed.
Such technology is also vital to Australia
achieving the vision of “platform
free fields”, a CSIRO Wealth from
Oceans Flagship initiative. Platform
free fields research investigates ways
to replace traditional oil and gas
platforms with subsea technologies
for production of gas resources which
may lie as far as 300 km offshore,
at a depth greater than 1 km.
To address the challenges of providing
technical solutions to the Australian
oil and gas industry, six universities
and CSIRO’s Wealth from Ocean
Flagship came together in 2008
to establish the Subsea Pipelines
Collaboration Cluster. Its goal was to
underpin the development of these
hydrocarbon resources, by providing
engineering solutions for the safe
and economic design and operation
of subsea pipelines in Australia’s
offshore frontiers. This research
Cluster was enabled by a $3.6 million
grant through the CSIRO Flagship
Collaboration Fund and in-kind
contributions from the participating
universities of $7.4 million. Bringing
together an integrated and multi-
disciplinary team has been fundamental
to the success of the Cluster.
The Cluster has resulted in significant
advances in the understanding
of subsea pipeline technology,

2 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report

including the development of state-
of-the-art experimental equipment
to test pipeline attributes.
Key achievements include establishing
new numerical models and software
for analysing the stability of offshore
pipelines, novel methodologies for
economic and safe pipeline design,
and the commissioning of world-
class experimental and pipeline
testing facilities. These have resulted
in specialist testing and consultancy
services being available to the offshore
pipeline industry. The increased
knowledge and understanding will
contribute to CSIRO’s own research
in the areas of gas flow assurance
and production. They are also
publically available with the Cluster
having published more than 160
manuscripts in international journal
and conference proceedings.
Results from the Cluster’s research has
already been incorporated into the
next generation of subsea natural gas
projects such as the A$43 billion Gorgon
project in north-west Western Australia
that involves the development of the
Greater Gorgon gas fields and a LNG
plant on Barrow Island, near Karratha.
Acting for clients BP, Chevron, Inpex and
Woodside, testing facilities developed
have also underpinned designs for
Australia’s future pipelines to the Pluto,
Wheatstone, Ichthys and Browse fields
(off the north-west Western Australian
coast) and in international projects
offshore West Africa, Egypt and in the
Caspian sea. Research in the cluster also
formed part of a joint industry project
sponsored by the six energy majors
BHP Billiton Petroleum, BP, Chevron,
Petrobras, Shell and Woodside, and
administered by the Minerals and
Energy Research Institute of Western
Australia (MERIWA Project M395).
The current boom in Australian oil
and gas has caused a skills shortage in
key engineering fields. It is therefore
a key achievement that this cluster
has also trained 41 offshore engineers
and researchers for the benefit of
the offshore oil and gas industry
through its PhD and postdoctoral
programs. This will help underpin
the future success of engineering
in this area of national priority. Mark Cassidy
Leader
The Cluster outcomes are helping to
CSIRO Flagship Collaboration
build future research priorities in CSIRO,
Cluster on Subsea Pipelines
the Universities and with industry
The University of Western Australia
partners in the areas of pipeline design
and installation in Australian calcareous
soil conditions and in deep water,
geohazard risk assessment, use of
automated underwater vehicles and in
developing the vision of platform free
fields in Australia. Future activities, such
as interactive workshops, will build on
this successful collaborative relationship.
This report summarises the
achievements of the Subsea
Ian Cresswell
Pipeline Collaboration Cluster and
Acting Director
its impact on the Australian and
CSIRO Wealth from
international oil and gas industries.
Oceans Flagship
Past CSIRO Wealth of Oceans Flagship Director Kate Wilson (right), CSIRO Energy Executive
Bev Ronalds (centre) and UWA Vice Chancellor Alan Robson (left) at the Cluster launch
3
Introduction to the Subsea Pipelines Cluster
Building a pipeline system to link an offshore oil and gas field to the mainland
represents a huge capital investment. For example, in Australia the construction of the
42 inch 135 km pipeline for the Trunkline System Expansion Project (TSEP) on the North
West Shelf in 2003/04 cost approximately A$800 million. Today, the cost per kilometre
of current pipeline projects, including the Gorgon (water depth: 1350 m length: 65
and 140 km), Scarborough (depth: 900m length: 280km), Pluto (depth: 830m length:
180km) and Browse (depth: 600m length: 5, 24 and 400km) is estimated to exceed
$4.5 million per kilometre. With over 2000km of pipelines under design in Australia,
capital expenditure is expected to exceed $10 billion.

With more than 80 per cent of
Australia’s gas resources exist in deep,
remote, offshore areas, our ability
to realise their full potential relies
on the development of economically
viable solutions to transport them.
Such technology is vital to Australia
achieving the vision of Platform Free
Fields, a CSIRO Wealth from Oceans
Flagship program. This research
investigates ways to replace traditional
oil and gas platforms with subsea
technologies for production of gas
resources which are considered CSIRO, Australian universities and other
stranded off our coast in deep water publicly funded research agencies.
and at long distances to land. Under
The Subsea Pipeline Collaboration
these conditions subsea pipelines are
Cluster was initiated by the Wealth
required to transport the gas over
from Oceans Flagship to bring
long distances to shore. Transporting
together a diverse range of research
hydrocarbons in extra long offshore
capabilities to deliver an in-depth
pipelines poses many challenges that
scientific understanding of the
must be considered when designing
key parameters involved in subsea
pipelines. These include stability of
pipeline design, construction, long-
pipeline structures over decades in
term operation and monitoring.
strong currents, a shifting seabed and
on steep seabed slopes. Assessment The three year program contributed
and mitigation of potential geohazards, to CSIRO’s research program that aims
such as submarine landslides, is also to work with industry to develop the
critical for the safe routing of pipelines. science and technology to unlock new
opportunities in the exploration and
The Subsea Pipelines Collaboration
development of Australia’s offshore
Cluster was established to meet
hydrocarbon resources. The $7.4
these challenges and to deliver
million Cluster included $3.6 million
science-based engineering solutions
from the Flagship Collaboration Fund
for the safe and economic design
and $3.8 million in-kind contributions
and operation of subsea pipelines
from the participating universities.
in Australia’s deepwater frontiers.
Research has focused on ultralong The Subsea Pipeline Collaboration
pipelines from deepwater to shore, a Cluster combined the research
critical goal of Platform Free Fields. capabilities of The University of
Western Australia, Curtin University
The CSIRO Flagship Collaboration
of Technology, The University of
Fund enables the skills of the wider
Queensland, Monash University, The
Australian research community to
University of Sydney, Flinders University
be applied to the major national
and CSIRO through the Wealth from
challenges targeted by CSIRO’s National
Oceans National Research Flagship.
Research Flagship Program. As part of
From a start of 17 Chief Investigators the
the $480 million provided over seven
cluster grew to eventually encompass
years by the Australian Government
31 academic researchers and another
to the National Research Flagships,
27 PhD and Masters students.
$115 million was allocated specifically
to enhance collaboration between

4 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report

CSIRO Cluster on Subsea Pipelines Participants

SEABED SEABED MORPHOLOGY PIPELINE RELIABILITY

CHARACTERISATION Lead Researcher Lead Researcher
Lead Researcher Professor Liang Cheng Professor Hong Hao
Professor Mark Randolph Researchers Researcher
Researchers Dr Ming Zhao Professor Mark Cassidy
Professor Liang Cheng Dr Zhipeng Zang Dr Ying Wang
Professor David White PhD Students PhD Students
Professor Mark Cassidy Di Wu Xuelin Peng
Dr Itai Einav Siti Fatin Mohd Razali Chunxiao Bao
Dr Pierre Rognon Fang Zhou (Visitor) Wang Chao (Visitor)
Dr Noel Boylan Xiaosong Zhu (Visitor)
Dr Hongxia Zhu
PhD Students
Han Eng Low AUV AND ROV-BASED
Zhihui Ye PIPELINE HAZARDS SYSTEMS FOR PIPELINE
Yan Yue
Hamed Mahmoodzadeh
Lead Researcher MONITORING
Professor David White
Poornaki Lead Researcher
Researchers Associate Professor
Professor Liang Cheng Karl Sammut
Professor Mark Randolph
Associate Professor Yuxia Hu Researchers
STRUCTURAL Associate Professor Fangpo He
Dr Tom Baldock
INTEGRITY Dr Christophe Gaudin Dr Jimmy Li
Dr Nathalie Boukpeti Dr Kim Klaka
Lead Researcher
Dr Dong Wang Dr Alec Duncan
Professor Mark Cassidy
Dr Noel Boylan Mr Andrew Woods
Researchers
PhD Students PhD Students
Professor Xiao-Ling Zhao
Jaya Kumar Seelam Andrew Lammas
Professor Jayantha Kodikara
Hee Min Matthew Kokegei
Dr Faris Albermani
Indranil Guha David Robert
Dr Yinghui Tian
Fauzan Sahdi Tae-hwan Joung
Professor Mark Randolph
Lyndon Whaite
Professor David White
Grant Pusey
Dr HongBo Liu
Dr Zhigang Xiao (until 2009)
Dr Pathmanathan Rajeev
PhD Students
Mehdi Golbahar
Matthew Hodder
Bassem Youssef
Senthilkumar Muthukrishnan
Hossein Khalilpasha

5
Training the offshore pipeline
engineers of the future
The Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster is not only devising tomorrow’s subsea pipeline
technology, it is providing significant research training for Australia’s future pipeline engineers.
In all, 27 PhD students and 14 research associates undertook pipeline research within the cluster.

6 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report

Chief Investigators

The University of Western Australia The University The University Curtin University
of Sydney of Queensland of Technology

Mark Cassidy Hong Hao

Itai Einav Faris Albermani Kim Klaka

Monash
University

Mark Randolph Liang Cheng

Tom Baldock Alec Duncan

Flinders
Xiao-Ling Zhao University

David White Christophe Gaudin

Andrew Woods

Fangpo He

Jayantha Kodikara

Jimmy Li

Karl Sammut

7
CSIRO Cluster Postdoctoral Research Associates
Name Institution Project Where they are now?

Hongjie Zhou University of Western Australia Seabed Characterisation Advanced Geomechanics

Pierre Rognon University of Sydney Seabed Characterisation University of Sydney
Noel Boylan University of Western Australia Seabed Characterisation Advanced Geomechanics
Pipeline Hazards
Yinghui Tian University of Western Australia Structural Integrity University of Western Australia
Zhigang Xiao Monash Structural Integrity Monash University
Pathmanathan Rajeev Monash Structural Integrity Monash University
HongBo Liu Monash Seabed Integrity Monash University
Ming Zhao University of Western Australia Seabed Morphology University of Western Sydney
Zhipeng Zang University of Western Australia Seabed Morphology
Nathalie Boukpeti University of Western Australia Pipeline Hazards University of Western Australia
Dong Wang University of Western Australia Pipeline Hazards University of Western Australia
James Schneider University of Western Australia Pipeline Hazards University of
Wisconsin-Madison
Ying Wang University of Western Australia Pipeline Reliability Shanghai Jiao Tong University
Andrew Lammas Flinders Pipeline Monitoring Flinders University

8 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report

CSIRO Cluster Postgraduate Student Participants
Name Inst. Thesis Title Cluster Stream

Name Inst. Thesis Title Cluster Stream

James Schneider UWA Analysis of piezocone data for displacement pile design Pipeline Hazards
Hongije Zhou UWA Numerical study of geotechnical penetration Seabed Characterisation
problems for offshore applications
Han Eng Low UWA Performance of penetrometers in deepwater soft soil characterisation Seabed Characterisation

Matthew Hodder UWA Geotechnical analysis of offshore pipelines and steel catenary risers Structural Integrity
Di Wu UWA Experimental and numerical modelling of natural backfill Seabed Morphology
of navigation channels and pipeline trenches
Grant Pusey Curtin Characterisation of long-range horizontal performance Pipeline Monitoring
of underwater acoustic communication
Siti Fatin Mohd Razali UWA Wake characteristics of yawed circular cylinders and suppression Seabed Morphology
of vortex-induced vibration using helical strakes
Xuelin Peng UWA Condition monitoring of offshore pipelines using vibration based method Pipeline Monitoring
Jaya Kumar Seelam UQ Tsunami induced bed shear stresses- project 4 Pipeline Hazards
Benham Shabani UQ Ben contributing to the modelling of Jaya's but PhD otherwise unrelated Pipeline Hazards
Andrew Lammas Flinders 6 Degree of Freedom Navigation Systems for Pipeline Monitoring
Autonomous Underwater Vehicles
Matthew Kokegei Flinders Fully Coupled 6 Degree of Freedom Control Systems Pipeline Monitoring
for Autonomous Underwater Vehicles
Yan Yue UWA Novel methods for characterising pipe-soil Seabed characterisation
interaction forces in-situ in deep water
Bassem Youssef UWA Use of probability models in the integrated analysis in offshore pipelines Structural Integrity
Zhihui Ye UWA Erosion threshold and erosion rate of seabed sediments Seabed Characterisation
Santiram Chatterjee UWA Modelling of pipeline seabed interactions Seabed Characterisation
David Roberts Flinders Pipeline Tracking Using Scanning Sonar Imaging Pipeline Monitoring
Tae-hwan Joung Flinders Computational Fluid Dynamics Modelling Techniques for Pipeline Monitoring
Analysing the Performance of a AUV Thruster
Lyndon Whaite Flinders Mesh Free Methods for Probabilistic Optimal Control and Pipeline Monitoring
Estimation of Autonomous Underwater Vehicles
Fauzan Sahdi UWA Modelling of submarine slides and their impact on pipelines Pipeline Hazards
Amin Rismanchian UWA Three dimensional modelling of pipeline buckling on soft clay Seabed Characterisation
Senthilkumar Monash Offshore pipe clay seabed interaction in axial direction Structural Integrity
Muthukrishnan
Chunxiao Bao UWA Vibration based structural health monitoring Pipeline Reliability
of onshore and offshore structures
Indranil Guha UWA Structural analysis of submarine pipelines under Pipeline Hazards
submarine slide and thermal loading
Hossein Khalilpasha UQ Propagation buckling of deep subsea pipelines Structural Integrity
Hamed Mahmoodzadeh UWA Interpretation of partially drained penetrometer tests with Seabed Characterisation
Poornaki applications to the design of spudcan foundation
Hassan Karampour UQ Coupled upheaval/lateral and propagation buckling of ultra-deep pipelines Structural Integrity

9
Scientific and engineering challenges
The Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster investigated and developed scientific
solutions to overcome the challenges of constructing pipelines from oil and gas
reserves in water depths exceeding 1000 metres.

For safe and economic developments
such pipelines are required to
maintain their structural integrity and
continuously supply hydrocarbons
across hundreds of kilometres of
rugged, often shifting, seabed to
bring the hydrocarbons to shore.
The Cluster brought together a diverse
range of research capabilities to deliver
an in-depth scientific understanding
of subsea pipelines in the areas of:
◆◆design
◆◆construction
◆◆long-term operation
◆◆real-time monitoring.
The aim of the program was to provide
a technical basis for the design of
pipelines for any new offshore field,
which contrasts with the current
case-by-case approach, significantly
reducing costs and uncertainties
for future pipeline design projects,
with particular relevance to remote
offshore locations around Australia.
There were six research streams
which mimicked the life cycle of a
pipeline, from characterising the
design environment to monitoring
any risk of failure during operation.
These streams were:

10 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report

Seabed characterisation
This project concentrated on
advanced testing of seabed sediment
characteristics to understand how they
may affect pipelines resting on the
seabed. Current methods practised in
industry are hampered by the expense
of having to conduct multiple tests
along a long pipe route, inaccuracies
in interpreting site-characterisation
tools developed for traditional deep
foundation rather than the top 1 m layer
of soil, and difficulties of collecting soil
samples for onshore laboratory testing.
Novel equipment and interpretative
methods were developed to define
the main engineering parameters
required for pipeline design, such as
seabed strength and the effects of
seabed erosion. These included the
piezoball, toroidal and hemispherical
shallow ball penetrometers.
UWA miniature piezoball
Seabed morphology
Research was conducted into the
formation mechanisms of seabed sand
waves and in developing a model to
predict the evolution of sand waves with
and without the presence of a pipeline.
The project developed methods to
predict the three-dimensional erosion
of the seabed under pipelines.
Pipeline stability studies in
the miniature O-tube
Structural integrity
This project developed new numerical
models and design frameworks for
the analysis of pipeline stability and
fatigue by integrating the interactions
and effects of the seabed, currents
and waves on the pipeline structure.
Pipeline hazards
Deep-water developments require
pipeline routing up the continental
slope in areas of changing seabed
morphology and other geohazards. One
key technical challenge addressed by the
Cluster was the impact of a submarine
landslide sliding down the continental
slope and colliding with a pipeline.
Based on physical and numerical
modelling, this research developed
new calculation methods and analysis
tools. These tools were used to model
the run-out of submarine slides and to
assess their consequent impact forces
and potential damage to submarine
pipelines, together with an assessment
of tsunami-induced bed shear stresses
and pressure gradients on the sea floor.
Sea-bed amplitude map showing features
of the Gorgon slide, North West Shelf
Full-life reliability
This research assessed the feasibility of
using vibration measurement to monitor
the health of pipelines, with the aim
of replacing expensive and irregular
visual monitoring with continuous
measurements and analysis. Both
numerical simulation and experimental
test results indicate that vibration
measurement is very sensitive to
pipeline scouring damage. Methods
were developed for possible applications
to monitor pipeline conditions online.
Pipeline monitoring
Research explored the use of
autonomous underwater vehicles
(AUVs) for continuous monitoring,
assessment of pipeline integrity and
evaluation of the seafloor, and the
autonomous operation of an underwater
communication link between acoustic
modems. The scope of the AUV work
included developing new navigation,
control, and guidance techniques.
These new techniques aimed to improve
a vehicle’s capability to move more
accurately over long distances while
working close to objects; to detect and
track pipelines; and to manoeuvre to
deploy instruments into the seabed.
The technical detail and major
outcomes will now be presented for
each of these research streams.
11
Scientific outcomes
The following are the major scientific outcomes
of the Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster

◆◆Development of novel penetrometers

and techniques for interpreting soil
properties, including an enhanced
ball-shaped penetrometer – the
piezoball – and new toroidal and
hemispherical devices for deployment
at the seabed. These devices are
already being used in practical
applications offshore, where they are
deriving soil properties in the upper
metre of soil, the most relevant part
of the seabed for pipeline design.

◆◆Development of a methodology for

interpreting pipeline axial friction
design values from novel toroidal and
Piezoball testing in Trondheim – (from left) Noel Boylan (formerly COFS), Mike Long
hemispherical penetrometer results. (UCD), Annika Bihs (NTNU), Jan Jønland (NTNU) and Roselyn Carroll (UCD)

◆◆Complementary geotechnical ◆◆Established new solutions for the

centrifuge and field testing of the interactive forces between pipelines
piezoball penetrometer at UWA, the and the seabed during axial and lateral
Riverside site in East Perth and the movement, on both coarse-grained
Kvenild and Dragvoll sites in Norway and fine-grained seabeds, with these
(the latter in collaboration with the solutions being encapsulated into an
Norwegian University of Science and efficient macroelement framework.
Technology). The tests examined
the transition between intact and
Miniature piezoball in beam centrifuge
remoulded shear strength, as well
as dissipation tests to examine
the consolidation properties of
the soil. Both are essential in the
interpretation of seabed properties
for design of deepwater pipelines.

◆◆Proposed interpretative method

for adjusting measured piezoball
resistance to allow for the effects
of partial consolidation.

Distribution of excess pore pressure

after a 3-diameter penetration

12 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report

 u2 and uumball (kPa)
(a) u/D = 0.1 0 100 200 300 400
0
Piezocone
Piezoball
4

Depth (m)
(b) u/D = 0.5
12

16
u0

20
(c) u/D = 1 Bq and Bumball
Softening 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
factor 0
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85 4
0.80
0.75
(d) u/D = 7 0.71
0.66 8
Depth (m)

0.61
0.56
0.51 12
0.46
0.14
0.36
0.31 16

20
Profiles of (a) u2 and umball (b) Bq and Bmball

13
 (a)
Example of video footage images of (a) a pipeline crossing a sleeper and (b) an as-laid survey in silt
◆◆Established framework for
incorporating macroelement pipe-
seabed models into structural
analysis programs, including
uplift and reattachment.
◆◆Extension of plasticity models
describing the pipe-soil load
displacement behaviour on
Australia’s calcareous sands to lateral
displacements of up to five diameters.
◆◆Development of numerical analysis
code for integrated storm loading
on on-bottom pipelines.
◆◆Proposed formulae to calculate the
natural frequency of free spanning
subsea pipelines by considering
the boundary conditions, mass
of hydrocarbon products, axial
force and multiple spans.
◆◆Development of numerical analysis
using boundary element method
to predict the fatigue life of subsea
pipelines subject to combined actions.
14 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report
(b)
◆◆Development of a numerical
model that simulates sand wave
formation and evolution.
◆◆Verification of the Regional
Oceanographic Modelling System
(ROMS) model for sand wave
migration and sand wave-pipeline
interaction model against offshore
data and comparison of numerical
results to other published models.
◆◆Establishment of a numerical
model for three-dimensional
flow and scour under pipelines,
and subsequent validation of the
model against experiments.
◆◆Analysis of initial embedment and
subsequent axial displacement
coupling pore pressure dissipation
and soil deformation.
◆◆Analysis of the influence of boundary
conditions, hydrocarbon products and
axial pipeline tension on the natural
frequency of on-bottom pipelines.
◆◆New convolution models to
calculate total bed shear stresses
for solitary waves and breaking
tsunami wave fronts.
◆◆Establishment of state-of-the-
art experimental equipment for
ongoing testing to support the
design of Australia’s offshore
pipelines, including:
– the world’s first facility
for simulating submarine
slides at small scale within a
geotechnical drum centrifuge
– a pressurised testing vessel of 4m
length and 173mm internal diameter
that is rated for 20MPa and capable
of simulating the propagation
of pipeline buckling during deep
water installation and operation
(up to 2000m water depth)

Mini o-tube facility
– an experimental testing rig for
studying general and field specific
cyclic axial interaction behaviour
between the pipe and soil behaviour
for general loading under drained
or undrained conditions
– a mini O-tube facility for testing
of soil erosion properties
and small scale modelling of
seabed-infrastructure-ocean
interaction, allowing observations
of the flow conditions and
measurement of the erosion
threshold of seabed sediments
– establishment of laboratory testing
apparatus to measure bed shear
stress under tsunami-shaped waves
– development of capabilities for
simulating whole-life loading
histories on model pipes in the
geotechnical centrifuge, including
storm-induced hydrodynamic
load sequences, and thermally-
induced lateral buckling cycles
– development of miniaturised
versions of new field-scale
penetrometers, to allow
comparative testing of reconstituted
and in situ seabed sediments, in
support of centrifuge model testing.
◆◆Validation of vibration-based methods
to reliably monitor the condition
of subsea pipelines (though their
practical implementation still depends
on a number of issues including
the ability to transmit the vibration
data and power the sensors).
◆◆For the application of autonomous
underwater vehicles, the project
developed:
– a new full-order particle filter
based navigation algorithm that
can estimate an autonomous
underwater vehicle’s position,
attitude, velocity, and rotational
rates, as well as water currents
acting on the vehicle
– a fully-coupled control algorithm
to achieve improved manoeuvring
close to hazards and reduce
battery consumption
– a pipeline tracking system that can
detect and track multiple pipelines
– hardware and software modules that
embed these navigation, control
and guidance system in an AUV.
◆◆Development of hardware and
software for controlling and
monitoring the performance of
underwater acoustic modems, while
simultaneously recording the ambient
noise and modem transmissions
on a wide-bandwidth recorder.
◆◆Underwater acoustic modems
evaluated for their capacity to transmit
data along a pipeline. Long-term,
16-day trials of a five-kilometre
communication link between two
seabed-mounted modems in 100m
allowed detailed comparisons to be
made between measured modem
performance and performance
predicted by numerical simulators.
15
16 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report
Putting the Cluster’s research into practice
The Collaboration Cluster’s work has revolutionised subsea pipeline technology and
its findings have already been implemented in oil and gas projects off Australia and
elsewhere in the world.

Meanwhile, four other long-distance
pipelines – Gorgon, Wheatstone, Ichthys
and Browse – are at an advanced stage
of design, and many shorter pipelines are
being designed. These new pipelines are
technically very challenging: some will
extend into deeper waters, well beyond
the shelf break, and some – notably
those to the Ichthys and Browse fields
– will be located north of Broome, in
different oceanographic and geotechnical
conditions compared to the existing
experience in the Carnarvon basin.
The new challenges of new regions,
greater pipeline lengths, deeper water and
new geohazards, have all been tackled
within the Cluster, and the research
techniques and outcomes spearheaded by
the Cluster have already been applied to
the design of Australia’s new pipelines.
These same technologies have also been
applied to projects elsewhere in the
world, such as for BP’s PSVM field off
Angola, West Nile Delta offshore Egypt
and Shah Deniz in the Caspian Sea. This is
recognising Australia’s technical leadership
in pipeline engineering and the pivotal
role this Cluster has played in developing
testing facilities and design practises.
The Cluster’s research programs resulted
in several industry advances such as:
Key aspects of the Cluster’s innovative
contributions to pipeline technology
include
Industry Impact through
Geotechnical Centrifuge Testing
Two critical components of pipeline
design are the assessment of on-bottom
stability under severe hydrodynamic
loading – from storms or tides – and
the overall response of the pipeline
to internal temperature and pressure.
Under both conditions, the pipe may be
permitted to move significant distances
back and forth across the seabed, but
these movements must not be excessive
and the pipe must not be over-strained.
A critical input to assessment of pipeline
stability under these movements is the
interaction forces between the pipe and
the seabed. Centrifuge model testing,
using offshore soil samples and accurate
simulation of the pipeline weight and
movements, provides observations
that can be used to refine and validate
Existing pipeline Ichthys
Proposed pipeline
models for pipe-soil interaction, leading
to reduced design uncertainty. New
experimental techniques were developed
at UWA during the Cluster project, and
these have resulted in more realistic
simulations of pipeline behaviour. Using
these techniques, centrifuge testing
has been performed over the past four
years, using natural soil samples gathered
from offshore and providing results
that have had direct impact the design
of offshore field pipelines. The specific
projects, operators and pipe details are
provided in the table on following page.
Industry collaborator Paul Brunning of
Acergy presenting at the 2009 CSIRO
Flagship Cluster on Pipelines workshop

◆◆ improved site characterisation Browse

through new technologies
◆◆ specialised geotechnical Gorgon
centrifuge testing
Wheatstone
◆◆ advanced numerical modelling
◆◆ cyclone simulation experiments in the
newly established O-Tube facility.
Also, through a joint industry project
involving six offshore operators (BHP
Billiton Petroleum, BP, Chevron, Petrobras,
Shell and Woodside), new approaches
for geohazard assessment have been
derived and applied in projects, including
the A$43billion Gorgon project in
north-west Western Australia that
involves designing a pipeline to travel
from 1350m water depth at the Greater
Gorgon gas fields to the LNG plant
on Barrow Island, near Karratha.

17
 operator project year pipeline length main testing focus These centrifuge studies used new
modelling technology that permits
Woodside Pluto 2007 200km Lateral buckling
arbitrary patterns of load and
BP PSVM 2008 170km Lateral buckling displacement to be imposed on a model
Chevron Gorgon 2008 65km & 150km As-laid embedment pipeline. This allowed the effects of
Chevron Gorgon 2009 150km Storm stability dynamic laying, thermal start-up and
shutdown cycles and hydrodynamic
Chevron Gorgon 2009 150km Free span stability
storm loading to be simulated. In some
Chevron Wheatstone 2010 225km Buckling, storm stability cases, stochastic storm simulations to
BP B31SE 2010 50km Lateral buckling assess the pipe-soil response during
1000-year and 10000-year return
Inpex Ichthys (infield) 2010 50km Lateral buckling
period design events were devised. The
Woodside Browse 2011 400km Buckling, storm stability underlying technology is described later
Inpex Ichthys (export) 2011 850km Lateral buckling in this report (also refer to centrifuge
BP West Nile Delta 2011 100km Lateral buckling modelling technology section).
BP Shah Deniz 2011 25km Lateral buckling
Industry impact through
Summary of centrifuge tests conducted for industry during the Cluster numerical modelling
Numerical pipe-soil models were
incorporated into the industry stability
analysis package ABAQUS/SimStab
for use in the Gorgon Upstream
Joint Venture (GUJV) project. Cluster
researchers collaborated with GUJV
engineers in initially running the
plasticity UWAPIPE models under
Gorgon storm conditions, before
incorporating the models into the
SimStab software for GUJV engineers
to use. The new soil models are
now being used in the stability
analysis of the Gorgon pipeline on
the North West Shelf of Australia.

New methods to predict

Berms of soil along pipe in a industry test
submarine slide-
pipelineinteraction
Research into the interaction between
submarine slides and pipelines formed
a major theme within the cluster,
and also a joint industry project
administered by the Minerals and
Energy Research Institute of Western
Australia (MERIWA Project M395) and
sponsored by the six energy majors
BHP Billiton Petroleum, BP, Chevron,
Petrobras, Shell and Woodside. Annual
workshops between the sponsoring

18 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report

companies and researchers were using two levels of sophistication – a Velocity (m/s)
30 1.45
held in Perth and in Houston, USA. new, and more refined, implementation 1.35
1.25
1.15
of the industry-standard depth-averaged 1.05
This project aimed to develop new t = 0.1 s

z (m)
20 0.95
0.85
approach, and a continuum-based large 0.75
techniques to characterise and 0.65
deformation finite element method. 10
0.55

model the geotechnical aspects 0.45

of submarine slide behaviour. The The techniques emerging from this

0
project encompassed both physical research into the assessment of Velocity (m/s)
modelling and numerical modelling. pipeline-slide loading have been 30 3.6
3.3

A program of novel centrifuge model applied to the Greater Gorgon 3

2.7
2.4
tests generated a library of well- development, offshore Australia. 2.1
t = 3.3 s

z (m)
20 1.8
1.5
characterised submarine slides, as well 1.2
A further significant part of the 0.9
as a database of slide-pipe interaction 10
0.6
0.3
project was the development of a new 0
force measurements. These results were
geotechnically-based framework to
used to validate numerical run-out 0
characterise the strength of soft seabed Velocity (m/s)
computations that were performed 30 0.12
deposits, based on extensive laboratory 0.11
0.1
measurements using different soil 0.09
0.08
t = 15 s
z (m)
20 0.07
types. This framework spans the solid- 0.06
0.05
0.04
fluid boundary that is crossed within 0.03
10 0.02
the slide material as it evolves into a 0.01

debris flow and, ultimately, a turbidity

0
current. In addition, extensive analytical Velocity (m/s)
studies were performed to support 30 0.12
0.11
0.1
the development of new models for 0.09
0.08

the interaction forces between slides t = 69 s

z (m)

0.07
20 0.06
0.05
and pipelines, and these were distilled 0.04
0.03
0.02
10
into simple design recommendations. 0.01

0
110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190
x (m)
Velocity distributions on
deformed softening material
Developing slide experiments
at the UWA drum centrifuge

Slide run-out from centrifuge test with compression ridges highlighted

19
20 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report
Commissioning experimental equipment
for ongoing pipeline testing in Australia
Major equipment development:

Penetrometers for pipeline site investigation

The offshore industry has already made significant advances in site
investigation techniques, incorporating full-flow penetrometers such
as the T-bar and piezoball devices originally developed at UWA.
Piezoball penetrometers are now pipe and soil. New devices have been
used routinely by the Australian site developed during the project to target
investigation company, Benthic Geotech, this parameter, by applying torsional
in its portable remotely operated drill loading to a toroidal penetrometer,
(PROD). Extensive data were obtained or to an alternative hemi-spherical
in 2010 for Woodside’s Browse project penetrometer. In both cases, the
on the North-West Shelf. ROV- torsional interface response between
mounted penetrometer capabilities the device and soil represents a close
have been developed by companies analogue of the axial sliding resistance
such as Perry Slingsby in the USA (the of a pipeline. Test data at model scale, T-bar penetrometers test on remoulded
Rovdrill) and Geomarine in the UK. supported by numerical analysis, have sample of carbonate silt
Piezoball tests carried out in the project quantified the relationships between
have also given an insight into the axial friction and both the elapsed time
interpretation of data in silty carbonate and velocity of shearing. Analytical
sediments found offshore Australia. solutions have also been developed that
capture these contributions for different
For pipeline design, an important
soil types, thus providing a method for
parameter is the axial friction between
interpreting data from the equipment.

21
UWA’s geotechnical centrifuges
Both the beam (Figure a) and the drum centrifuges at the Centre for Offshore Foundation
Systems have had continuous technical upgrades to face the challenges associated with
the buckling of pipelines and the impact of submarine slides on pipelines.

These include:
◆◆An improved motion control system
enabling the modelling of pipeline
dynamic installation with complex
horizontal and vertical motion
interaction and the modelling of
pipeline buckling (Figure b) up to 600
cycles. This is a major improvement
compared to the previous modelling
capability (limited to about 100
cycles), which revealed specific
features of pipe soil interaction
related to the development of
berms and pipe embedment
over a large number of cycles.
◆◆The establishment of a new driving
system for the tool table of the drum
centrifuge and a new experimental
pipe apparatus. This upgrade was
triggered by the necessity to allow a
buried model pipeline to be translated
at various velocities through a soil ◆◆The establishment of optic fibre
sample contained within the drum data transmission on both the beam
centrifuge channel, simulating a pipe and the drum centrifuge improving
engulfed within a submarine slide. By the transfer rate, increasing the
using a soil sample which was initially quality of the experimental data
unconsolidated, the model pipe and enabling high definition videos
tests were performed after different to taken during experiments.
degrees of consolidation leading to
varying sample properties (density
ρ and undrained shear strength su).
Pipe translation tests were performed
using different model pipes with
varying length to diameter ratios
in order to determine the optimum
pipe geometry that would minimise
potential end effects. Once the test
technique was established the main
program of testing was undertaken.
This involved a total of 37 model pipe
translation tests spanning a wide
range of velocities and soil strengths.
Christophe Gaudin and Yinghui Tian with
the beam centrifuge

Horizontal displacement direction

Model pipeline during horizontal buckling Buried model pipeline translated through clay of various strengths

22 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report

O-tube
A new O-tube facility allows storm conditions to be simulated within a large recirculating flume.

The mini O-tube was formulated as

part the Collaboration Cluster and
highlighted the feasibility of the
experimental testing approach. A larger
O-tube was then subsequently funded by
UWA, the Australian Research Council,
and Woodside and Chevron, via the
STABLEPIPE Joint Industry Project.
The facility allows a full ocean-pipeline-
seabed interaction to be simulated at
large scale. Cyclonic wave and current
conditions can be created in the 1.5
m high test section, flowing over a
15 m long mobile sediment bed. The
long-term aim is to allow seabed
mobility, manifested through scour
and liquefaction, to be incorporated
in simulations of pipeline on-bottom
stability – which currently neglect these
potentially important processes.
This project is led by Liang Cheng,
with Hongwei An (UWA) and David
White and Mark Randolph. Support
for this initiative was provided by
Andrew Palmer (National University of
Singapore), as well as Woodside (Nino
Fogliani and Roland Fricke) and the local Scott Draper with the miniature O-tube
consultancies JP Kenny (Terry Griffiths)
and Atteris (Eric Jas). Conference papers
describing the O-tube activity were
presented at the Offshore Pipeline
Technology Conference (in Amsterdam)
and the ISOPE Conference (Shanghai).

The large o-tube, assembled at the UWA Shenton Park field station

23
Propagation buckling
A subsea pipeline can experience a number of structural instabilities, such as lateral
(snaking) buckling, upheaval buckling, span formation and propagation buckling.

Among these, propagation buckling
is the most critical one, particularly in
deep water, and can quickly damage
many kilometres of pipeline.
A local buckle, ovalisation, dent or
corrosion in the pipe wall can quickly
transform the pipe cross-section into
a dumb-bell (or dog bone) shape that
travels along the pipeline as long as the
external pressure is high enough to sustain
propagation. The lowest pressure that
maintains propagation is the propagation
pressure that is only a small fraction
of the elastic collapse pressure of the
intact pipe. This results in a substantial
increase in material and installation cost
of the pipeline, since design is therefore
governed by propagation pressure.
A hyperbaric chamber was constructed for
the simulation of propagation buckling
in ultra-deep subsea pipelines. The
pressurised testing vessel is 4 m long with
an internal diameter of 173mm and is rated
for 20 MPa (2000 m water depth). A testing
protocol was successfully established and
numerous tests were conducted on 3m
long steel and aluminium pipes. A simple
testing procedure using a ring segment
of the pipeline was also established as
a preliminary test. A modified analytical
solution for propagation buckling was
proposed and a finite element model
was established and verified with
the experimental results. Based on
these findings, a new pipe topology is
proposed. Finite element analysis of the
new pipe, a faceted cylinder, shows a
substantial increase in buckling capacity
for the same diameter/thickness ratio.
The coupling of upheaval and lateral
buckling with propagation buckling
is being investigated together with
exploring the possible modification
of the hyperbaric chamber to simulate
this form of coupled buckling.

Axial pipeline walking

A testing system to investigate axial pipeline walking under drained and
undrained conditions has been established at Monash University, Australia.

A sophisticated 2D electrical actuator with
a precision of 0.01 mm/sec (to account
for the slow axial walking process) was
devised to simulate the pipe motion
on a laboratory-made clay seabed. A
horizontal linear motor capable of driving
the shaft with a drive force between
300 to 500 N for a stroke length of 200
mm is provided. The vertical motion is
controlled by a motor providing 200
to 300 N drive force to an expected
stroke length of 200 mm. Both load and
displacement controlled cycles can be
performed at different rates depicting
both undrained and drained conditions.
The system is suitable for element testing
of typical prototype pipe diameters.
Dummy sections at the ends of the test
pipe section are provided to reduce
boundary effects in simulation of a long
pipe. The following steps are used in a
typical experiment. First, a model seabed is
prepared and characterised using a T bar.
Second, the test pipe is allowed to settle
on the model seabed. Third, the test pipe
is subjected to cyclic axial displacements
using the horizontal actuator. On the
basis of instrumentation provided, the
axial on the test pipe section, pore
water pressure at pre-determined
locations and vertical settlement of
pipe are measured. The test results
produce the shear stress-displacement
characteristics of the pipe-soil interface
applicable to axial walking problems.

The Monash Advance Pipe Testing System (MAPS)

24 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report

Tsunami testing facility
Novel bed shear stress measurements were performed in the
UQ tsunami wave flume, which is 25 m long and 0.8 m wide.

The shear cell consists of a 100 mm long, a physical model test for a solitary wave Numerical modelling of tsunami sources
250 mm wide and 1.21 mm thick smooth is shown below. Numerical modelling along the Sunda Arc has shown the
plate supported on thin tubular sway of the laboratory experiments has been locations of principal hazard on the
legs, with displacement measured by an performed and used to calibrate and test WA continental slope and shelf, together
eddy-current sensor which resolves plate a tsunami model for prediction of seabed with hotspots of high bed shear stress,
movement to 0.001 mm. The wave flume shear stresses in the field. both of which can be utilised in pipeline
was equipped with a computer-controlled routing studies.
piston wave-maker having a maximum
stroke length of 1.2 m and capable of
generating most types of waves including
solitary waves and bores. The experimental
model was set up to represent a
continental slope and shelf region, with
measurements made on the slope and
horizontal sections. Measurements were
made over both a smooth bed and a rough
bed. Both non-breaking and breaking
(bores) were investigated. Microsonic®
ultrasonic wave gauges were used to
measure the wave heights and a SONTEK®
2D Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter was used
to measure the flow velocities. A photo of

A solitary wave at the shelf edge in the UQ experiments

25
Acoustic modems
The capability to perform at-sea evaluations of underwater acoustic communication
links has been enhanced by the development of equipment to allow the unattended,
autonomous operation and monitoring of such links for extended periods of time.

Battery operated, and mounted

in pressure proof housings, the
equipment controls the operation
of the modems and monitors their
performance while simultaneously
monitoring ambient noise and the
water column temperature profile. It
has been successfully used for several
experiments, including a 16-day
unattended trial in 100 m of water off
the Western Australian coast. It can
be readily modified to suit other types
of underwater acoustic modems.
The development of this hardware
has been complemented by
the development of a modem
performance simulator that can be
used to investigate the effects of
different environmental factors on
communication link performance.

Experimental setup for the long-term trial showing all equipment used in the deployment.
Two sets of equipment were deployed which periodically communicated with one another
while recording information including ambient noise levels and a temperature profile for the
bottom 50 m of the water column.

26 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report

Autonomous underwater vehicles
The algorithms developed to control, navigate and guide AUVs have all
been tested numerically using realistic purpose-built simulators.

The developed algorithms must, position while deploying instruments build 3D relief maps of the seabed and
however, be physically validated into the seabed, and turn tightly while track pipelines and obstacles. It also has
using a real vehicle equipped with the manoeuvring close to obstacles. The doppler velocity sensors and IMUs for
necessary sensors and actuators. AUV is equipped with forward looking navigation, as well other instruments
and bathymetry plus side scan sonar to for acoustic and radio communications.
The majority of AUVs currently available
from vendors are either closed
architecture which would prevent
alternative algorithms from being used
on the vehicle, or are too expensive,
or too small to be useful. The decision
was therefore taken to custom build a
modular vehicle that can satisfactorily
validate the developed algorithms
and with enough flexibility to meet
the range of survey/intervention
requirements posed by the offshore
oil and gas. This vehicle is currently
being built in collaboration with the
Australian Maritime College. The
vehicle is equipped with four lateral
thrusters as well as one propulsion
thruster permitting it to hover and hold
CAD image of an AUV

27
profile
Postgraduate
Matt Hodder
Geotechnical analysis of
offshore pipelines and steel
catenary risers
Matt Hodder’s thesis investigated
the interaction of cylindrical
objects with soil, and its application
to the analysis and design of
offshore pipelines and risers.
The behaviour observed during
experiments performed to assess the
effect of various loading conditions
on pipe-soil interaction response was
used to develop analytical models
appropriate to use in an integrated
soil-structure interaction assessment of
the pipe-soil system. The apparatus and
analysis methodology developed allows
comparisons of behaviour observed
during experiments performed using
a short ‘element’ of pipeline assuming
two-dimensional plane-strain conditions
and the validation of pipe-soil interaction
models developed from element tests.
This thesis progresses the understanding
of geotechnical aspects of offshore
pipeline and riser behaviour. It also
advances the predictive capabilities
of pipe-soil interaction models,
enabling more accurate response
assessment and efficient design.
28 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report
Publications and dissemination
Members of the Cluster have published 80 journal and
82 conference manuscripts from their research. A further
five technical reports were written specifically for the
cluster and three book chapters were published.
1. Alam, M. S. and L. Cheng (2009), A 2-D
model to predict time development
of scour below pipelines with
spoiler, 12th International Conference
on Enhancement and Promotion of
Computational Methods in Engineering
and Science, Hong Kong – Macau.
2. Alam, M. S. and L. Cheng (2009),
Blockage ratio and mesh dependency
study for Lattice Boltzmann flow around
cylinder, 12th International Conference
on Enhancement and Promotion of
Computational Methods in Engineering
and Science Hong Kong – Macau.
3. Alam, M. S. and L. Cheng (2009), Modelling
of flow around a square cylinder of different
roughness using a lattice Boltzmann
model, 28th International Conference on
Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering,
Honolulu, Hawaii, OMAE2009-80155.
4. Alam, M. S. and L. Cheng (2010), A
parallel three-dimensional scour model
to predict flow and scour below a
submarine pipeline, Central European
Journal of Physics, 8(4): 604-619.
5. Albermani, F., H. Khalilpasha and H.
Karampour (2011), Propagation buckling
in deep subsea pipelines, Pipelines
International Digest, January 2011: 7-8.
6. Albermani, F., H. Khalilpasha and
H. Karampour (2011), Propagation
buckling in deep sub-sea pipelines,
Engineering Structures: 33(9): 3547-2553.
7. An, H., L. Cheng nd M. Zhao (2010).
Direct numerical simulation of 3D steay
streaming induced by Honji Instability.
17th Australasian Fluid Mechanics
Conference, Auckland, New Zealand.
8. An, H., L. Cheng and M. Zhao (2010),
Steady streaming around a circular
cylinder in an oscillatory flow, Ocean
Engineering, 36(14): 1089-1097.
9. An, H., Cheng, L., Zhao, M., (2010), Steady
streaming around a circular cylinder near
a plane boundary due to oscillatory flow. ,
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering: (accepted).
10. An, H., Cheng, L., Zhao, M. (2011), Direct
numerical simulation of oscillatory
flow around a circular cylinder at low
Keulegan-Carpenter number, Journal
of Fluid Mechanics, 666: 77-103.
11. Baldock, T. E., D. Cox, T. Maddux, J.
Killian and L. Fayler (2009), Kinematics
of breaking tsunami waves: a data set
from large scale laboratory experiments,
Coastal Engineering, 56: 506-516.
12. Baldock, T. E. and D. Peiris (2011).
Overtopping and run-up hazards induced
by solitary waves and bores. Tsunami
Threat - Research and Technology, In-Tech.
13. Baldock, T. E. and J. K. Seelam (2009),
Numerical and physical modelling
of tsunami run-up and impact on
subsea pipelines, 1st Annual Society
for Underwater Technology Subsea
Technical Conference (SUT), Perth, CD.
14. Bao, C. X., X.Q Zhu, H. Hao and
Z.X. Li (2008), Operational modal
analysis using correlation-based
ARMA models, 10th International
Symposium on Structural Engineering
for Young Experts, CD:1459-1464.
15. Bao, C. X., X.Q Zhu, H. Hao and Z.X.
Li (2008), Variable modal parameter
identification using an improved
HHT algorithm, 10th International
Symposium on Structural Engineering
for Young Experts, CD:1465-1470.
16. Bao, C. X., H. Hao, Z.X. Li and X.Q.
Zhu (2009), Time-varying system
identification using an improved
HHT algorithm, Computers and
Structures, 87(23-24): 1611-1623.
17. Barnes, M. P., T. O’Donaghue, J.M. Alsina
and T.E. Baldock (2009), Direct bed shear
stress measurements in bore-driven
swash, Coastal Engineering, 56: 853-867.
18. Barnes, M. P. and T. E. Baldock (2010), A
Lagrangian model for boundary layer
growth and bed shear stress in the swash
zone, Coastal Engineering,(57): 385-396.
19. Boukpeti, N., D.J. White and M.F. Randolph
(2009), Characterization of the solid-liquid
transition of fine-grained sediments,
28th International Conference on Offshore
Mechanics and Arctic Engineering,
Honolulu, Hawaii, OMAE2009-79738.
20. Boukpeti, N., D. White and M.F.
Randolph (2012) Analytical modelling
of the steady flow of a submarine
slide and consequent loading on a
pipeline, Géotechnique, 62(2) 137-146.
21. Boukpeti, N., D.J. White, M.F. Randolph
and H.E. Low (2012), The strength of
fine-grained soils at the solid-fluid
transition, Geotechnique: in press, posted
ahead of print, 10.1680/geot.9.P.069.
22. Boylan, N., C. Gaudin, D.J. White, M.F.
Randolph and Schneider, J.A. (2009),
Geotechnical centrifuge modelling
techniques for submarine slides, 28th
International Conference on Offshore
Mechanics and Arctic Engineering,
Honolulu, Hawaii, OMAE2009-79059.

23. Boylan, N., C. Gaudin, D.J. White and M.F.
Randolph (2010), Modelling of submarine
slides in the geotechnical centrifuge,
7th International Conference on Physical
Modelling in Geotechnics (ICPMG 2010),
Zurich, Switzerland CD:1095-1100.
24. Boylan, N. and M. F. Randolph (2010),
Enhancement of the ball penetrometer
test with pore pressure measurements,
2nd International Symposium on Frontiers
in Offshore Geotechnics (ISFOG 2010),
Perth, Australia, CD:259-264.
25. Boylan, N. P., C. Gaudin, D.J. White
and M.F. Randolph (2012), Centrifuge
modelling of submarine slides, Ocean
Engineering: under review April 2011.
26. Boylan, N. P. and D. J. White (2010).
Geotechnical frontiers in offshore
engineering - invited keynote lecture.
International Symposium on Recent
Advances and Technologies in Coastal
Development, Tokyo, Japan, CD: 18 pages.
27. Cassidy, M.J. and Y. Tian (2007),
Technical note on pipesoil data
interaction model testing, GEO:08451.
28. Cassidy, M.J. and Y. Tian (2008),
Technical note on implementation of
UWAPIPE into ABAQUS, GEO:07421.
29. Chatterjee, S., D.J. White, D. Wang
and M.F. Randolph (2010), Large
deformation finite element analysis of
vertical penetration of pipelines into the
seabed, 2nd International Conference in
Frontiers in Offshore Geotechnics (ISFOG
2010), Perth, Australia, n/a:785-790.
30. Cheng, L., K. Yeow, Z. Zang and B.
Teng (2009), Three-dimensional scour
below pipelines in steady currents,
Coastal Engineering, 56(5-6): 577-590.
31. Davies, M. C. R., E.T. Bowman and D.J.
White (2010), Physical modelling of
natural hazards - a keynote lecture, 7th
International Conference on Physical
Modelling in Geotechnics (ICPMG 2010)
Zurich, Switzerland, CD:3-22.
32. DeJong, J., N. Yafrate, D. DeGroot, H.E. Low
and M.F. Randolph (2010), Recommended
practice for full flow penetrometer
testing and analysis, ASTM Geotechnical
Testing Journal, 33(2): 13 pages.
33. DeJong, J. and M. F. Randolph (2012),
Influence of partial consolidation
during cone penetration on estimated
soil behaviour type and pore pressure
dissipation measurements, Journal
of Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental
Engineering, 138(7): 777-788.
34. DeJong, J. T., N.J. Yafrate and M.F.
Randolph (2008), Use of pore pressure
measurements in a ball full-flow
penetrometer, 3rd International Conference
on Site Characterization, Taiwan, 1269-1275.
35. Gaudin, C., D.J. White, N. Boylan, J.
Breen, T.A. Brown, S. De Catania and P.
Hortin (2009), A wireless high speed data
acquistion for geotechnical centrifuge
model testing, Measurement Science
and Technology, 20(9): 11 pages.
profile
36. Guard, P. A., T.E. Baldock and P. Nielsen
(2009), Bed shear stress in unsteady
Postgraduate
flow, Coasts and Ports, Wellington, NZ.
37. Hodder, M., M.J. Cassidy and D.
Barrett (2008), Undrained response
of pipelines subjected to combined
vertical and lateral loading, 2nd
International Conference on Foundations
(ICOF), Bracknell, UK, CD:897-908. Grant Pusey
38. Hodder, M. S., White, D.J., Cassidy, M.J. Characterisation of long-
(2012) An effective stress framework for
the variation in penetration resistance range horizontal performance
due to episodes of remoulding and of underwater acoustic
reconsolidation, Géotechnique, 63(1): 30-43.
communication
39. Hodder, M. S., D.J. White and M.J.
Cassidy (2009), Effect of remoulding Grant’s study sought to characterise the
and reconsolidation on the touchdown performance of horizontal underwater
stiffness of a steel catenary riser: acoustic data communication in
Observations from centrifuge modelling,
various scenarios with particular
41st Offshore Technology Conference,
Houston, Texas, OTC-19871. application to subsea monitoring
and control systems. This involved
40. Hodder, M. S. and M. J. Cassidy (2010), A conducting field trials to simultaneously
plasticity model for predicting the vertical
and lateral behaviour of pipelines in clay
measure environmental parameters
soils, Geotechnique, 60(4): 247–263. and communication performance.
41. Hodder, M. S., D. J. White, et al. (2010), An underwater acoustic communication
Analysis of strength degradation during simulator was also developed
episodes of cyclic loading, illustrated by and the results compared to the
the T-bar penetration test, International
experiments. This thesis investigates
Journal of Geomechanics, 10(3): 117-123.
the environmental dependency of
42. Jaeger, R. A., J.T. DeJong, R.W. Boulanger, communication performance and the
H.E Low and Randolph, M.F. (2010),
feasibility of using the technology
Variable penetration rate CPT in an
intermediate soil, 2nd International in place of cabled telemetry.
Symposium on Cone Penetration Testing,
CPT10, Huntington Beach, California.
43. Khalilpasha, H. (2010). Buckling propagation
of subsea pipelines. EAIT Postragraduate
Student Conference, Queensland, Australia.
44. Khalilpasha, H. (2011). Nonlinear
numerical investigation of buckle
propagation in subsea pipelines. The 1st
International Postgraduate Conference on
Engineering, Designing and Developing
the Built Environment for Sustainable
Wellbeing, Brisbane, Australia.
45. Khalilpasha, H. and F. Albermani (2011).
On the propagation buckling and effects
in ultra-long deep subsea pipelines.
30th International Conference on Ocean,
Offshore and Arctic Engineering (OMAE
2011), Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
46. Kodikara, J. K. (2008). Study of the axial
response and its coupling of the general
pipe-soil interaction of seabed pipelines.
47. Kokegei, M., F. He and K. Sammut (2008),
Fully-coupled 6 degress-of-freedom control
of autonomous underwater vehicles,
IEEE Oceans 2008, submitted July 2008.
48. Kokegei, M., F. He and K. Sammut (2009),
Nonlinear fully-coupled control of AUVs,
1st Annual Society for Underwater Society
Subsea Technical Conference (SUT), Perth.
49. Kokegei, M., He, F. and Sammut, K.
(2011). Fully coupled 6 DoF control of an
over-actuated autonomous underwater
vehicle. Underwater Vehicles, InTech.
29
profile
Postgraduate
Bassem Youssef
The Integrated Stability Analysis
of Offshore Pipelines
The dissertation is concerned with the
stability analysis of offshore pipelines
under wave and current loading. An
integrated hydrodynamic-pipe-soil
modeling program is developed and
used in investigating the pipeline
stability in conditions found on the
Australian North West Shelf and the
Gulf of Mexico. The developed program
is a combination of three individual
programs to perform an integrated
pipeline simulation. A hydrodynamic
modelling program that generates
3D ocean surface, estimates the wave
kinematics at the pipeline level and
calculates the hydrodynamic loads on the
pipeline. A pipe-soil modelling program
that simulates the complicated pipe-soil
interaction behaviour under complex
hydrodynamic loading. The pipeline
is modelled using the commercial
finite element program ABAQUS.
Advanced statistical methods are
utilized in the thesis to investigate
the reliability of the pipeline stability
and the sensitivity of the design
input parameter. Pipeline centrifuge
modeling is conducted under complex
hydrodynamic loading, with the results
used to validate the integrated program.
The study provides engineers with a
3D pipeline modeling program and
methodologies to achieve reliable
and economic pipeline designs.
Bassem received an Innovation Award
Commendation from the Australian Gas
Technology Conference (Perth-2012)
for the development of the integrated
pipeline simulation program.
50. Lammas, A., K. Sammut and He,
F. (2008), Improving navigational
accuracy for AUVs using the MAPR
particle filter, IEEE Oceans 2008.
51. Lammas, A., K. Sammut and He, F.
(2009). 6-DoF navigation systems for
autonomous underwater vehicles. Mobile
Robots Navigation, In-Tech Books.
52. Lammas, A., K. Sammut and He, F. (2009),
MAPR particle filter for AUV sensor fusion,
1st Annual Society for Underwater Society
Subsea Technical Conference (SUT), Perth.
53. Lammas, A. S., K. and He, F. (2012),
Measurement-assisted partial resampling
particle filter for full-order state-estimation
of an AUV’s hydrodynamic parameters, IEEE
Oceanic Engineering: submitted April 2011.
54. LeBlanc, C. and M. F. Randolph (2008),
Interpretation of piezocones in silt,
using cavity expansion and critical state
methods, 12th International Conference
of International Association for Computer
Methods and Advances in Geomechanics
(IACMAG), Goa, India, CD:822-829.
55. Lee, J. and M. F. Randolph (2011),
Penetrometer based assessment of
spudcan penetration resistance, Journal
of Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental
Engineering: 137(6): 587-596.
56. Lehane, B., C. O’Loughlin, C. Gaudin
and M.F. Randolph (2009), Rate
effects on penetrometer resistance in
kaolin, Geotechnique, 59(1): 41-52.
57. Li, Y. H., K.Q. Fan, X.Q. Zhu and H. Hao
(2009), Operational modal identification
of offshore structures using blind
source separation, 1st Annual Society for
Underwater Technology Subsea Technical
Conference (SUT), Perth, CD: SUT09-LiYH.
58. Liu, H. B., X.L. Zhao and Z.G. Xiao (2010),
Fatigue testing of subsea pipeline
steel connections under combined
actions, The 21st Australasian Conference
on the Mechanics of Structures and
Materials, Melbourne, 649-655.
59. Liu, H. B. and X. L. Zhao (2011). Predictions
of fatigue life of steel connections
under combined actions using boundary
element method. 21st International
Offshore and Polar Engineering
Conference, Maui, Hawaii, 4: 276-281.
60. Liu, H. B. and X. L. Zhao (2012). Fatigue
behaviours of subsea pipeline steel
connections under combined actions.
7th International Conference on Advances
in Steel Structures, Nanjing, China.
61. Liu, H. B. and X. L. Zhao (2012).
Fracture mechanics analysis of steel
connections under combined actions.
7th International Conference on Advances
in Steel Structures, Nanjing, China.
62. Liu, H. B. and X. L. Zhao (2012). Repair
efficiency of CFRP reinforced steel
connections under combined actions.
6th International Conference on Fibre
Reinforced Polymer Composites in
Civil Engineering, Rome, Italy.
63. Liu, H.B, and X.L. Zhao (2012), Fatigue
Behaviour of Welded Steel Connections
under Combined Actions, Advances
in Structural Engineering – An
International Journal, 15(10): 1817-1828.
64. Liu, H.B and X.L. Zhao (2013), Prediction
of fatigue life for CFRP strengthened
steel connections under combined
loads, International Journal of Structural
Stability and Dynamics, 12(6): DOI:
10.1142/S0219455412500599
65. Low, H. E., M.F. Randolph, C.J.
Rutherford, B.B. Bernard and J.M.
Brooks (2008), Characterization of
near seabed surface sediment, Offshore
Technology Conference, OTC19149.
66. Low, H. E., M.F. Randolph, J.T. DeJong and
N.J. Yafrate (2008), Variable rate full-flow
penetration tests in intact and remoulded
soil, 3rd International Conference on Site
Characterization, Taiwan, 1087-1092.
67. Low, H. E., T. Lunne, K.H. Andersen,
M.A. Sjursen, M.A., X. Li and M.F.
Randolph (2010), Estimation of intact
and remoulded undrained shear
strengths from penetration tests in soft
clays, Geotechnique, 60(11): 843-859.
68. Low, H. E., M. F. Randolph, T. Lunne, K.H.
Andersen and M.A. Sjursen (2011) Effect
of soil characteristics on relative values
of piezocone, T-bar and ball penetration
resistance, Geotechnique, 61 (8): 651-664.
69. Low, H. E., M.M. Landon, M. F.
Randolph and D. DeGroot, (2011)
Geotechnical characterisation and
engineering properties of Burswood
clay, Geotechnique, 61 (7): 575-591.
70. Low, H. E. and M. F. Randolph (2010),
Strength measurement for near
seabed surface soft soil, Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, 136(11): 1565-1573.
71. Lunne, T., K.H. Andersen, H..E. Low,
M. F. Randolph and M.A. Sjursen,
(2011) Guidelines for offshore in situ
testing and interpretation, Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, 48(4): 543-556.
72. Mahmoodzadeh, H., N, Boylan, M.F.
Randolph and M.J. Cassidy (2011). The
effect of partial drainage on measurements
by a piezoball penetrometer. 30th
International Conference on Ocean Offshore
and Arctic Engineering (OMAE2011),
Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
73. Merifield, R. S., D.J. White and M.F.
Randolph (2008), The effect of pipe-
soil interface conditions on undrained
breakout resistance of partially-
embedded pipelines, 12th International
Conference on Advances in Computer
Methods and Analysis in Geomechanics
(IACMAG), Goa, India, CD:4249-4256.
74. Merifield, R. S., D.J. White and M.F.
Randolph (2009), The effect of surface
heave on the response of partially-
embedded pipelines on clay, Journal
of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, 135(6): 819-826.
75. Osman, A. S. and M. F. Randolph
(2010), Response of a solid infinite
cylinder embedded in a poroelastic
medium and subjected to a lateral
load, International Journal of Solids
and Structures, 47(18-19): 2414-2424.
76. Peng, X. L. and H. Hao (2008), Damage
detection of underwater pipeline using
vibration-based method, 3rd World
Congress on Engineering Asset Management
and Intelligent Maintenance System.
77. Pusey, G., A. Duncan and A. Smerdon
(2009), Analysis of acoustic modem
performance for long range
horizontal data transmission, OCEANS
09 IEEE Bremen, Germany.
78. Pusey, G. (2011). Characterisation of
long-range horizontal performance of
underwater acoustic communication,
Curtin University, PhD Thesis.
79. Pusey, G. and A. Duncan (2008),
Characterisation of underwater
acoustic modem performance for
real-time horizontal data transmission,
Australian Acoustical Society Annual
Conference 2008, Geelong.
80. Pusey, G. and A. Duncan (2009),
Development of a simplistic underwater
acoustic channel simulator for analysis and
prediction of horizontal data telemetry,
Australian Acoustical Society National
Conference, Adelaide, abstract submitted.
81. Pusey, G. and A. Duncan (2009), An
investigation of oceanographic parameters
affecting acoustic modem performance for
horizontal data transmission, Underwater
Acoustic Measurements Technologies
and Results 3rd International Conference
and Exhibition, Nafplion, Greece.
82. Pusey, G. and A. Duncan (2009), A
preliminary study of underwater acoustic
communications over horizontal ranges,
1st Annual Society for Underwater Society
Subsea Technical Conference (SUT) Perth, CD.
83. Randolph, M. F., D. Wang, H. Zhou,
M.S. Hossain and Y. Hu (2008),
Large deformation finite element
analysis for offshore applications,
12th International Conference of
International Association for Computer
Methods and Advances in Geomechanics
(IACMAG), Goa, India, CD:3307-3318.
84. Randolph, M. F., D. Seo and D.J.
White (2010), Parametric solutions
for slide impact on pipelines, Journal
of Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental
Engineering, 136(7): 940-949.
85. Randolph, M. F., C. Gaudin, S.M.
Gourvenec, D.J. White, N. Boylan and
M.J. Cassidy (2011), Recent advances in
offshore geotechnics for deepwater
oil and gas developments, Ocean
Engineering, special issue: 38(7): 818-834.
86. Randolph, M. F. and P. Quiggin (2009),
Non-linear hysteretic seabed model for
catenary pipeline contact, 28th International
Conference on Offshore Mechanics
and Arctic Engineering (OMAE 2009),
Honolulu, Hawaii, OMAE2009-79259.
87. Randolph, M. F. and D. J. White (2008),
Offshore foundation design – a
moving target. Keynote paper, 2nd
International Conference on Foundations
(ICOF), Bracknell, UK, 27-59.
88. Randolph, M. F. and D. J. White (2008),
Pipeline embedment in deep water
processes and quantitative assessment,
Offshore Technology Conference, OTC19128.
89. Randolph M.F. and D.J. White (2012),
Interaction forces between pipelines
and submarine slides - a geotechnical
viewpoint. Ocean Engineering, 48, 32-37.
90. Rognon, P. G., I. Einav and C. Gay
(2010), Internal relaxation time in
immersed particulate materials,
Physical Review E, 81: 061304.
91. Rognon, P. G., I. Einav, J. Bonivin and
T. Millar (2010),A scaling law for heat
conductivity in sheared granular material,
Europhysics Letters, 89, pp 58006.
92. Rognon, P. G. and C. Gay (2008), Soft
dynamics simulation 1: normal approach
of two deformable particles in a viscous
fluid and optimal-approach strategy, The
European Physics Journal, 27: 253-260.
93. Rognon, P. G. and C. Gay (2009), Soft
dynamics simulation 2: elastic spheres
undergoing T1 process in a viscous fluid,
The European Physics Journal, 30: 291-301.
94. Schneider, J. A., M.F. Randolph, P.W.
Mayne and N. Ramsey (2008), Analysis
of factors influencing soil classification
using normalized piezocone tip resistance
and pore pressure parameters, Journal
of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, 134(11): 1569-1586.
95. Schneider, J. A., M.F. Randolph, P.W.
Mayne and N. Ramsey (2008), Influence of
partial consolidation during penetration
on normalised soil classification by
piezocone, 3rd International Conference on
Site Characterization, Taiwan, 1159-1165.
96. Seelam, J. K., P.A. Guard and T.E. Baldock
(2011), Measurements and modelling of
bed shear stress under solitary waves,
Coastal Engineering, 58: 937-947.
97. Seelam, J. K. and T. E. Baldock (2009),
Direct bed shear stress measurements
under solitary tsunami-type waves
and breaking tsunami wavefronts,
International Conference on Coastal
Dynamics, Tokyo, Japan.
98. Seelam, J. K. and T. E. Baldock (2009),
Role of submarine canyon on tsunami
amplification on south east coast
of India, International Conference of
Asia Oceania Geosciences Society,
Singapore, poster presentation.
99. Seelam, J. K. and T. E. Baldock (2010),
Measurements and modelling of direct
bed shear stress under solitary waves, 9th
International Conference on Hydro-Science
and Engineering, Chennai, India, 421-430.
100. Seelam, J. K. and T. E. Baldock (2011).
Tsunami induced bed shear strewsses
on Northwest Coast of Australia.
International Conference of Asia Oceania
Geosciences Society (AOGS2011), Taiwan.
101. Seelam, J. K. and T. E. Baldock (2011).
Tsunami induced shear stresses along
submarine canyons off south-east coast of
India. 6th International Conference on Asia
and Pacific Coasts (APAC2011), Hong Kong.
102. Seelam, J. K. and T. E. Baldock (2012).
Solitary wave friction factors from
direct shear measurements on a sloping
bed. 8th International Conference
on Coastal and Port Engineering in
Developing Countries, Madras, India.
103. Seelam, J. K. and T. E. Baldock (2011),
Comparison of bed shear under
non-breaking and breaking solitary
waves, International Journal of Ocean
and Climate Systems: 2(4): 259-278.
104. Senthilkumar, M., P. Rajeev, P. and J.
Kodikara (2010). Offshore pipe clay-
seabed interaction in axial direction.
Cluster workshop: abstract.
105. Senthilkumar, M., J. Kodikara and P.
Rajeev (2011). Numerical modelling of
undrained vertical load-deformation
behaviour of seabed pipelines.
13th International Confernce of the
International Association for Computer
Methods and Advances in Geomechanics
(IACMAG 2011), Melbourne, Australia.
106. Senthilkumar, M., J. Kodikara and P.
Rajeev (2011). Numerical modelling of
vertical load-displacement behaviour
of offshore pipeline using coupled
analysis. Pan Am CGS Geotechnical
Conference, Toronto, Canada.
107. Senthilkumar, P. R., M., J. Kodikara and
N.I. Thusynathan (2011). Laboratory
modelling of pipe-clay seabed interaction
in axial direction. International
Symposium of Offshore and Polar
Engineering 2011, Maui, Hawaii.
108. Sleelam, J. K., Baldock, T.E. (2010),
Tsunami induced currents in vicinity
of Palar submarine canyon off south-
east coast of India – a numerical
model study, Poster presentation at
International Conference of Asia Oceania
Geosciences Society (AOGS 2010), India.
109. Tian, Y., M.J. Cassidy and G. Gaudin,
(2008), Pipeline integrity: centrifuge
modelling of pipes in sand, Geo:09475.
110. Tian, Y., M.J. Cassidy and C. Gaudin
(2010), Advancing pipe-soil interaction
models through geotechnical centrifuge
testing in calcareous sands, Applied
Ocean Research, 32(3): 284-297.
111. Tian, Y., M.J. Cassidy and B.S. Youssef
(2010). Consideration for on-bottom
stability of unburied pipelines using
force-resultant models. 20th International
Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference
(ISOPE), Beijing, China, 2: 212-219.
31
112. Tian, Y., M.J. Cassidy and C. Gaudin
(2011). Centrifuge tests of shallowly
embedded pipeline on undrained and
partially drained silt sand. GEO: 11560.
113. Tian, Y., D. Wang and M.J. Cassidy
(2011). Large deformation finite element
analysis of offshore geotechnical
penetration tests. 2nd International
Symposium on Computational Mechanics
(ComGeo11), Cavtat-Dubrovnik, Croatia.
114. Tian, Y., M.J. Cassidy and B.S. Youssef
(2011), Consideration for on-bottom
stability of unburied pipelines using a
dynamic fluid-structure-soil simulation
program, International Journal of Offshore
and Polar Engineering: 21(3): 1-8.
115. Tian, Y. and M. J. Cassidy (2008), Explicit
and Implicit integration algorithms for
an elastoplastic pipe-soil interaction
macroelement model, 27th International
Conference on Offshore Mechanics and
Arctic Engineering, OMAE2008-57237.
116. Tian, Y. and M. J. Cassidy (2008), Modelling
of pipe-soil interaction and its application
in numerical simulation, International
Journal of Geomechanics, 8(4): 213-229.
117. Tian, Y. and M. J. Cassidy (2008), A practical
approach to numerical modelling of
pipe-soil interaction, 18th International
Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference
(ISOPE), Vancouver, Canada, 2:533-538.
118. Tian, Y. and M. J. Cassidy (2009), Pipe-
soil interaction analysis with a 3D
macroelement model, 19th International
Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference
(ISOPE), Osaka, Japan, 461-468.
119. Tian, Y. and M. J. Cassidy (2010), The
challenge of numerically implementing
numerous force-resultant models
in the stability analysis of long on-
bottom pipelines, Computers and
Geotechnics, 37(1-2): 216-232.
120. Tian, Y. and M. J. Cassidy (2010), A pipe-soil
interaction model incorporating large
lateral displacements in calcareous sand,
Journal of Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental
Engineering, 137(3): 279-287.
121. Tian, Y. and M. J. Cassidy, (2013),
Equivalent absolute lateral static
stability of on-bottom offshore
pipelines, Australian Geomechanics
Journal, under review November.
122. Tian, Y. and M. J. Cassidy (2011),
Incorporating uplift in the analysis
of shallowly embedded pipelines:
Int. Journal of Structural Engineering
and Mechanics, 40(1): 29-48.
123. Tran, D. S. and V. M. Tran (2010).
Propagation of buckle in subsea pipelines,
BE Thesis, University of Queensland.
124. Wang, D., D.J. White and M.F. Randolph
(2009), Numerical simulations of dynamic
embedment during pipe laying on soft
clay, 28th International Conference on
Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering,
Honolulu, Hawaii, OMAE2009-79199.
32 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report
125. Wang, D., D.J. White and M.F. Randolph
(2010), Large deformation finite element
analysis of pipe penetration and large-
amplitude lateral displacement, Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, 47(8): 842-856.
126. Wang, D., M.F. Randolph and D.J. White
(2012), A dynamic large deformation finite
element method and element addition
technique, International Journal for
Geomechanics: under review April 2011.
127. Wang, Y., X.Q. Zhu, H. Hao and
K.Q. Fan (2009), Development and
testing of guided wave techniques
for pipeline integrity monitoring,
1st Annual Society for Underwater
Society Subsea Technical Conference
(SUT), Perth, CD:SUT009-WangY.
128. Westgate, Z., D.J. White and M.F. Randolph
(2009), Video observations of dynamic
embedment during pipelaying, 28th
International Conference on Offshore
Mechanics and Arctic Engineering (OMAE
2009), Honolulu, Hawaii, OMAE2009-79814.
129. Westgate, Z., M.F. Randolph, M.F, D.J.
White and S. Li (2010), The influence
of seastate on as laid pipeline
embedment: a case study, Applied
Ocean Research, 32(4): 321-331.
130. Westgate, Z., D.J. White and M.F.
Randolph (2010), Pipeline laying and
embedment in soft fine-grained soils: field
observations and numerical simulations.,
Offshore Technology Conference, Houston,
OTC2010:Paper number 20407.
131. Westgate, Z. J., M.F. Randolph and D.J.
White (2010), Theoretical, numerical and
field studies of offshore pipeline sleeper
crossings, 2nd International Symposium
on Frontiers in Offshore Geotechnics,
Perth, Australia, n/a:845-850.
132. White, D. J., C. Gaudin, N. Boylan
and H. Zhou (2010), Interpretation of
T-bar penetrometer tests at shallow
embedment and in very soft soils, Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, 47(2): 218-229.
133. White, D. J. and D. N. Cathie (2010).
Geotechnics for subsea pipelines – a
keynote lecture. 2nd International
Symposium on Frontiers in Offshore
Geotechnics, Perth, Australia, n/a: 87-123.
134. White, D. J. and M. S. Hodder
(2010), A simple model for the effect
on soil strength of remoulding
and reconsolidation, Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, 47(7): 821-826.
135. Wu, D., L. Cheng and M. Zhao (2010),
Numerical and experimental study of
natural backfill of pipeline in a trench
under steady currents, International
Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic
Engineering (OMAE2010), Shanghai,
China, CD:OMAE2010-20325.
136. Xiao, Z. G. and X. L. Zhao (2007), Current
status of research into subsea pipelines
subjected to fatigue loading, International
Institute of Welding Asian Pacific Congress,
Stream 1 – Structures/Pipelines:Paper 1.34.
137. Xiao, Z. G. and X. L. Zhao (2007),
Frequency analyses of free spanning
subsea pipelines with finite element
method, 5th International Conference on
Advances in Steel Structures, 3:645-650.
138. Xiao, Z. G. and X. L. Zhao (2008), Stress
analyses of free spanning subsea
pipelines with finite element method,
10th International Symposium on Structural
Engineering for Young Experts.
139. Xiao, Z. G. and X. L. Zhao (2010),
Prediction of Natural Frequency of Free
Spanning Subsea Pipelines, International
Journal of Steel Structures, 10(1): 81-90.
140. Xiao, Z. G. and X. L. Zhao (2010),
Frequency analyses of free spanning
subsea pipelines, International Journal
of Steel Structures 10(1): 1598-2531.
141. Yafrate, N. J., J.T. DeJong, D. DeGroot
and M.F. Randolph (2009), Evaluation
of remolded shear strength and
sensitivity of soft clay using full
flow penetrometers, Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, 135(9): 1179-1189.
142. Yan, Y., White, D.J. and Randolph, M.F.
(2010), Investigation into the toroid
penetrometer on non-homogeneous clay,
2nd International Symposium on Frontiers
in Offshore Geotechnics (ISFOG2010),
Perth, Western Australia, CD:321-326.
143. Yan, Y., D.J. White and M.F. Randolph
(2011), Penetration resistance and stiffness
factors in uniform clay for hemispherical
and toroidal penetrometers, International
Journal for Geomechanics: 11(4): 263-275.
144. J.T. Yi, S.H. Goh, F.H. Lee and M.F.
Randolph,(2012), A numerical study of
cone penetration in fine-grained soils
allowing for consolidation effects,
Géotechnique, 62(8): 707 –719.
145. Youssef, B. S., M.J. Cassidy and Y. Tian
(2010), Balanced three-dimensional
modelling of the fluid-structure-soil
interaction of an untrenched pipeline, 20th
International Offshore and Polar Engineering
Conference (ISOPE), Beijing, China, 2:123-130.
146. Youssef, B. S., Y. Tian and M.J. Cassidy
(2011). Probabilistic modes application
in the integrated stability analysis of
offshore on-bottom pipeline. 30th
International Conference on Offshore
Mechanics and Arctic Engineering
(OMAE2011): OMAE50047.
147. Zang, Z., L. Cheng, M. Zhao, D. Liang and
B. Teng (2009), A numerical model for
onset of scour below offshore pipelines,
Ocean Engineering, 56: 458-466.
148. Zang, Z., L. Cheng and M. Zhao (2010),
Onset of scour below pipeline under
combined waves and current, International
Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic
Engineering (OMAE2010), Shanghai,
China, CD:OMAE2010-20719.
149. Zang, Z., L. Cheng and M. Zhao (2010). Onset
of scour below pipeline under combined
waves and current. 29th International
Conference on Offshore Mechanics
and Arctic Engineering (OMAE2010),
Shanghai, China, CD: OMAE2010-20325.
150. Zang, Z. and L. Cheng (2012), Numerical
simulation on sand waves behaviour and
their interaction with pipelines by ROMS
model, Ocean Engineering: submitted 2011.
151. Zhao, M., L.Cheng and T. Zhou (2009),
Numerical simulation of three-dimensional
flow past a yawed circular cylinder, Journal
of Fluids and Structures, 25(5): 831-847.
152. Zhao, M., L.Cheng and Z. Zang (2010),
Experimental and numerical investigation
of local scour around a submerged vertical
circular cylinder in steady currents,
Coastal Engineering, 57: 709-721.
153. Zhao, M. and L. Cheng (2008), Numerical
simulation of local scour below a vibrating
pipeline in currents, 4th International
Conference on Scour and Erosion, 233-239.
154. Zhao, M. and L. Cheng (2009),
Experimental investigation of local
scour around a submerged vertical
circular cylinder in steady currents,
28th International Conference on
Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering
(OMAE 2009), OMAE2009-79148.
155. Zhao, M. and L. Cheng (2010), Finite element
analysis of flow control using porous
media, Ocean Engineering, 37: 1357-1366.
156. Zhao, M. and L. Cheng (2010), Numerical
investigation of local scour below a
vibrating pipeline under steady currents,
Coastal Engineering, 57: 397-406.
157. Zhao, M. and L. Cheng (2010), Numerical
investigation of vortex-induced
vibration of a circular cylinder close
to a plane boundary., International
Conference on Ocean, Offshore and
Arctic Engineering, OMAE2010,
Shanghai, China, OMAE2010-21147.
158. Zhao, M. and L. Cheng (2010). Three-
dimensional numerical simulation of
hydrodynamic forces on an oblique cylinder
in oscillatory flow. 17th Australasian
Fluid Mechanics Conference, Auckland,
New Zealand, Pen Drive: Paper 042.
159. Zhou, H., D.J. White and M.F. Randolph
(2008), Physical and numerical simulation
of shallow penetration of a cylindrical
object in soft clay, GeoCongress
Characterization, Monitoring and
Modelling of Geosystems, 179: 108-117.
160. Zhou, H. and M. F. Randolph (2009),
Numerical investigations into cycling
of full-flow penetrometers in soft
clay, Geotechnique, 59(10): 801-812.
161. Zhou, H. and M. F. Randolph (2009),
Resistance of full-flow penetrometers
in rate-dependent and strain-softening
clay, Geotechnique, 59(2): 79-86.
162. Zhou, H. and M. F. Randolph (2011),
Effect of shaft on resistance of a ball
penetrometer, Geotechnique, 61 (11): 973-981.
163. Zhou, T., H. Wang, S. F. Mohd Razali,
Y. Zhou and L. Cheng (2010), Three-
dimensional vorticity measurements in
the wake of a yawed circular cylinder,
Physics of Fluids, 22(1): 015108.
164. Zhu, H. and M. F. Randolph (2011),
Numerical analysis of a cylinder moving
through rate-dependent undrained soil,
Ocean Engineering, 38(7): 943-953.
165. Zhu, H. and M. F. Randolph (2010), Large
deformation finite element analysis of
submarine landslide interaction with
embedded pipelines, International Journal
for Geomechanics, 10(4): 145-152.

profile
Postgraduate Yue Yan
Novel methods for characterising pipe-soil interaction
forces in situ in deep water

Yue’s thesis focused on establishing
a theoretical understanding for the
response of a new class of seabed
penetrometers – the toroid and ball
penetrometers – designed specifically
for pipe-soil interactions without the
difficulty of end effects. In view of the
perceived need to improve the pipe
design guidelines and develop more
reliable procedures for estimating
the axial interaction between pipe
and soil, this study explored toroid
and ball penetrometer performance
on clays through centrifuge model
tests and small strain finite element
analyses. There was also an emphasis
on the axial interaction in isolation at
shallow embedment ratio, but some
possible way of its incorporation
into a more general interaction
modelling scheme are examined.
The aim of the research was to:
◆◆Provide an improved quantitative
framework to characterise the
undrained surficial soft sediments
which will conclude (a) suggest
undrained resistance factors
under vertical and torsional The ultimate aim of this research is to
loading appropriate for toroid develop a theoretical understanding of
and ball penetrometer at shallow the behaviour of a shallowly embedded
embedment depths (b) allow spherical and toroid penetrometer
operative soil stiffness to be subjected to vertical and torsional
estimated, or for the penetrometer loading, and to prove through physical
stiffness to be converted into modelling the concept of this new site
pipe-soil stiffness as required. characterisation tool focusing on axial
◆◆Investigating the drainage of interaction between a pipeline and soil.
soil during penetration and
torsional loadings. The key effect
is to provide robust dissipation
solutions specifically for these
two new penetrometers, which
enables the measured pore
pressure to be interpreted in
terms of the consolidation
characteristic of the soil.
◆◆Develop a testing framework and a
more reliable interpretation method
for the near surface seabed soft soil.
◆◆Provide recommendations on
the design of in these in situ
tools and associated testing
procedures which will lead to
more reliable and less conservative
assessments of axial friction.

33
Key papers

Low, H..E., T. Lunne, K.H. Andersen, M.A. Sjursen, M.A., X. Li and M.F. Randolph. (2010). Estimation of
intact and remoulded undrained shear strength from penetration tests in soft clays. Géotechnique, 60(11),
843-859.
Difficulties in obtaining high quality solutions to evaluate the influence compression. In the correlation
soil samples from deep water sites have of particular soil characteristics. The between the remoulded penetration
necessitated increasing reliance on overall statistics showed similar levels resistance and remoulded strength,
piezocone, T-bar and ball penetration of variability of the resistance factors, the resistance factors for remoulded
tests to determine soil properties for with low coefficients of variation, strength were found higher than those
design purposes. This paper reports the for all three types of penetrometer. for intact strength and with slight
results of an international collaborative However, correlations of the resistance tendency to increase with increasing
project in which a worldwide, factors with specific soil characteristics strength sensitivity but insensitive
high quality database of lightly indicated that the resistance factors for to soil index properties. Based on an
overconsolidated clays was assembled the piezocone were more influenced assessment of the influence of various
and used to evaluate resistance factors by soil stiffness, or rigidity index, soil characteristics, resistance factors
for the estimation of intact and than for the T-bar and ball, while the are recommended for the estimation
remoulded undrained shear strength effect of strength anisotropy was of intact and remoulded undrained
from the penetration resistance of each only apparent in respect of resistance shear strength from the penetration
device. The derived factors were then factors for the T-bar and ball relative resistances of each device for soil with
compared with existing theoretical to shear strengths measured in triaxial strength sensitivity less than six.

qnet (kPa) qT-bar (kPa) qball (kPa) 12

0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
0 10
qT-bar/qT-bar,rem

5 Burswood 8
Chinguetti ()
Chinguetti ()
10 6
Chinguetti

Onsøy
4 (( )) () ()
15 Ariake () (( ))
Burswood () ()
Chinguetti
Depth (m)

Ariake 2 ()
20 Yafrate and DeJong (2006)
GOG 1
Laminaria GOG 2 0
25 GOG 3
Norwegian Sea 12
GOG 4 Onsøy
30
GOG 5 Burswood
Laminaria GOG 6 10 Norwegian Sea
Laminaria Chinguetti
35 Norwegian Sea Burswood 1g model test
8 GOG 1 1g model test
qball /qball,rem

40 6
(a) (b) (c)
(a) Profiles of qnet (b) profiles of qT-bar (c) profiles of qball
4

2
Yafrate and DeJong (2006)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
St
(a) Comparison between qT-bar/qT-bar,rem
and strength sensitivity. (b) Comparison
between qball/qball,rem and strength
sensitivity.

34 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report

 Key papers
Randolph, M. F., D. Seo and D.J. White (2010), Parametric solutions for slide impact on pipelines,
Journal of Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental Engineering, 136(7): 940-949.
Pipelines are frequently subjected to
active loading from slide events, both on
land and in the offshore environment.
Whether the pipeline is initially buried
or lying close to the surface, and
whether it crosses the unstable region
or lies in the path of debris originating
from further away, the main principles
are unchanged. The pipeline will
be subjected to active loading over
some defined length, related to the
width of the slide, and as it deforms
will be restrained by transverse and
longitudinal resistance in adjacent
passive zones. Ultimately, the pipeline
may come to a stable deformed shape
where continued active loading from
0.01
Combined
Computed strain, /E
0.001
Tension
0.0001
p/q = f/p = 0.5
0.00001
10 100
Normalized debris flow width, B/D
Effect of slide loading and width on maximum pipeline strains
the slide is equilibrated by membrane
tension in the pipeline in addition to
the passive resistance. Various authors
have explored this problem, and
these principles are well established.
However, to date, no attempt has
been made to develop a standard set
of parametric solutions, which is the
purpose of the current paper. Both
analytical and numerical solutions of
the problem have been developed,
initially for slides acting normal to the
pipeline but later extended to general
conditions with the slide impacting
the pipeline at some angle. It is shown
that analytical solutions based on
certain idealisations maintain their
qB/EA =
0.001
0.0005
0.0002
Computed strain, /E
0.0001
0.00005
0.00002
Bending
0.0001
1000 10000
accuracy over a wide parameter range,
and the net effect of the slide in terms
of stresses induced in the pipe wall
and maximum displacement of the
pipeline may be captured in appropriate
dimensionless groups. Design charts
are presented for slide widths of up to
1000 times the pipeline diameter, for
a practical range of other parameters
such as the ratios of passive normal
and frictional resistance to the active
loading. Although the solutions are
limited by some of the idealisations,
they should provide a useful starting
point in design, providing a framework
for more detailed numerical analysis for
the particular governing conditions.
Note, order of curves is from centre outwards for
the two B/D values, according to the legend
0.01
B/D = 100 B/D = 10,000
0.001
p/q = 4, f/p =1
p/q = 0.5, f/p = 1
p/q = 0.5, f/p = 0.5
p/q = 0.5, f/p = 0.25
p/q = 0.05, f/p = 0.25
0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01
Slide loading, qB/EA
Variation of maximum combined strain with slide loading
35
Key papers

Hodder, M. S. and M. J. Cassidy (2010), A plasticity model for predicting the vertical and lateral
behaviour of pipelines in clay soils, Geotechnique, 60(4): 247–263.

A complete theoretical model for
predicting the undrained behaviour
of a rigid pipe in clay soils when
subjected to combined vertical and
horizontal loading is described.
Physical modelling of a pipe on soft,
lightly overconsolidated kaolin clay
was conducted, with the experimental
test program specifically designed
to establish the model parameters.
The testing was conducted within
The University of Western Australia’s
geotechnical drum centrifuge using
an element of pipe 10mm in diameter,
50mm in length and at an acceleration
50 times the Earth’s gravity. The
model presented is expressed by
the force resultants on the pipe and
the corresponding displacements
and allows predictions of response
to be made for various vertical and
horizontal load or displacement
combinations. However, it is limited to
monotonic loading and relatively small
displacements. The model is verified in
this paper by retrospectively simulating
a selection of combined loading tests
and comparing the output with the
experimentally recorded results

UWA drum centrifuge used for pipeline testing

36 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report

Key papers
Tian, Y. and M. J. Cassidy (2008), Modelling of pipe-soil interaction and its application in numerical
simulation, International Journal of Geomechanics, 8(4): 213-229.
This paper presents three plasticity
models that can be applied to
numerically simulate pipe-soil
interaction. They can be applied
individually to evaluate the force-
displacement response of a small plane-
strain pipe section or in combination
to simulate a long pipeline system.
In the latter, numerous pipe-soil
elements are attached to structural
finite-elements, each simulating
localised foundation restraint along
the pipeline. The three models are
increasing in sophistication, mainly due
to the manner in which they account
for the behaviour within an allowable
combined loading surface. The first is
based on traditional strain-hardening
plasticity theory and therefore assumes
purely elastic response inside a single
expandable yield-surface. The second
allows some plasticity due to the use
of a bounding surface, and the third
accounts for kinematic hardening
through the introduction of a second
smaller surface. The models are detailed
in this paper, allowing for simple
numerical implementation. Importantly,
they are incorporated within the
structural analysis of a pipeline
Footing response of 30-m span
and their potential to investigate
generic pipeline system behaviour
is demonstrated. The applicability
of the three models is interpreted
theoretically and their differences
shown through application for (i) a
one pipe-soil interaction element,
and along (ii) a 100m segment of
pipeline. The latter shows the practical
application of these models to offshore
pipeline engineering examples, with
the influence of a free span behaviour
investigated. The ability to model
complex cyclic loading is also shown.
37
Key papers

Liu, H.B. and X.L. Zhao (2011), Predictions of fatigue life of steel connections under combined actions
using boundary element method, The 21st International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference,
Maui, Hawaii, USA, 19-24 June, Volume 4, pp. 276-281
The fatigue life of girth weld is always boundary element method of analysis. were described clearly by the stress
an important issue for subsea pipelines. Combined forces were applied in these intensity factors near crack-tip, the
In this paper the method of numerical models: constant amplitude cyclic mode crack propagation rates and the fatigue
modelling was used to study the fatigue I load and perpendicular static load. lives. The effect of perpendicular
behaviours of subsea pipeline steel The numerical results were compared static load, stress ratio and stress
connections. The analytical models were with the corresponding experimental range on fatigue behaviours were
established using the software of BEASY, results and good agreements were evaluated through parametric study.
which is developed on the basis of the achieved. Their fatigue behaviours

F1

Loading
frame
Fh Fh

F1

Hydraulic to apply hoop force

Hand pump

Pipeline displacement after 3 hrs

hydrodynamic loads

Footing response of 30-m span

38 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report

Key papers
Zhao, M. and L. Cheng (2010), Numerical investigation of local scour below a vibrating pipeline under
steady currents, Coastal Engineering, 57: 397-406.
Local scour below a vibrating pipeline
under steady current is investigated by
a finite element numerical model. The
flow, sediment transport and pipeline
response are coupled in the numerical
model. The numerical results of scour
depths and pipeline vibration amplitudes
are compared with measured data
available in literature. Good agreement
is obtained. It is found that pipeline
Mini –tube facility: 0.25m x 0.25m test section area
vibrations cause increases of scour
depth below the pipeline. The scour pit
underneath a two-degree-of-freedom
vibrating pipeline is deeper than that
under a pipeline vibrating only in the
transverse flow direction. The effects
of water depth are also investigated.
The present numerical result shows that
water depth has weak effect on the scour
depth. However it does affect the time
Time development of scour below a pipeline
scale of the scour. The shallower the
water depth is, the less time it requires
to reaches the equilibrium state of scour.
It is found that the vibration forces
vortices to be shed from the bottom side
of the pipeline. Then vortex shedding
around a vibrating pipeline is closer to
the seabed than vortex shedding around
a fixed pipeline. This contributes to the
increase of the scour depth.
39
Key papers

Albermani, F., H. Khalilpasha and H. Karampour (2011), Propagation buckling in subsea pipelines,
Engineering Structures, 33(9): 2547-2533

The paper investigates buckle
propagation in deep subsea pipelines.
Experimental results using ring squash
tests and hyperbaric chamber tests
are presented and compared with a
modified analytical solution and with
numerical results using finite element
analysis. The experimental investigation
was conducted using commercial
aluminium pipes with diameter-to-
thickness (D/t) ratio in the range of 20-
48. In contrast to conventional cylindrical
pipe, a faceted cylindrical geometry is
also investigated. Preliminary analysis of
a faceted pipe shows that a substantial
increase in buckling capacity can be
achieved for the same D/t ratio.

(a) (b)

Ring squash test RST

40 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report

Key papers

Senthilkumar, M. P. Rajeev, J. Kodikara, and N. I. Thusyanthan, (2011). Laboratory modelling

of pipe-clay seabed interaction in axial direction, The 21st International Offshore and Polar
Engineering Conference, Maui, Hawaii, USA, 19-24 June.
The current trend of bottom embedding axial walking and lateral buckling, works obtained from literature are
of offshore petroleum pipelines is relevant to the axial and lateral detailed and modelling techniques are
increasingly being challenged by the components of interaction. This paper reviewed. Finally, the development
expansion of the pipeline at elevated summaries current knowledge on the of the Monash Advance Pipe testing
operating conditions of temperature and axial resistance of surface laid pipes, System (MAPS) for further investigating
pressure. For simplicity, the expansion in general, the pipe-soil interaction axial response is explained and the
challenges could be classified into in axial direction. The experimental testing methods are discussed.

Monash Advanced Pipe Testing System (MAPS) in action

Monash Advanced Pipe Testing System (MAPS)

41
Key papers

Wang, D., D.J. White and M.F. Randolph. (2010), Large deformation finite element analysis of pipe
penetration and large-amplitude lateral displacement, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 47(8): 842-856.

Seabed pipelines must be designed
to accommodate thermal expansion –
which is commonly achieved through
controlled lateral buckling – and to
resist damage from submarine slides.
In both cases, the pipe moves laterally
by a significant distance and the overall
pipeline response is strongly influenced
by the lateral pipe-soil resistance. This
resistance is affected both by the soil
conditions and also the weight of the
pipe, since the longitudinal flexibility
allows the pipe to move vertically while
being pushed or dragged laterally. In this
paper, the process of pipe penetration
and lateral displacement is investigated
using a large deformation finite element the soil strength. For ‘light’ pipes, the
(LDFE) method, with a strain-softening, pipe rises to the soil surface and the
rate-dependent soil model being soil failure mechanism involves sliding
incorporated. The calculated soil flow at the base of the berm. In contrast,
mechanisms, pipe resistances and ‘heavy’ pipes dive downwards and
trajectories from the LDFE analyses a deep shearing zone is mobilised,
agree well with upper bound plasticity expanding with continuing lateral
solutions and centrifuge test data. It movement. The different responses
is found that the lateral resistance is are reconciled by defining an ‘effective
strongly influenced by soil heave during embedment’ that includes the effect of
penetration and the berm formed the soil berm or wall ahead of the pipe.
ahead of the pipe during lateral pipe The relationship between normalised
displacement. Two distinct modes of lateral resistance and effective
behaviour are evident, depending embedment is well fitted using a power
on the weight of the pipe relative to law, regardless of the pipe weight.

-1
-1 u/D=0.5
u/D=0.01
-0.5
-0.5

0
0
z/D
z/D

0.5
0.5

1 1

(a) (b)
1.5 1.5

-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5

x/D x/D
-1.5
u/D=1.0 -1.5
u/D=2.0
-1
-1

-0.5
Equivalent plastic strain around pipe after vertical penetration (w/D = 0.45) -0.5
z/D

z/D

0
0

0.5
0.5

(c) (d)
1 1
-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5
x/D x/D
Soil flow mechanisms for a heavy pipe (R = 1.25)

42 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report

Key papers

Boylan, N., C. Gaudin, D.J. White and M.F. Randolph (2010), Modelling of submarine slides in the
geotechnical centrifuge, 7th International Conference on Physical Modelling in Geotechnics (ICPMG
2010), Zurich, Switzerland CD:1095-1100.
The depletion of near shore hydrocarbon dependent on the security of the Western Australia. This facility uses
resources has led to a move to installations and tie-backs to shore, the long, narrow channel of the drum
exploration and production in deep which are susceptible to geohazards centrifuge to model the run-out of
and ultra-deep waters. This shift into such as submarine slides. The Centre submarine slides that are triggered
deeper waters requires increased for Offshore Foundation Systems (COFS) from an intact block of clay, along a
reliance on sub-sea installations and has initiated research to investigate the model seabed. This paper describes
pipelines that can extend to more than impact of submarine slides on offshore the development of the apparatus to
500km from shore, often across areas pipelines. As part of this project, a trigger the slides in the drum centrifuge
of changing seabed morphology and facility has been developed to model and presents some results from the
continental shelves. The viability of submarine slides in the geotechnical first tests conducted in the facility.
these developments is increasingly drum centrifuge at the University of

Sliding door Paddle

Legend

intact block of clay Counter mass

Slide triggering device

Slide box CLD gantry Slide run-out

Cross-section of drum centrifuge equipment for slide modelling

43
Key papers
Baldock, T. E. and J. K. Seelam (2009), Numerical and physical modelling of tsunami run-up and
impact on subsea pipelines, 1st Annual Society for Underwater Technology Subsea Technical Conference
(SUT), Perth.
This paper presents initial results from
experimental and numerical modelling
of tsunami wave propagation over the
continental slope and near shore region.
The paper considers the potential
impacts of tsunami waves on subsea
pipelines, which may be indirect i.e. the
triggering of submarine landslides or
turbidity currents. The project will also
consider how the complex bathymetry
around pipelines may change the fluid
loading, and it will also examine the
potential loads induced by internal
waves. The modelling encompasses both
overland flow processes and the seabed
pressures and shear stresses induced
by tsunami waves. Likely conditions
OSU tsunami wave basin
44 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report
on the continental shelf and on the results of the experiments which aim
continental slope are also examined. to simulate conditions corresponding
to the continental shelf slope and
The experimental measurements
particularly the near shore zone, where
include data covering non-breaking and
tsunami breaking may generate high
breaking tsunami-type waves obtained
horizontal pressure gradients over
from the large-scale Tsunami Wave
large areas of the seabed. Novel shear
Basin at Oregon State University. Initial
cell measurements will be made to
experimental measurements of sea bed
investigate the relative contribution
pressures and bed shear stresses will
of shear stress and pressure gradients
be presented from the University of
to submarine slide initiation. Tsunami
Queensland tsunami wave flume, which
kinematics within submarine canyons
will subsequently be used to investigate
may amplify the tsunami motion and
the potential for tsunami-induced
flow velocities and is also of concern.
liquefaction of the sea bed around
The experimental results will be used
pipelines and the potential for tsunami
to further refine numerical modelling
to trigger submarine landslides. The
of tsunami and to develop models.
paper provides an overview and initial
Key papers

Pusey, G. and A. Duncan (2009), A preliminary study of underwater acoustic communications

over horizontal ranges, 1st Annual Society for Underwater Technology Subsea Technical Conference (SUT)
Perth, CD.
Difficulties in subsea data telemetry stem applications, communications over transmission over long ranges. This is
from issues to do with electromagnetic a large horizontal range are subject followed by preliminary results from
wave penetration and procedures to many complications. This study propagation models and trials off the
involved in deploying and maintaining investigates the various mechanisms coast of Western Australia.
cabled solutions. While acoustic affecting acoustic propagation,
modems are increasingly useful in many specifically those important for data

(a) (b)

Summary of deployment results showing modem performance over range (a) and the
corresponding signal strength data detected by the ambient noise recorder (b).

45
Awards

Pipeline industry awards:

Australian Gas Innovation Award Commendation
Bassem Youssef received the Australian Gas Innovation Award Commendation.
He was recognised for his unique pipeline on-bottom stability simulation
program, developed as part of his PhD study. This provides pipeline
engineers with a reliable and accurate pipeline design tool capable of a
3D simulation of offshore pipelines under the action of wave and current
loading. Bassem was supervised by Mark Cassidy and Yinghui Tian.

> Bassem Youssef

Postgraduate student awards:

Benthic Scholarship: Han Eng Low • Hamed Mahmoodzadeh Poornaki
SUT Scholarship: Bassem Youssef
AusAid Scholarship: Siti Fatin Mohd Razali

46 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report

Pipeline industry awards:
Industry Innovation and Technology prize and Innovation and
Development category of the 2012 WA Engineering Excellence Awards
Cluster Chief Investigators Liang Cheng and David White, along with Scott Draper
and Hongwei An won the Innovation and Development category of the 2012 WA
Engineering Excellence Awards for the O-Tube Program, which simulates the
effects of cyclone on subsea pipelines. The O-Tube also won the Subsea Energy
Australia Industry Innovation and Technology Award. The research is crucial for
Australia’s massive oil and gas industry, which plans to install an estimated 3000km
of offshore pipelines worth more than $15 billion over the next 10 years.
> David White with the beam centrifuge

Researcher awards:
Whitfield Scholarship: Hongjie Zhou
Australian Academy of Science’s Anton Hales medal: David White
ARC Future Fellowships: David White • Mark Cassidy
2011 E.H. Davis Lecturer: Mark Cassidy
2011 WA young scientist of the year: David White

47
Keynote presentations,
invited lectures and papers

Boylan, N. P. and D. J. White (2010). Randolph, M. F., D. Wang, H. Zhou, White, D.J. and C. Gaudin (2009).
Geotechnical frontiers in offshore M.S. Hossain and Y. Hu (2008), Physical modelling techniques
engineering – invited keynote lecture. Large deformation finite element developed within the Cluster and the
International Symposium on Recent analysis for offshore applications, resulting advances in pipeline analysis
Advances and Technologies in Coastal 12th International Conference of techniques, International Workshop
Development, Tokyo, Japan, CD: 18 pages. International Association for Computer on Geotechnical Modelling, Tongji
Methods and Advances in Geomechanics University, China, November 2009.
Cassidy, M.J. (2009). Engineering
(IACMAG), Goa, India, CD: 3307-3318.
for a new generation of offshore White, D. J. and D. N. Cathie (2011).
production. ATSE Focus. Vol. 154, White, D.J. (2008). Geotechnical Geotechnics for subsea pipelines – a
Australian Academy of Technological design of seabed pipelines, keynote lecture. 2nd International
Sciences and Engineering, pp. 21-22. European Symposium on Centrifuge Symposium on Frontiers in Offshore
Modelling, London, May 2008. Geotechnics, Perth, Australia, n/a: 87-123.
Cassidy, M.J. (2009). Foundations
for Australia’s offshore oil and gas White, D.J. (2009). Recent advances in
installations, WA Chapter of the pipeline geotechnics made through
Australian Academy of Technological centrifuge modelling at UWA, Deltares,
Sciences and Engineering, 10 June 2009. The Netherlands, December 2009.
Cassidy, M.J. and Y. Tian (2011).
Development and application of
models for the stability analysis of
Australia’s offshore pipelines. Proc.
2011 Symposium on Coastal and Marine
Geotechnics: Foundations for trade, 15th
Annual Symposium of the Australian
Geomechanics Society, Sydney, Australia.
Hao H. (2009). SHM research in UWA,
Guangzhou University, China, 2009.
Randolph, M.F., C. Gaudin, S. Gourvenec,
D.J. White, N. Boylan and M.J. Cassidy
(2011), Recent advances in offshore
geotechnics for deepwater oil and gas
developments, Ocean Engineering.
Randolph, M. F. and D. J. White (2008),
Offshore foundation design – a
moving target. Keynote paper, 2nd
International Conference on Foundations
(ICOF), Bracknell, UK, 27-59.

48 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report

Hosting the Second International Symposium
on Frontiers in Offshore Geotechnics
Pipeline engineering and the research of the Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster
was highlighted at the Second International Symposium on Frontiers in Offshore
Geotechnics (ISFOG), hosted by the Centre of Foundation Systems at the University
of Western Australia, Perth, between 8 and 10 November 2010.

The ISFOG symposium provided a The technical themes of the symposium

platform for academics and practitioners
to discuss and exchange ideas to address
the emerging challenges in offshore
geotechnical engineering and showcase
state-of-the-art offshore geotechnics.
ISFOG 2010 was opened by Ann
Pickard, the Country Chair of Shell in
Australia and Executive Vice President
of Shell Upstream Australia.
The symposium attracted 306 delegates
from 24 countries representing industry
and academia.
were selected to reflect the key stages
of an offshore project. They ranged from
assessing offshore geohazards with
state-of-the-art geophysics and in situ
geotechnical testing techniques, through
to design considerations for foundation
solutions and pipelines, culminating in
key considerations involving design risk.
Professor David White delivered the
keynote lecture, and international
practitioners and academics presented
14 papers on pipeline engineering.
These can be found in the proceedings.

Ann Pickard, Country Chair of Shell, at the

opening of ISFOG 2010 with Mark Cassidy

Christophe Gaudin giving a tour of the beam centrifuge during ISFOG2010 ISFOG2010 proceedings

49
 The Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster
The partners

combined the capabilities of:

◆◆The University of Western Australia

◆◆Curtin University of Technology
◆◆The University of Queensland, Brisbane
◆◆Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria
◆◆The University of Sydney
◆◆Flinders University, Adelaide
◆◆CSIRO Wealth from Oceans Flagship.

50 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report

 The Flagship Collaboration

Flagship Collaboration Fund

Fund enables the skills
of the wider Australian
research community to
be applied to the major
national challenges targeted
by the CSIRO’s National
Research Flagship Program.
As part of the $305 million
provided over seven years by
the Australian Government
to the National Research
Flagships, $97 million was
allocated specifically to
enhance collaboration
between the CSIRO,
Australian universities
and other publicly funded
research agencies.
The Australian Government’s
budget announcement in
2007 provided additional
resources for the fund.
The Subsea Pipeline
Collaboration Cluster
contributes to the Wealth
from Oceans Flagship. The
program aims to work with
industry to develop the
science and technology to
unlock new opportunities
in the exploration and
development of Australia’s
offshore hydrocarbon
resources. The cluster
consisted of a $3.6 million
grant through the Flagship
Collaboration Fund and in-
kind contributions totalling
$7.4 million from the
participating universities.

51
52 Subsea Pipeline Collaboration Cluster – final report
53
Contact us For further information
t 1300 363 400
Flagship Collaboration Cluster leader
+61 3 9545 2176
Winthrop Professor Mark Cassidy
e enquiries@csiro.au
Director – Centre for Offshore Foundation
w www.csiro.au
Systems, University of Western Australia
M053
Your CSIRO
35 Stirling Highway
Australia is founding its future on
Crawley WA 6009
science and innovation. Its national
t +61 8 6488 1142
science agency, CSIRO, is a powerhouse
f +61 8 6488 1104
of ideas, technologies and skills for
e mark.cassidy@uwa.edu.au
building prosperity, growth, health and
sustainability. It serves governments, CSIRO
industries, business and communities Ian Cresswell
across the nation. Science Director, Wealth from Oceans
National Research Flagship, CSIRO
GPO Box 1538
Hobart TAS 7001
t +61 3 6232 5213
f +61 3 6232 5125
e ian.cresswell@csiro.au