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GeoCh3 PDF
GeoCh3 PDF
3
CONTENTS
3.1 Introduction
3.1.2 Definitions
Sedimentology “...is concerned with the composition and genesis of sediments and
sedimentary rocks ......including the nature and composition of the constituent
particles”
3.1.3 Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to discuss
Sedimentary rocks are formed by physical, chemical and biological processes and can
be classified on the basis of the dominant process or processes responsible for their
formation. Although five classes can be identified (Table 1), we will be concerned
Biogenic.
Organic Fixing of carbon or phosphate
phosphatic compounds by coal 2
Table 1
plants or animals. oil shale 2,3 Classification of
Accumulation of dead plant
or animal material. sedimentary rocks. Rocks
Chemical Chemical. evaporites 3 marked 1 may form
Mainly direct precipitation. ironstones reservoirs, those marked 2
Volcanic, physical. ignimbrites may act as source rocks,
Volcaniclastic Eruption of volcanic tuffs
material, transport and volcaniclastic sandstones and those marked 3 may
deposition by volcanic or etc.
other processes.
form seals (Modified from
Tucker, 1981)
3.3.1 Introduction
Texture is the general term used to describe the size, shape and arrangement of grains,
matrix and cement in a sedimentary rock. It is of importance to us because sedimentary
texture is the single most important control on reservoir properties (e.g. porosity and
permeability).
In this chapter, the term texture is used mainly to describe the grains and matrix. The
texture of a sediment reflects both the available sediment and its mode of transport and
deposition. The majority of clastic sediments contain laminae on a scale of mm to cm,
which will have subtly different textures. Variations in porosity and permeability
between laminae can exercise a strong influence on fluid flow, especially in the case
of two-phase flow (i.e. where two fluids, for example oil and water, are involved).
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Sedimentology
3
3.3.2.1 Grain Size
Clastic sediments are defined on the basis of their mean grain size, as shown on Table
2. The majority of naturally-occurring sediments have an approximately log-normal
grain size distribution. Grain size can be measured either in millimetres, or in phi (φ)
units (φ) = -log2(d), where d = grain diameter in millimetres). Because of the log-
normality of sediments, the use of phi units allows normal statistical measures to be
calculated. Care should be taken, however, to avoid confusion with the symbol φ used
for porosity (see section 3.5.1).
a b.
mm µm φ mm φ
clay
1/256 ~4 8 1/16 4
3.3.2.2 Sorting
The sorting of a sediment quantifies how well a depositional process has concentrated
(sorted) grains of a given size. It is generally measured as the standard deviation (SD)
of the grain size (in phi units). The sorting of a sediment is generally described
verbally, according to defined ranges of standard deviation (Table 3).
Figure 1
Graphical illustration of
Moderately Poorly Sorted σ = 1.0 Very Poorly Sorted σ = 2.00
sorting (modified from
Pettigrew et al, 1973)
3.3.2.3 Grain Shape
Grain shape is described in terms of:
• aspect ratio
• grain sphericity - approximation to a sphere
• grain roundness - curvature of the corners
Aspect ratio is the ratio of the diamter of the grain measured in different directions.
The three dimensional shape of the grain can be classified in terms of of the ratios of
their long, intermediate and short diameters (figure 2)
Figure 2
Grain shape and sphericity
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Sedimentology
3
It should be noted that roundness is the extent to which the corners of a grain have been
smoothed off, not the approximation to a spherical shape; well-rounded grains can
have shapes which are far from spherical (see Figure 3.3). Grain shape depends both
on the mineralogy of the grains and the degree and energy of transportation (e.g. desert
and beach sediment is generally well sorted and rounded).
Very Angular
Angular
Sub Angular
Sub Rounded
4
Figure 3
Grain roundness, shown for Rounded
3.3.2.4 Fabric
The term fabric, when applied to granular sediments, refers to the orientation and
packing of grains and the nature of their contacts.
Packing
Packing is the term used to describe the three-dimensional arrangement of grains in
a sediment. In naturally-occurring sediments, the grains are somewhat randomly
arranged, but their packing can be compared to idealised packing arrangements, such
as cubic close packing (in which the grains are arranged in a rectilinear grid) and
hexagonal or rhombohedral close packing (in which grains are arranged at angles of
60o and 120o). Of these two packing arrangements (Figure 4), the rhombohedral
packing is more efficient, leading to a lower porosity (see Section 3.5).
Orientation
Non-spherical grains may be deposited with a preferred orientation. Flat grains
commonly lie with their short axis sub-vertical and elongate grains may be arranged
with their long axis either parallel to or perpendicular to the palaeocurrent, depending
on the exact process of deposition. In some situations, flat clasts may be arranged so
that they dip in the upcurrent direction, a fabric known as imbrication (see Figure 4E).
Grain contacts
Immediately after deposition, most grains in a clast-supported sediment will have
point contacts with other grains. It should be noted that on 2D sections (e.g.
microscope thin sections of sandstones or outcrop sections of conglomerates) not all
grains will appear to be in contact; in these cases, the grains will probably be in 3D
contact in front of or behind the 2D section. During compaction of a sediment,
deformation and dissolution of grains will lead to the grain contacts becoming longer
and as compaction continues, concavo-convex and sutured contacts may result
(Figure 3.4).
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Sedimentology
3
rounding, which will be influenced both by the mineralogy and the energy and
duration of transportation. Grains which have undergone significant transport,
particularly in high-energy environments, will tend to have smooth surfaces, which
will have an influence on the flow of fluids through the pore system (see Section 3.5).
Sands are defined (Section 3.3.2.1) as sediments with a mean grain size between
0.0625 and 2 mm which, on compaction and cementation will become sandstones.
Sandstones form the bulk of clastic hydrocarbon reservoirs, as they commonly have
high porosities and permeabilities.
QW = Quartz Wacke
FW = Feldspathic Wacke Wackes
LW = Lithic Wacke
75
Arenites 5 QW
µ m)
a QUARTZ
s < 30
5 FW rain
25 25 e(i. . G
LW 15
matrix
50 ent
perc
A
ing
Inc reas
FELDSP
AR
50 0
ROCK
F RAGME
Figure 5
NTS
Classification of sands and
sandstones according to
Quartz + Polyquartz + Chert
QA QA 5 grain and matrix
SAA SLA SAA SLA 25 composition (modified from
LSA
Pettigrew et al, 1973)
AA
LAA LA
Triangles b and c show
AA LA
alternative classification
AA LAA FLA
schemes for the matrix -
Feldspar Rock Feldspar Unstable, or Labile,
Fragments 10 10 Rock Fragment free sandstones
b (Pettigrew et al) c (Mc Bride) ("arenites")
The position on the triangular plot reflects the mineralogical maturity of a sediment.
As quartz is more stable at atmospheric temperature and pressure than feldspar and
rock fragments, continuing chemical weathering and physical transport will tend to
decrease the proportion of the unstable grains, leading to a quartz-rich, mature
sediment. The issue of maturity highlights a problem with several of the classification
systems (modified from Pettigrew et al, 1973), which include quartz-rich
multicrystalline clasts such as chert, polycrystalline quartz and metamorphosed
sandstone or siltstone as rock fragments. Sediments rich in these clast types would
therefore be termed lithic arenites, a name which implies mineralogical immaturity.
However, these quartz-rich clasts will be almost as stable as monocrystalline quartz,
so the sediment itself is mineralogically mature. This fact is recognised by the
classification scheme of McBride (1963), which includes chert, polycrystalline quartz
etc. with quartz, and plots only the unstable (‘labile’) rock fragments at the rock
fragments corner (Figure 5b).
10
3
Sedimentology
The classification described so far only takes account of the grains, but we know that
many sandstones contain a finer-grained matrix. This can be taken into account if the
triangular plot is extended into a triangular prism, with the long axis representing the
proportion of matrix (Figure 5). Sands and sandstones with less than 15% matrix are
called arenites (front triangle on Figure 5) and those with more than 15% matrix are
wackes (beyond second triangle on Figure 5). Sediments with over 75% muddy matrix
(i.e. less than 25% grains) are known as mudstones or mudrocks. The subdivision of
the triangles becomes simpler with increasing proportion of matrix.
3.5.1 Definitions
Total porosity (φ) is defined as the volume of void (pore) space within a rock,
expressed as a fraction or percentage of the total rock volume. It is a measure of a
rock’s fluid storage capacity.
The effective porosity of a rock is defined as the ratio of the interconnected pore
volume to the bulk volume
Microporosity (φm) consists of pores less than 0.5 microns in size, whereas pores
greater than 0.5 microns form macroporosity (φM)
P1 < ∆P > P2 A
< P >
Figure 6
Q = K.∆P.A
Diagram illustrating µ.L
Darcy’s Law
Q = Rate of flow (cc / sec)
∆P = Pressure differential (atmospheres)
A = Area (cm2)
µ = Fluid viscosity (centipoise)
L = Length (cm)
K = Permeability (Darcies)
1000
Aeolian
100
Permeability (mD)
10
Fluvial
1
Permeability decreases with decreasing grain size because the size of pores and pore
throats will also be smaller, leading to increased grain surface drag effects (Figure 8).
3.5.3.2 Sorting
For a given grain shape, porosity and permeability decrease with decreasing sorting
(Figure 8). This is due to the fact that, in poorly sorted sediments, smaller grains can
accommodate themselves between the larger ones, leading to a reduction both in the
percentage of pore space and the size of pores
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Sedimentology
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Figure 8
Depositional porosity as a
function of grain size and
sorting (after Beard and
Weyl)
3.5.3.4 Packing
The closer the packing, the lower the porosity and permeability.
3.5.3.5 Fabric
Rock fabric will have the greatest influence on porosity and permeability when the
grains are non spherical (i.e. are either disc-like or rod-like). In these cases, the
porosity and permeability of the sediment will decrease with increased alignment of
the grains.
Tertiary
Young Sands A. Exponential loss of
Palaeozoic
porosity with burial depth
for "typical" sandstones
6000 Tertiary
Mesozoic
B. loss of porosity with
Palaeozoic
maximum burial depth
(may not be the same as
present depth) for
sandstones of different ages
In the following sections, we will be dealing mainly with movement by fluids and
sediment gravity flows. These discussions will concentrate mainly on clastic sediments,
but it should be noted that many carbonate sediments consist of grains which behave
in similar ways to clastic grains. For example, in many parts of the tropics, beaches
and shallow marine environments, which in temperate zones are dominated by quartz
sand, contain mainly carbonate sands.
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Sedimentology
3
structures within the sediment pile. It is important to differentiate between bedforms
and sedimentary structures; bedforms are the features on the sediment surface, whilst
sedimentary structures are the features within the sediment which are commonly
preserved in the rock record.
Structures produced by fluid flow are known as primary sedimentary structures, but
structures may also be formed by organisms (e.g. by burrowing) or by deformation.
These are known as secondary sedimentary structures. The transport of sediment and
the formation of bedforms are discussed in the remainder of Section 3.6, primary and
secondary sedimentary structures are discussed in section 3.7 and the importance of
sedimentary structures in environmental interpretation is described in section 3.8.
3.6.2.2Current-GeneratedBedformsandSedimentaryStructures(WaterCurrents)
Bedforms formed by unidirectional water currents have been extensively studied,
both in the laboratory and in nature, and the relationship between sediment grain size,
current velocity (measured in a number of different ways) and the bedforms produced
has been established. This has led to the development of ‘bedform stability diagrams’,
which show the bedforms which occur under different conditions (Figure 10).
Figure 10
40 Upper Regime
Schematic representation of
(Rapid flow)
Antidunes
various bedforms and their
relationship to grain size Transition
10 Plane Bed
and stream power. Based
B
on Simons et al. 1965 and
Lower Regime
Stream Power, τ v
4
Allen 1968a. Plan views A (Tranquil flow)
and B show the change in
0.1
shape of ripples (A) and Megaripples 2
A
megaripples (B) as stream 1
3
power increases
2 Plane Bed
(palaeocurrent on these
0.01 1 Ripples
plan views is from bottom to
top) 1) straight-crested 2)
undulatory 3) lingoid 4) 0.625 1.25 0.2. 04 0.6 0.8 1.0 mm
lunate. More recent flume 0 very fine medium coarse
fine sand sand sand
experiments show that the sand
megaripple field pinches Median Fall Diameter
out at 0.1mm grain size
Both ripples and megaripples have a distinctive form in cross-section (Figures 11 and
12). They have a relatively low slope on their up-current ‘stoss’ side and are steeper
on their downcurrent ‘lee’ side. As a current passes over the ripple, it detaches from
the sediment surface near the crest and forms a separation eddy downstream of the
ripple (Figure 12A). Idealised path lines of sediment grains are shown. (Modified
after Jopling, 1967) In the case of ripples, grains roll or saltate up the stoss side and
periodically avalanche down the lee side. The dip of the lee side is thus controlled by
the ‘angle of repose’, the maximum slope at which grains of a given grain size and
sorting can rest without slope failure. In the zone of back-flow, some sediment is
caught in the backflow eddy and is deposited at the toe of the lee slope. As the ripple
migrates, successive positions of the lee side are marked by inclined ‘foresets’, which
can be seen within the body of the bedform (figure 11). These foresets are either planar
or concave-upwards.
yyyyyyy
;;;;;;;
Figure 11
Profile and internal
structure of a well-
;;;;;;;
yyyyyyy
yyyy
;;;;
Sloss Side Laminae Fore Set Laminae developed ripple. The
geometry of a megaripple/
dune will be essentially
Bottom Set Laminae similar
Zone of Figure 12
No Diffusion
Flow pattern and
Zone of
Mixing
Line of Zero Velocity sedimentation processes
Zone of Backflow over a ripple. A. Velocity
distribution and flow
separation on the lee side of
the ripple (modified after
Jopling 1963, 1967) B.
Flow pattern and
sedimentation processes
(modified after Jopling,
1967)
16
Sedimentology
3
As a ripple train migrates downcurrent each ripple trough will erode the next ripple
downcurrent. For net deposition to occur, the ripple troughs must climb relative to the
sediment surface in a downcurrent direction. In this case, sets of cross lamination
bounded by erosive surfaces result, (Figure 13). It should be noted that the term cross
lamination applies to structures generated by ripples, and so sets are less than 4cm
thick (generally 1-3cm).
Figure 13
Experimentally produced
climbing-ripple cross-
lamination seen in vertical
profile parallel with flow.
The increasing angle of
climb from top to bottom is
caused by the increasing
rate of net vertical
deposition relative to the
speed of advance of the
ripples (after J.R.L. Allen
1972)
b a
Figure 14
Block diagrams showing (a)
straight-crested (‘2-
dimensional’) and (b)
lunate (‘3-dimensional’)
megaripples and the
sedimentary structures they
produce ((a) tabular cross
bedding and (b) trough
cross bedding)
As the bedforms migrate and climb, straight-crested (‘2D’) bedforms produce tabular
cross bedding. In sections parallel to the palaeocurrent, this consists of near-parallel
set boundaries separating inclined foresets. These foresets may be either planar or
curved. The curved foresets are concave-upwards, and are sometimes referred to as
tangential or asymptotic. On sections perpendicular to the palaeocurrent, the foresets
appear to be almost parallel to the set boundaries (Figure 14a). Lunate, 3D, megaripples
produce trough cross bedding. On sections parallel to the palaeocurrent, trough cross
bedding looks similar to tabular cross bedding, although the set boundaries are less
parallel and the sets tend to be slightly shorter. Foresets are always curved. On sections
perpendicular to the palaeocurrent, the set boundaries are strongly concave-upwards
and the foresets are almost parallel to the boundaries (Figure 14b).
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Sedimentology
3
Cross-bed sets are typically decimetres thick. Trough sets are commonly 10-50cm
thick, 1-2m wide perpendicular to flow and 5-10m long (parallel to flow). Tabular sets
are generally more laterally extensive for a given set thickness than trough sets.
As the current velocity or stream power is increased, megaripple bedforms become
lower and flatter and are eventually replaced by a plane bed on which there is intense
sediment transport, with most of the grains are moving most of the time. This feature
is known as upper-stage plane bedding or upper-phase plane bedding. The rapid flow
over the bed produces vortices with their axes parallel to the flow, and these act to align
the sand grains and form subtle ridges parallel to the flow. Sandstones containing
upper-phase plane bedding split readily parallel to bedding and bedding planes exhibit
subtle linear features, which reflects the grain alignment and which are parallel to the
palaeoflow direction. This structure is known as primary current lineation.
As the current velocity is increased still further, standing waves develop on the water
surface. With increasing current velocity, these may migrate a short distance upstream
before breaking. These standing waves and ‘antidunes’ are mimicked on the
sediment surface by similar, in phase features with a more subdued relief. Because of
the very rapid movement of grains over such bedforms and their limited stability field,
antidune bedding is very rarely preserved, so it will not be discussed further here.
If the sediment surface is above the wave base, the waves will impinge on the
sediment, which modifies the behaviour of both the waves and the sediment. The
orbital motion becomes elliptical and as the waves ‘shoal’ (i.e. enter shallower water)
they become steeper, migrate more rapidly onshore and eventually break onto the
shore.
D=L
2
Figure 15
Diagrams to show the
orbital motion of open
waves (a), and the
ellipsoidal motion of
Sea Floor
B
shoaling waves (b)
The waves impinging on the sediment surface can produce wave-ripples to depths as
great as 200m. Wave-ripples are generally straight crested, and may be symmetrical
or asymmetrical in section. They vary greatly in size, with their size being dependent
on wave dimensions. Ripple wavelengths (λ) are between 0.0009m and 2m and have
heights (H) between 0.003m and 0.25m. Wave ripples can be distinguished from
current ripples by lower ripple indices (λ/H) and crestal bifurcation.
Figure 16
Diagram showing some of
the distinctive features of
wave-ripple cross
Planar laminations formed at high Irregular, Undulattory lamination (from De Raaf
applied bed shear stresses Set Boundaries et al, 1997,)
As waves shoal, and the shear stress on the sediment surface becomes greater, wave
ripples are replaced by planar beds (Figures 16 and 17)
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Sedimentology
3
Plane Bed
100
80
Wave Ripples
Velocity (cm/s)
60
40
20
No Grain Movement
0.125 0.25 0.5 1.0
0
Figure 17 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Grain Size (mm)
Bedform stability diagram Very Fine
Fine
Medium Sand Coarse Sand Very Coarse
An additional sedimentary structure, which is found only in the rock record, is felt to
be generated by waves or combined waves and currents. Hummocky cross stratification
(HCS) was first described by Harms (1975). On bedding planes, it can be seen to
consist of low-relief mound-like hummocks separated by troughs (Figure 18). In
section, HCS sets are typically 10-15cm thick and include both concave-up and
convex-up laminae (in contrast with other forms of cross bedding, in which upward-
convex laminae are rare to absent). Set bases are erosive and produce low-angle
truncations.
Figure 18 Direc
Sharp tiona
Based l Sole
Block diagram of Bed Mark
s
hummocky cross
stratification Sets up to 25cm Wave length 1-5m Height up to 40 cm
2.0
20th percentile (mm)
1.0
0.7
0.5
Figure 19
0.3 Draa Field
Plot of sediment grainsize v.
0.2
wavelength for wind-
(m) 0.01 0.04 0.16 0.64 2.56 10 40 160 640 2560 (m)
generated bedforms
(cm) 1 4 16 64 256
Modified from Wilson,
Bedform Wavelength
1972)
Descending Grains
(A)
Wind Direction
(B)
Figure 20
Saltation of sand grains
over wind ripples (based on
Bagnold, 1954)
22
Sedimentology
3
Aeolian dunes have diverse morphologies and are differentiated mainly by their
structure (Figure 21). Draa, or complex/compound dunes, are larger-scale topo-
graphic features with superimposed dune-scale bedforms. If the superimposed
bedforms are of the same type (but different scale) as the larger bedform is the latter
described as a compound. if the superimposed bedforms are of a different type, the
large bedform is complex.
Simple dunes include straight-crested transverse dunes and strongly lunate barchan
dunes (Figure 21). Star-shaped or stellate dunes have several arcuate slipfaces,
arranged in different directions and longitudinal seif dunes are elongated parallel to
the mean wind direction and may have slipfaces on both sides (Figure 21).
B. Transverse Dune
Figure 21
Aeolian dune and draa
morphology C. Seif or Longitudinal Dune
• debris flows
• grain flows
• fluidised/liquefied flows
• turbidity flows
Because they are driven by gravity, these flows all transport sediment down slopes.
They differ in the process by which the shear strength of the sediment is reduced in
order for it to move.
Olistholith
Sliding Slide
Shear Planes
Slumping Slump
Shear Planes
24
Sedimentology
3
Sediment on a slope will commonly fail by slumping (Figure 23). Failure occurs along
a curved plane and the sediment above this plane deforms as it moves down-slope. In
many cases, slumps will move only a short distance down-slope before stopping.
However, if the slope is sufficiently steep or the sediment sufficiently mobile, the
slump may continue to move down the slope, developing into a debris flow. The most
commonly observed debris flows are mudslides which, as the name suggests, consist
of assorted debris in a muddy matrix. However, more sandy debris flows also occur,
especially in sub-aqueous environments. The larger clasts in debris flows are
supported by the strength of the matrix and by their buoyancy. Debris flow deposits
are generally chaotic, although there may be a slight tendency for the largest clasts to
occur towards the top of the deposit.
;yy;
Turbidity Fluidized Grain Debris
Current Sediment Flow Flow Flow
Upward
Intergranular Grain Matrix
Turbulence Fluid Flow Interaction Strength
Figure 23
Distal Proximal Resedimented Some Pebbly
Sediment gravity flow Turbidite Turbidite Conglomerate "Fluxoturbidites" Mudstones
processes (modified after
Rupke, 1978)
Deposit
In grain flows, the grains are kept in the flow, and prevented from being deposited, by
the exchange of kinetic energy between grains, with the grains effectively bouncing
off each other. Such flows can move down relatively steep slopes (>18o) and are
generally only a few cms thick. Their deposits are structureless, with sharp bases, and
commonly sharp tops and reverse grading may occur.
Laminated Massive,
grain orientation parallel
Good grading to flow
("Distribution grading)
Reverse grading near base?
Scours, injection structures
Flutes, tool marks on base
The least well known of the four flow types discussed here are fluidised flows. They
occur most commonly when loosely-packed silt or sand deposits collapse. The grain
framework is no longer supportive, with the grains being held partly in suspension by
the escaping fluid. The minimal sediment strength allows fluidised flows to flow
rapidly down slopes as low as 2o or 3o. Deposition occurs by gradual freezing from the
bottom up, with little grain segregation. This leads to deposits with sharp bases and
tops, poor grading, local diffuse lamination and common fluid escape structures
(Figure 24; see Section 3.9.4).
The final gravity flows to be considered here are turbidity currents. As their name
suggests, they are composed of a mixture of sediment and water in which the sediment
is kept in suspension by the turbulence of the flow. The study of turbidity currents and
their deposits, turbidites, began in the early 1950’s. The first turbidity currents to be
examined consisted of high-density suspensions of mud and sand. The flows typically
consist of a pronounced, highly turbulent head followed by a thinner body (Figure 22).
The turbulence of the head commonly causes erosion of the underlying sediment, and
in the more proximal, energetic parts of the flow, this may act to entrain more sediment
into the flow. As the flow progresses, mixing of the sediment-laden flow with the
ambient water, in both the head and tail, leads to dilution of the flow.
As the flow loses energy, either by dilution or by a decrease in slope, the sediment will
begin to be deposited. The coarser grains will tend to be deposited first, leading to the
common occurrence of graded bedding (Figure 24). The rapid deposition and lack of
traction leads to this interval generally being structureless. As deposition continues,
traction at the interface between the sediment and active flow may form upper phase
plane bedding, overlain by ripple cross lamination, climbing ripple lamination or
wavy lamination. In turbidites, this interval commonly exhibits deformation of the
structure, causing convolute lamination. This interval is commonly overlain by
26
Sedimentology
3
parallel lamination of uncertain origin. This sequence of structure within a single bed
forms the basis for the Bouma classification of ‘classical’ turbidites, in which the
intervals are given the letters A to D (Figure 60). The fine material deposited between
turbidity currents is assigned to Bouma E. It should be noted that the full Bouma
sequence is rarely seen, with most turbidites only showing a subset of the subdivisions
(e.g. AB, ABC or BCD).
More recently, the occurrence of mud-poor turbidites has been recognised and these
are attributed to high-density turbidity currents in which the sediment load is
dominated by sand and silt, with little mud (Figure 61). There has been much
discussion over the origin of these beds, but it is likely that the final transport
mechanisms may have included grain flow and fluidised flow processes. ‘Coarse-
grained turbidites’, the deposits of high-density turbidity currents, generally have a
structureless base, overlain by a faintly laminated interval, and with abundant
evidence of water escape in the upper part of the bed (Figure 61).
3.7.1 Introduction
The sedimentary structures discussed in section 3.6, which are produced by the
physical processes of transport and deposition of the sediment, are known as primary
sedimentary structures. However, a number of processes, including water escape,
deformation of the sediment and disruption by organisms living in or on the sediment,
may occur after deposition. The structures produced are known as secondary sedi-
mentary structures. This section includes a brief discussion of some primary sedimen-
tary structures which were not discussed in Section 3.6, followed by a description of
some of the more important secondary structures.
Many of the structures mentioned above have laminae on the scale of mm’s or cm’s.
The laminae we can see are the product of changes in texture, such as grain
composition or the size, shape, orientation, packing or sorting of grains. However,
larger scale bedding may also occur (e.g. individual turbidite beds or flood-generated
beds on a fluvial floodplain. In the description of sediments, it is important to have a
uniform description of bed thicknesses. Such a definition is given on Table 3. In
addition to bed thickness, it is important to note, when describing bedded sediments,
whether the base and top of the bed are sharp or gradational and, if the base is sharp,
whether it is erosional.
30 10
medium slabby medium Table 3
10 1
Descriptive terms used for
thin flaggy thin
1 ?0.5 bed thickness, splitting of
very thin laminated very thin beds and lamina thickness
28
Sedimentology
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Trace fossils come in a wide variety of forms reflecting both the range of organisms
which produced them and their mode of life; different organisms living a similar
lifestyle may produce very similar trace fossils. Like conventional ‘body fossils’,
trace fossils are formally classified into genera and species. They can give much useful
information about the environment of deposition, including sedimentation rates
(continuous or discontinuous, low or high rate?), substrate consistency, water depth
and energy of the environment (e.g. current activity and direction). They may
therefore aid the interpretation of the depositional environment.
In addition, because burrows may cut across laminae and bed boundaries, may be
filled by different sediment than the surrounding material and may homogenise
laminated or bedded sediment, bioturbation may have a pronounced influence on
reservoir quality. It may influence both the small-scale permeability kv/kh and larger,
reservoir-scale heterogeneity. In different situations it may either improve or reduce
reservoir quality.
In addition to depositional facies, other types of facies can be defined. These include
seismic facies, based on a rock’s seismic character and petrophysical facies, based on
a rock’s petrophysical characteristics.
It should be noted that interpretation of a facies tells us only what processes were
responsible for the deposition of that facies; it does not tell us the environment of
deposition. For example, a medium grained, trough cross-bedded sandstone facies
was clearly deposited by the migration of a 3D megaripple or dune (see Section
3.6.2.2). However, such megaripples may occur in a wide range of environments,
including rivers, lakes, estuaries and shallow seas (in addition to deserts, in the case
of aeolian cross bedding) and examination of a single facies will not allow us to
When vertical successions of sediments are examined, it becomes clear that sedimen-
tary facies are often superimposed on top of one another in quite specific sequences.
In other words, the interrelationships of facies are not random, but conform to a limited
number of geological patterns. One of the basic tenets of sedimentology is Walther’s
Law, which states: ‘The various deposits of the same [environmental] area and,
similarly, the sum of the rocks of different [environmental] areas were formed beside
each other in time and space, but in crustal profile we can see them lying on top of each
other . . . it is a basic statement of far reaching significance that only those
[environmental] areas can be superimposed, primarily, that can be observed side by
side at the present time’ In other words, we can only see in a vertical succession those
sedimentary facies that were once side by side during deposition. It should be noted,
however, that this relationship only applies when there are no major breaks, either
stratigraphic or structural, in the sedimentary facies sequence.
30
Sedimentology
3
Figure 25
Examples of sedimentary
logs
It is beyond the scope of this chapter to give a full description of all the common clastic
depositional environments. Instead, a few environments, namely aeolian, fluvial,
coastal and shallow marine and deep marine, have been selected. What follows in the
remainder of Section 3.9 should be treated as a brief introduction to these environ-
ments. Much more detail can be obtained from the recommended reading list.
;
y y
; ;
y
y;y;y;y;y;y;y;;y;y;y;y
y;y;y;y;;y ;y;y;yy;y;y;y;
30º 30º
;
y
10º 10º
;
y
Zone of Tropical Low Pressure
y; y;y; y; y;
0º 0º
10º 10º
;y
major deserts in relation to
major atmospheric
circulation and topography
Important Mountain Dry Coastal Areas (after Glennie, 1970)
and Plateau Areas
32
Sedimentology
3
3.9.1 Aeolian Environments
Aeolian, or wind-transported, sediments occur most commonly in desert environ-
ments. Deserts are defined as areas where potential evaporation and transpiration
exceed precipitation. Such areas are commonly located at low latitudes (Figure 26).
The pattern of prevailing winds moves to about 5o North of its mean position in July
and 5o South in January. This simplified pattern is further modified by the large land
masses, which heat up rapidly in summer and cool rapidly in winter. Sandy deserts are
dominated by large fields of dunes (ergs) surrounded by extra-erg areas. Within ergs,
draa are the main bedforms: (Figure 29).The draa are generally covered by smaller
scale dunes (see Section 3.6.2.4). The foresets of these dunes contain laminae
deposited by a number of different processes, or combinations of processes (see
Section 3.6.2.4). The central parts of the slipface are commonly dominated by
grainflow laminae being more common near the dune crest and wind-ripple laminae
present at the flanks and low on the slipface (Figure 27). As the grainflow laminae
generally have the best porosity and permeability, the best reservoir properties in
aeolian successions are commonly found in the dune core areas.
Grainfall Laminae
Cone-Shaped Grainflows
Figure 27
Distribution of different
types of lamination within
small aeolian dunes. A.
Relationship of topset and
different types of lee-side
laminae. B. Horizontal plan
and section (A-B) of cross-
bedding in a dune truncated
by wind deflation.
Simplified from an
exposure on Padre Island,
USA. (After Hunter, 1977)
Prevail
ing Win
d Direc
tion
Interdu
ne
Draa
Figure 29
Reconstruction of draa,
dunes and interdune
environments in relation to
Draa cross - bedding cross bedding and
bounding surfaces: cross
Barchan cross - bedding Small Barchans
bedding not drawn to scale,
Crecentic Dunes
200 m
(after Clemmensen and
Interdune Deposits
Abrahamsen, 1983)
34
Sedimentology
3
Depositional Conditions
DRY DAMP WET
Wind ripples
Aeolian dune cross strata
Lag grain surfaces
Deflation scours
Bioturbation structures
Plant root structures
Sand drift behind obstacles
Adhesion laminae
Microtopography
Rain-impact ripples
Brecciated laminae
Adhesion ripples
Adhesion warts
Evaporite structures
Algal structures
Figure 30 Fenestral porosity
Contorted structures
DIstribution of sedimentary Rill marks
Wavy laminae
structures within interune
Wrinkle marks
sediments deposited under Channels
Small deltas
different conditions. Both Water ripples
modern examples and those Subaqueous cross strata
The low-lying interdune areas are influenced by different processes than the dunes
themselves and so contain a different suit of sedimentary structures (Figure 30). Dry
interdune areas, where the water table and its associated capilliary fringe lie far below
the depositioned surface, are dominated by wind ripples and possibly small dunes.
Because they are often sediment-starved, winds blowing them will tend to be under-
saturated with sediment and may be erosional. If the water table and its capilliary
fringe intersect the interdune surface, the interdune areas may be damp. Wind borne
grains will tend to stick this damp surface, leading to the formation of adhesion
structures. Wetter interdunes may contain moving or standing water, leading to the
formation of current ripples, wave ripples and other water-generated structures.
Increased organic activity may lead to the preservation of plant rootlets and animal
burrows. Deposition of fine material from suspension provides a muddy blanket
which, on drying, cracks to form typical polygonal desication features. as the water
evaporates, precipitation of evaporite minerals may occur.
Clearly, damp and wet interdune areas will be more extensive during periods of high
water table. These periods may be due to a number of controls, including a rise in sea
or lake level or increased rainfall. Whatever the origin, periods of ‘wetting’ and
‘drying’ can be identified in many ancient aeolian successions. During wetting
periods, aeolian dunes become less active and may be eroded. Extensive interdune
areas may develop and, in more pronounced periods of wetting, fluvial conditions may
predominate. This leads to the development of extensive interdune or fluvial intervals
Dune Foresets
Figure 31
Drying-upwards sequence
Adhesion Laminae
of interdune deposits
showing a transition from a
Adhesion Ripple wet to a dry interdune. Dry
Pseudo-Cross-Strata
interdune conditions are
Algal Mat Structures
Fenestral Porosity terminated by the
encroachment of the next
Water Ripples
dune. Present-day example.
Truncated dune Foresets Padre Island, USA (After
Kocurek, 1981a)
Both interdune and fluvial sediments have poorer reservoir quality than aeolian dune
sands, so that extensive interdune or fluvial intervals may form baffles to vertical flow
and therefore tend to compartmentalise aeolian reservoirs (Figure 32).
Figure 32
Distribution of cross-
bedding, bounding surfaces
and interdune deposits in
sections through the
Jurassic Entrada
Formation, Western USA
(after Kocurek, 1981b)
36
Sedimentology
3
3.9.2 Fluvial Environments
Fluvial, or river-deposited, sediments occur in a wide range of climates and tectonic
regimes. Rivers flow downhill from the source area towards a lake or the sea and their
form reflects a number of controls including climate (especially rainfall), slope and
the available sediment. The geomorphology and behaviour of rivers form a continuum
of types but it is convenient, for discussion of rivers to divide them into somewhat
arbitrary classes. The most common classification of river forms identifies four types
of channels (Figure 33).
Single Channel
Straight Meandering
Multiple Channels
Figure 33
Classification of fluvial
channels according to their Braided Anastomosing
shape in plan. (based on
Miall, 1977) Bar surfaces covered during flood stages
The two most common types, which will be discussed here, are meandering and
braided rivers. Meandering rivers have a single channel with a strongly sinuous form
(figure 34). Flow in the apical parts of the bends is helical, with surface flow moving
from the inner to outer bank and flow at the river bed having a component towards the
inner bank. The outer bank is eroded and sediment is deposited on the inner bank to
form a point bar. Continued erosion of the outer bank and deposition on the point bar
increases the amplitude of the meanders and produces relatively narrow necks on the
point bar. During a severe flood, the point bar neck may be breached, leading to a
shortening of the channel course and abandonment of the old meander loop.
Crevasse
Splay
Flood Plain
Fires
Older Figure 34
Crevasse
Lateral Accretion Splay
Sufaces
Block diagram showing the
three-dimensional form of a
Older meandering river (modified
Charred
Splay
after Miall, 1985)
Meandering channels may transport sandy or muddy sediment but, from a reservoir
point of view, we are interested mainly in the more sandy rivers. During periods of
flooding, the river may flood onto the surrounding low-lying land, the floodplain. The
river may either break through its banks, to form a temporary crevasse channel, or may
flood over the banks over a longer length. In either case, the flood waters will tend to
deposit their coarsest sediment close to the main river, producing thin beds which will
tend to become finer and thinner away from the river. Repeated floods over many years
will produce elevated ridges of sediment, known as levees, close to the channel. The
meandering river will continue to flow along its raised alluvial ridge until, following
a major breach of its banks, it will follow a new path across the lower-relief floodplain.
Such avulsion of the channel will abandon the old alluvial ridge downstream of the
point of avulsion. Thus, meandering river systems will tend to produce complex
meander-belt sandbodies separated by finer-grained floodplain sediments.
Unlike meandering rivers, which have only one active channel at any time, braided
rivers have a number of active channels separated by sandy or gravelly bars (Figure
35). Braided rivers tend to form on slightly steeper slopes, and where there is a high
proportion of sandy or gravelly sediment.
38
Sedimentology
3
Sandbar
with superimposed
Floodplain megaripples/dunes
The other two types of channels, straight and anastomosing channels, are rarer and less
well described than meandering and braided rivers. Straight channels are single
channels of low sinuosity, and are characterised by side bars which are attached to
alternate sides of the channel. Straight channels produce single channel-fill sandbodies.
Anastomosing rivers, like braided rivers, consist of a number of active channels which
split and rejoin in a down-valley direction. In contrast to braided rivers, with their
active bars between channels, the individual channels of anastomosing rivers are
separated by larger, finer grained, more stable islands. These islands are commonly
low-lying, boggy and vegetated and the channels do not migrate much laterally. This
leads to the development of relatively narrow but thick multi-storey sandbodies
(Figure 36).
yyyy
;;;; ;;
yy
Vegetated Island
;;;;
yyyy
;;
yyyyyyy
;;;;;
;;
yy
;;
;
yy
yy
;; ;
yyyyy
;;;;;
Figure 36
Block diagram showing the
three-dimensional form of
an anastomosing river
(after Miall, 1985)
yyyyy
;;;;; Channel Sandstones
Surface Current
Bottom Current
Figure 37
Diagrams showing the
1.5 M
development of an upward-
Cu
tb
an
Chut
Sr Sp
e
Lateral accretion is less common in braided rivers, but downstream migration of bars
may lead to the development of downcurrent-dipping or downstream-accreted
elements (Figure 38).
Figure 38
Development of
downstream-accreted units.
40
Sedimentology
3
Ch Channel
FI
Lateral Accretion
GB
Gravel Bar and Bed Form
SG
Sediment Gravity Flow
DA
Downstream Accretion
SB
Sand Bed Form
Figure 39
LS
The eight basic
Laminated Sand
architectural elements in
OF
fluvial deposits, (after Miall Overbank Fines
1985). No vertical
exaggeration. Note the 0.5-5m
variable scale.
As has been shown for both meandering and braided systems, the sandbodies
produced are generally complex, so that fluvial reservoirs consist of channel belt
sandbodies rather than individual channel sandbodies. It should be noted that the
geometry of these sandbodies will be controlled by the stacking pattern and may have
little relationship to the geometry of the individual channel sandbodies (Figure 40).
yy
;;
development of upward-fining ‘megasequences’.
yy
;;
Siltstones
Cross-bedded Sandstone
Siltstones and Sandstone
Conglomerate and Sandstone
yyyy
;;;;
yyyy
;;;;
;
y
;;;
yyy
yyyyyy
;;;
yyy
;;;;;;
y; 2
Approx. Scale
km
0
0 5 10
Figure 41
km Alluvial fans
42
Sedimentology
3
Since the development of sequence stratigraphy, attention has turned to incised
valleys caused by falls in relative sea level. As the relative sea level falls, the incised
valleys are largely bypassed by the sediment (Figure 42A) but, as the relative sea level
stabilises and begins to rise, sedimentation will begin in the valley, which will
continue into the highstand period. The fills of the incised valleys are very complex,
and include deltaic sediments as well as fluvial sediments (Figure 42B).
Non-Incised
Shelf / Ramp Incised Valley System
Fluvial System
A
High
Incised Valley
Low
Time
Lowstand (Fan)
Systems Tract
B
High
Figure 42
Low
Beaches form the boundary between the shallow marine and terrestrial environment.
They are dominated by wave processes, but in most cases are also affected by tides.
The constituent parts of a beach profile are defined in terms of the tide marks and are
shown on Figure 43. The area above the high water mark is the backshore, and the area
between the high and low water marks is the foreshore. The shoreface extends from
the low water mark to the fairweather wave base.
Low
5-15m
Skolithos
Cruzlana Figure 43
Ichnofacies
Zoophycos Definition of the beach
profile
Water is driven onto the beach by waves, and then returns to the sea as localised
currents. The beach profile is therefore influenced by both waves and currents. As the
waves break on the shore, they produce rapid, shallow currents which flow up the
beach before flowing back into the sea. These swash and backwash currents form the
seaward-dipping plane beds which characterise most foreshores. Below the low water
mark, the dominant processes on the shoreface depend on a number of factors,
including the wave energy. Fairweather waves will tend to produce a mixture of wave-
generated bedforms such as wave-ripples and bedforms, including megaripples,
produced by wave-driven currents. When a shoreline is dominated by storm waves,
the dominant bedform may be hummocks.
As storm-generated currents flow offshore, they transport sediment into deeper water,
often as bottom-hugging currents similar to turbidity currents (Figure 44). After this
sediment has been deposited, it may be reworked by the storm waves themselves.
Storm-Surge Ebb
Storm surge tide briefly
stores sediment-laden
Storm Winds waters in lagoon
<6m
44
Sedimentology
3
In general, the energy is greatest, and the sediment coarsest, on the higher parts of the
beach profile. In deeper water, discrete storm-generated beds may be separated by
mudstones whereas, in the more proximal parts of the beach, the sand beds coallesce
to form sand-dominated intervals. As a beach progrades offshore, it produces an
upward-coarsening facies sequence (Figure 45).
Coastal Plain
Coal/Backshore
Beach/Foreshore
Middle Shoreface.
Swaley Cross - Stratification
Whilst some beaches are joined directly to the main land area, others are separated
from it by an area of standing water known as a lagoon (Figure 46). Because of the
mixing of fresh water and sea water, lagoonal waters are brackish, that is, of
intermediate salinity. The beach ridge on the seaward side of a lagoon is termed a
barrier island. At each high tide, water passes through the barrier island into the lagoon
via tidal inlets. In areas with high tidal ranges, these tidal inlets are closely spaced. Ebb
and flood tidal deltas may form on the seaward and landward side of the inlets, as the
confined flow expands laterally and loses its power.
yy
;;
Tidal Flat Dunes
;;;;;
yyyyy
;;
yy
Beach
;;;
yyy
Flood Tidal
;;
yy ;;
yy
Delta
;;
yy
;;;
yyy yy
;;
;
y
;;;;;
yyyyy;
y
yy
;;
Marsh
;;
yy y
;
;;
yy
yy
;;
;;;
yyy ;
y
yy
;;
;;;;
yyyy ;;
yy ;;
yy
Figure 46
Ma Block diagram illustrating
in
Tid
;;;; yy
;;
Ebb Tidal Delta
yyyy
(In al C the various
let ha
) nn
el
subenvironments in a
transgressing barrier-island
Secondary Tidal
Channel system
Tidal inlets migrate rapidly along the barrier island, eroding the upper shoreface and
foreshore deposits. The inlet deposits are similar to those of fluvial channels, with
erosive bases and upward-fining trends (Figure 47). Migration of the inlets can lead
to the upper parts of barrier island successions being dominated by tidal inlet deposits.
Barrier islands and beaches will tend to produce linear sandbodies oreiented parallel
to the coastline. If the beach or barrier island migrates seaward, it will produce more
sheet-like bodies.
y;;
;
yy
;;yy
yy
;;yyy
;;;
Figure 47
Time Lines Longshore Drift
Beach and Dune Ridge Generalised cross-section
Direction of Channel Migration 0
Sea Level parallel to shoreline
Metres
Foreshore
Channel Deposits and 15 illustrating the development
Shoreface
Erosion Surface Deposits
30 of a barrier-inlet sand body
4000 3000 2000 1000 0
Metres
by lateral inlet migration.
(Modified from Hoyt and
Henry, 1965).
Where a major river reaches a standing body of water, such as a lake or the sea, the
basinal processes will attempt to rework the sediment supplied by the river. If the river
supplies sediment faster than it can be reworked by the basinal processes, the shoreline
will project locally into the basin, forming a delta. On the subaerial part of the delta
plain, the river will split into two or more smaller distributary chanels, which may
themselves split into still smaller channels,causing sediment to be supplied to many
points along the delta front (Figure 49).
The form of the delta will depend on a wide range of parameters, including climate,
tectonic setting, sediment supply and energy of the receiving basin. A commonly-
used classification of deltas uses a triangular diagram to compare the relative
importance of fluvial, tidal and wave processes (Figure 48).
46
Sedimentology
3
SEDIMENT
INPUT
ate
Elo
ng
6
ng
Elo
ate
4
Fluvial
Dominated
5
te
ba
Mahakam
Lo
Nile
Niger
Wave Tide
Dominated Dominated
te
Es
pa
Rhone
tua
s
Ord
Cu
rin
Sao Fransisco Klang-Langat
Figure 48
e
Wave Energy Flux Tide Energy Flux
Classification of deltas in
terms of river, wave and MISSISSIPPI LOBES
Fluvial-dominated deltas will supply more sediment to the coastline than can be
reworked by the basinal processes. The resultant data will therefore form a pro-
nounced protuberance of the shoreline. Depending on the depth of water into which
the delta is prograding, and the degree of reworking, the delta may be either lobate or
elongate (Figure 49a and b ). In the case of tidally-influenced deltas, the tidal
processes will tend to produce a radial pattern of distributary channels which become
broader towards the basin (Figure 49d). In wave-dominated deltas, a high proportion
of the sediment supplied to the river mouth will be reworked into beach ridges on
either side. The resulting delta will, therefore, often cause only a slight deflection of
the coastline (Figure 49c).
Figure 49
Delta models based on the
relative dominance of
fluvial, wave and tidal
processes (from Fisher et
al, 1969)
yyyyy
;;;;;
;;;;
yyyy
Friction-Dominated River Mouth
;;;;;
yyyyy
;;;;
yyyy
ee
L ev
S ub A q u e o u s
;;;;;
yyyyy
;;;;
yyyy
Subaerial
Levee
Coarsest
;;;;;
yyyyy
;;;;;;
yyyyyy
;;;;
yyyy
;
y
yy y;
;;
;
yy
;;
y
;;
yy
Finer Interbedded Silt and
Figure 50
;;;;;;
yyyyyy
Friction-dominated and
;;;;;;
yyyyyy
Sands Sands Sands and Silt Clay
;;;;
yyyy
buoyancy-dominated river
y
; y
;;
yy
;
;;
yy
mouth bars which develop
Buoyancy-Dominated River Mouth
;;;;;;
yyyyyy
in shallow-water and deep-
Subaqueous
;;;;;;
yyyyyy
;;;;
yyyy
Levee water areas respectively of
y
; y
;yy
y
;y
;
;;
Subaerial Levee fluvial-dominated deltas,
Channel Distal
;;;;;;
yyyyyy
Bar Back Bar Crest Bar Front Prodelta for example in the east and
Subaerial Levee Bar
south of the modern
;;;;
yyyy ;;
yy
;;;;;;
yyyyyy
Subaqueous
Levee
Mississippi delta (modified
after Wright, 1977)
48
Sedimentology
3
Figure 51
Typical vertical succession
in a fluvial-dominated delta
front (from Kelling &
George, 1971)
Progradation of the mouth bar produces elongate sandbodies, known as bar finger
sands, which form a radial pattern (Figure 52). It should be noted that the bar finger
sands have a considerably greater cross-sectional area than the distributary channel
which produced them (Figure 52b).
;;;;;;
yyyyyy
yyy
;;;;
y ;
y ;
y
BRANCHING PATTERN LENTICULAR CROSS SECTION
;;;;;;
yyyyyy
;;;;
yyyy
;;;
yyy;
y ;
y ;
y
Silty sands, silty clays Organic-rich silty clays
narrow upstream
30
60
Figure 52 30
0 Delta Plain Sparse to
;;;;
yyyy
Silty sands, silty clays abundant fauna
yyyyyy
;;;;;;
0
30
60
60 sand zone
30
ne
Mud diapir Tr a n Zo
s iti o n
FO
Mississippi delta as
0
Sa
n d s a n d S ilt s
Interbranch Delta Front Sparse
AT
San Pedro
le
p
m and
e Co San Pablo River
g
Rid
Be a c h
N
Usumacinta River
93º 92º 30'
Figure 54
An example of a mixed
fluvial, tide and wave
influenced delta, the Niger
Delta (from Oomkens,
1974)
50
Sedimentology
3
From a detailed study of the vertical succession of facies in preserved deltaic
successions, it is often possible to differentiate between the deposits of the different
delta types. This can be done either by the study of cores or simply by wireline log
interpretation (Figure 55). From this interpretation, it is possible to map the sandbody
distribution in the subsurface using a model derived from the interpretation (Figure 56).
Figure 55
Subsurface interpretation
of fluvial-dominated deltaic
reservoirs
Figure 56
Sandbody geometries of the
six delta types of Coleman
and Wright (1975) plotted
on the river-, wave- and
tide-dominated tripartite
classification of Galloway
(1975).
Figure 57
Inter-relationships between
flow initiation, transport
and deposition of and by
sediment gravity flows.
Figure 58
Niger Delta growth fault
traps (from Elliot,1978,
after Weber and Daukoru,
1975)
52
Sedimentology
3
3.9.4 Deep Marine Clastic Environments
The physical processes, such as tides and waves, which dominate coastal and shallow
marine environments are generally absent or ineffective in the deep marine environ-
ment. For the majority of time, the deep oceans are low-energy environments in which
fine grained carbonate or clastic muds are able to accumulate. Coarse-grained
sediment is transported into these environments by a number of infrequent and short-
lived processes, of which the sediment gravity flow processes (slumps, debris flows,
turbidity currents etc.) are dominant. Our discussion of the deep water environment
will, therefore, concentrate on the deposits of these processes.
Sediment gravity flows were discussed in Section 3.6.2.5. It should be noted that the
dominant process in a gravity flow may change with time and space as the flow
develops (Figure 60). In recent years, there has been much discussion in the literature
concerning the differentiation of the deposits of high-density turbidity currents and
sandy debris flows. It is likely that many of the deposits in question may have been
transported over long distances by turbidity currents but, immediately prior to
deposition, the lower parts of the currents took on the characteristics of a debris flow.
The deposits, which record only their mode of deposition, rather than their long-
distance transport, therefore resemble debris flow deposits.
Figure 59
Inter-relationships between
flow initiation, transport
and deposition of and by
sediment gravity flows
The earliest deep marine sandstones to be studied in detail were turbidites. The facies
present in an idealised ‘classical’ turbidite are summarised by the Bouma sequence
(Figure 60). For many years, this was thought to be the paradigm for all turbidite
sandstones. However, later work showed that many deep-water sandstones did not fit
this idealised model, so a number of new models for the deposits of single sediment
gravity flow were proposed (Figure 61).
E (h)
E (t)
(D)
Figure 60
C The Bouma sequence for a
classical turbidite (Bouma,
B 1962). Division A is
structureless; B is parallel-
A
laminated sand; C is
rippled and/or convoluted;
D consists of parallel-
laminated silt and mud.
Sole Marks The pelitic interval E is
partly of turbidite origin (t)
and partly hemipelagic (h).
Laminated Massive,
grain orientation parallel
Good grading to flow
("Distribution grading)
Reverse grading near base?
Scours, injection structures
Flutes, tool marks on base
Poor grading
Facies models for
Basal zone of "Shearing" broad "Scours"
("Coarse tail grading") ? Striations at base turbidites, debris flow
? Grooves, flame and load
striations structures on base
deposits (debrites) and
slump deposits.
In many of the early outcrop studies, relatively little attention was paid to the vertical
trends within turbidite successions. However, careful examination of some turbidite
successions demonstrates the occurrence of facies sequences in which the thickness
and/or mean grain size of the sandstone beds increases or decreases upwards. These
trends were attributed to deposition on different parts of a submarine fan (Figure 62).
Submarine fans occur offshore from major river systems or off the continental shelf
in many parts of the world. Like deltas, they are sourced from a single point and contain
54
Sedimentology
3
a system of distributary channels supplying lobes. The upward-thickening trends in
turbidite sequences are attributed to the progradation of fan lobes and the upward-
thinning trends to deposition within a channel. It should be noted, however, that this
model is somewhat simplistic, and that the thickening or thinning trends may be very
subtle.
Figure 62
Single point-source
submarine fan in a sand-
rich system
Figure 63
Multiple-source submarine
ramp in a sand-rich system
Figure 64
Log signatures of a single
point-source mixed sand-
mud fan system
3.10.1 Introduction
In many parts of the world, beaches are dominated by quartz sand and, for those of us
brought up in these areas, it is tempting to believe that this must be the case
everywhere. However, in other parts of the globe, carbonate sands are the norm. It
should be remembered that the ‘natural’ sediments in marine environments are
carbonates; it is only when clastic material is brought into the area in sufficient
quantities to subdue carbonate-secreting organisms, and to dilute what carbonate
material is being formed, that clastic sediments result.
Carbonate sediments have many things in common with clastic sediments, but also a
number of important differences.
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Whereas the majority of clastic grains have their origin some distance from the site
of their deposition, many carbonate grains are formed at or very close to their eventual
site of deposition. A small proportion of these carbonate grains are precipitated
directly from marine or lacustrine water, but the majority are precipitated by, or with
the assistance of, plants or animals. Many carbonate rocks are composed almost
entirely of the broken shells of marine animals, which may have been transported only
a short distance.
Because the majority of clasts, and matrix, in carbonate sediments are composed
initially of various forms of calcium carbonate, they are more soluble than most clastic
rocks. The ions liberated by dissolution will then be available for precipitation as
carbonate cements. Carbonate sediments are therefore likely to undergo earlier
dissolution and/or cementation than clastic sediments.
On the death of these organisms, their hard parts become available as potential clasts.
In some cases, the shells remain in situ and unbroken , but they are more commonly
transported by waves or currents and become broken and/or rounded during transport.
The mineralogy and crystalline structure of skeletal material varies from organism to
organism, so that organic debris generally has a greater range of shapes and densities
than terrigenous clastic sands. This obviously has an influence on their hydrodynamic
behaviour and can lead to efficient sorting of the different grain types.
Ooids
Ooids are small (less than 2mm) near-spherical carbonate grains with a pronounced
concentric structure. They generally form in moderate to high energy shallow marine
environments. In the past, there has been much debate over their origin, but their
growth is generally accepted to be associated with algae, which bind the fine-gained
sediment of which they are composed, and may also have a role in the precipitation
Intraclasts
Because carbonate sediments may be subject to earlier cementation than terrigenous
clastic sediments, it is common for carbonates to be lithified at, or close to, the
sediment surface. If erosion then occurs, instead of breaking up into individual grains,
the sediment may break into groups of grains lightly cemented together. These
compound clasts are known as intraclasts.
The other minerals common in carbonate rocks form by diagenesis (see Section 3.11)
and include iron-rich ferroan calcite, dolomite (calcium magnesium carbonate) and
siderite (iron carbonate).
The main components of carbonate sediments are therefore a range of grain types
including bioclasts, ooids and intraclasts, and micrite mud. An early classification
scheme for carbonates, proposed by Folk in 1973, divides carbonate rocks on the basis
of the clast types and the presence of matrix or cement. Carbonate rocks with micrite
matrix are given the suffix -micrite, whereas those with crystalline ("Spary") cement
are given the suffix -sparite. Thus a rock composed of bioclasts in a micrite matrix is
a bio-micrite. If it contains little or no matrix, but has a sparry cement, it is a bio-sparite.
If more than one clast type is present, the different clasts are listed in decreasing order
of abundance, for example oo- bio-sparite, bio- intra-micrite.
A later classification concentrates on the primary grain and matrix texture and ignores
cement (Dunham, 1962;). Carbonates consisting only of grains and cement, with no
matrix, are known as grainstones. Those with some matrix, but with a clast-supported
fabric, are packstones, whilst those with a matrix-supported fabric are wackestones.
Carbonate rocks consisting mainly of micrite, with less than 15% grains, are known
as mudstones. It should be noted that the mud in this case is carbonate material, in
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contrast with terrigenous mudstones, which are composed mainly of clay minerals. To
avoid confusion, it is sometimes better to refer to these sediments are carbonate
mudstones. In addition to these textural terms, further terms are needed to describe
sediments strongly influenced by growing organisms. Where a rigid framework is
built, for example on coral reefs, the resulting rock is a framestone. Where growing
animals or plants reduce the power of currents or waves, leading to the deposition of
sediment, the sediment is a bafflestone.
Shallow marine environments are sites of high biological diversity and productivity.
Particularly in areas of low clastic input, carbonate clasts, such as bioclasts and ooids,
and carbonate mud will form the dominant sediment. Carbonate sands will be washed
onto the beach, so that the coastal and shallow marine environments are dominated by
carbonate deposition. This is the case in many modern dry, low-latitude areas, such
as the Gulf coasts.
In the shallow marine waters, waves and tides rework the sandy sediment into shallow
bars or shoals. In general, the energy will be highest on the topographically higher,
shallower water parts of the shoals. The sediments are therefore coarser grained and
better sorted at the top of shoals and lateral migration of a shoal will produce an
upward-coarsening sequence, with mudstones and wackestones being replaced
upwards by coarser grained packstones and grainstones. Between the shoals, the
sediment is likely to be finer grained and dominated by mudstones and packstones.
Shoals, buildups and reefs may all protect the area on their landward side from the
highest wave energy, allowing a low-energy lagoonal environment to develop. These
lagoons are generally dominated by fine-grained carbonates, but may contain local
shoals and buildups.
In tidal environments, extensive areas of carbonate tidal flats may develop. These
consist of horizontally bedded fine grained carbonates cut by tidal channels of various
sizes. The fills of the channels are generally coarser grained and cleaner than the tidal
Vuggy pores
Because of the variable chemistry of many carbonate clasts, there is a likelihood of
partial or total dissolution of the less stable clasts. Dissolution of, for example, large
aragonite bioclasts can lead to the development of large secondary pores. These vuggy
pores are commonly isolated from each other within a lower-porosity matrix.
Intragranular pores
Many bioclasts, such as bivalves, are hollow or, in the case of corals or crinoids, have
a microporous texture. There is therefore a possibility of high proportions of
intragranular porosity in bioclast-rich carbonates.
Shelter porosity
Platy clasts, such as broken shells, may protect the area underneath them from
sediment falling from above. This area may therefore remain empty, as shelter
porosity, or be more loosely packed than the surrounding sediment.
Fenestrae
Shrinking associated with repeated wetting and drying can cause sedimentary laminae
to pull apart, producing irregular pores or fenestrae (from the Latin for window).
Intercrystalline porosity
Recrystallisation of carbonate rocks may cause changes in volume. For example,
dolomitisation of calcitic or aragonitic sediment involves a slight decrease in volume.
Thus the dolomite crystals may not fill the entire volume, allowing intercrystalline
porosity to exist between the dolomite crystals.
Fracture porosity
Fractures may occur in all lithologies, but they are particularly common in carbonate
rocks because the early cementation of many carbonates causes them to behave in a
brittle manner for most of their history. Fractures are also very important because the
permeability of many carbonates is low, even for relatively high porosities, so fluid
flow may depend on the presence of fractures. Also, many of the porosity types
described above (e.g. vuggy, fenestrate and intragranular porosity) commonly consist
of large but unconnected pores, which will only form an effective flow network if
fractures are present.
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3.11 DIAGENESIS
3.11.1 Definition
Diagenesis consists of the range of physical and chemical processes and changes
which turn a sediment into a rock. It may begin immediately after deposition and
continues during burial. The majority of diagenetic changes will tend to reduce the
porosity and permeability of a sediment, but some, such as dissolution, may increase
the porosity and/or permeability.
In the following section, we will be concerned only with those aspects of diagenesis
which impact on porosity and permeability and therefore on reservoir performance.
Clastic sediments may be cemented by a wide range of mineral cements and clays. The
type and distribution of the cements will depend partly on the burial history of the
sediment. The majority of cements are precipitated from pore waters, so the type of
minerals precipitated, and their order, will reflect the changes in water chemistry with
time. At shallow burial depths, the pore waters will contain micro-organisms such as
aerobic and anaerobic bacteria which will influence the water chemistry. During
burial, the sediment may be surrounded by the same water for a long period of time,
in an essentially closed system, or circulation of water may constantly replenish the
water or replace the pore water with water of a different chemistry. A full study of the
geochemistry of diagenesis is beyond the scope of this chapter, but the following
paragraphs are a brief introduction to some of the more important points.
Immediately after deposition, the pore spaces in most sediments will be occupied by
either fresh or marine waters, depending on the environment of deposition. Fluvial or
aeolian sediments may be deposited above the water table, so will have little or no
water round the grains. However, sediment in this vadose zone may become wet
following periods of rainfall or may be affected by water rising from the water table
due to capillary action. Water may occur as thin rims round the grains, as menisci
between grains or as pendulous drops hanging from grains. As cements are only
precipitated were water is present, vadose zone cements may have a distinctive form,
either rimming grains, bridging the gap between grains at pore throats, or being thicker
on the lower side of grains. Continued burial of sediments in the vadose zone will
eventually move them below the water table.
Many sandstones are cemented by carbonate minerals, including calcite, dolomite and
siderite. The cements may rim the grains or may occur as small crystals in the
intergranular pores. Calcite and dolomite often form cements with crystals which are
significantly larger than the grains and so enclose a number of grains. These
poikilotopic cements are sometimes visible even in hand specimen, as the large
crystals sparkle with reflected light.
In addition to mineral cements, clays minerals may also be precipitated in the pore
spaces. These authigenic clays may have a variety shapes and relationships to the host
sediment. Most clay minerals form plate-like crystals, and several minerals, including
chlorite and illite may grow on grains as concentric or radial arrangements of plates.
The radial arrangement is more common. In addition to its platy fabric, illite also forms
more elongate crystals, and this fibrous or ‘hairy’ illite commonly grows at the
margins of more platy illites. Other clays, such as kaolinite, tend to form denser
clusters of crystals, arranged like the pages of a book, in intergranular pores.
In the case of sands with high proportions of clay, detrital clays may increase in size
during burial by the addition of authigenic overgrowths or may be replaced by other
clay minerals. In general, the clay-rich matrix tends to become better crystallised with
increasing depth of burial. As the pressure and temperature increase during burial the
sediment may pass from the stability field for one clay mineral into that for another.
For example, smectite is generally replaced by illite with increasing depth, with the
most pronounced change occurring at depths of between 2.5k m and 3.5km. The illite
crystallinity increases with burial and can be used to give an estimate of the maximum
burial depth of a rock.
Thin section petrography and scanning electron microscopy are used to examine the
authigenic mineral fabrics and the relationship between different cements and clays.
For example, it maybe possible identify cements growing over other cement minerals
or clays. By a detailed study of the relationship of the different cements and authigenic
clays, it is possible to establish the order of diagenetic events. This diagenetic history
enables important information to be gained about both the burial history and the
evolution of the pore waters.
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Many bioclasts and the majority of micrite are initially composed of aragonite, which
is an unstable mineral under normal burial conditions. If a clast is totally dissolved,
its original form may be preserved as a mould, either by the surrounding matrix or by
an early rim cement. The clast-shaped pore then behaves like any other pore and may
be later filled by cement. Alternatively, unstable grains may be gradually replaced by
another mineral, a process known as neomorphism. In this case, a ghost of the original
texture may be preserved.
Pore-filling calcite cement commonly develops a distinctive fabric. The initial pore
lining consists of a large number of small, blade-like crystals. As they continue to
grow into the pores, some crystals grow over their neighbours, reducing the number
of active crystals. The cement crystals therefore tend to increase in size towards the
centre of the pore.
Diagenetic dolomite may occur either as rhombic crystals in the pore spaces or as more
extensive pore-filling or poikilotopic cement. It may also replace the existing clasts
and matrix, producing a sedimentary rock composed entirely of dolomite. In some
dolomites, the original fabric of the sediment is entirely lost, but in others the faint
relict structure is visible.
In any dissolution or recrystallisation, the least stable minerals or grain types tend to
be dissolved or replaced first. It is fairly common for bioclasts of a certain type to be
entirely replaced by a diagenetic mineral, whilst others are either unaltered or are
replaced by a different mineral.
Even quite low volumes of early cement may reduce the degree of compaction of a
sediment during later burial and may therefore increase its porosity at a given depth.
The shape and position of mineral cements may also have a significant impact on
permeability. For example, a certain volume of meniscus cements occurring near pore
Dissolution of grains (for example feldspars in clastic rocks and aragonitic bioclasts
in carbonates) will produce secondary porosity. However, this increase in porosity
may have little impact on permeability if the dissolution pores are not well connected
to the existing pore system. Dolomitisation may also lead to an increase in porosity
and permeability, due to the reduction in volume it involves.
Before leaving the subject of diagenesis, it is relevant to look briefly at the impact of
man on the rock. Poor drilling or production methods may cause physical or chemical
changes in a rock which may be deleterious to its reservoir performance. For example,
production at too high a rate, particularly near the well bore, may cause clay minerals
to move, leading to the clogging of pore throats. Also, chemical techniques such as
acidisation, used to improve the permeability, may have the reverse effect if the acids
alter the clay minerals or cause them to move. It is vitally important, therefore, before
undertaking any programme of acidisation, to understand fully the diagenetic nature
of the rock, so that the reaction of the fluids introduced into the reservoir can be
estimated.
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