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1 Botany Basics PDF
1 Botany Basics PDF
P
lants are unique and essential to life on earth. Unlike
most living things, plants make their own food from
sunlight and water. Either directly or indirectly, they ❂ Topics in this chapter
are the primary food source for humans and other animals.
❂❂ Plant life cycles
Additionally, they provide fuel, replenish the earth’s oxygen
supply, prevent soil erosion, slow down wind movement, ❂❂ Internal plant parts
cool the atmosphere, provide wildlife habitat, supply me- ❂❂ External plant parts
dicinal compounds and beautify our surroundings. ❂❂ Plant growth and development
Many plants are familiar to us, and we can identify and ❂❂ Environmental factors
appreciate them based on their external structures. How- affecting growth
ever, their internal structures and functions often are over- ❂❂ Plants in communities
looked. Understanding how plants grow and develop helps ❂❂ Plant hormones and growth
us capitalize on their usefulness and make them part of our regulators
everyday lives.
This chapter focuses on vascular plants. Vascular plants
contain xylem and phloem, which are the water, nutrient
and food conducting tissues. Ferns and seed-producing By Ann Marie VanDerZanden, Extension Master
plants fall into this category. We will distinguish between Gardener State Coordinator, Oregon State
University.
monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants. Sometimes
called monocots and dicots for short, these plants have im- Adapted by Jay Moore, former Land Resources
portant distinguishing characteristics. For example, mono- Agent, Cooperative Extension Service, University
cots (e.g., grasses) produce only one seed leaf (cotyledon) of Alaska Fairbanks.
while dicots (broadleaf plants) have lengths. This is one reason why spin-
two. The vascular systems, flow- ach, radish and beets can be hard
ers and leaves of the two types crops to grow in Alaska. These
of plants also differ (Table 1). plants bolt instead of produc-
These differences will be im- ing a good crop of leaves
portant in our discussion of or roots. This situation can
plant growth and develop- also occur when plants are
ment. exposed to extreme envi-
ronmental conditions such
as temperature variation and
Plant life cycles drought.
A plant is classified as either an Perennial plants live more than 2
annual, biennial or perennial based on years and are grouped into two categories:
its life cycle or how many years it takes herbaceous perennials and woody perennials.
to produce flowers and seeds. Herbaceous perennials have soft, non-
An annual, such as a marigold, completes woody stems that generally die back to the
its life cycle in 1 year. Annuals go from ground each winter. New stems grow from
seed to seed in 1 year or growing season. the plant’s crown each spring. A delphinium
During this period, they germinate, grow, is an example of an herbaceous plant. Trees
mature, bloom, produce seeds and die. and shrubs, on the other hand, have woody
Summer annuals complete their life cycle stems that withstand cold winter tempera-
during spring and summer; most winter an- tures. They are referred to as woody peren-
nuals complete their growing season during nials.
fall and winter. There are both winter and
summer annual weeds, and understanding a
weed’s life cycle is important in controlling Internal plant parts
it. Of course, in most locations in Alaska Cells are the basic structural and physi-
the temperature does not allow for winter ological units of plants. Most plant reac-
See Chapter 4,
annuals. Some plants that are winter annu- tions (cell division, photosynthesis, respira- Plant Propagation.
als in warmer climates act as summer annu- tion, etc.) occur at the cellular level. Plant
als in Alaska. tissues are organized groups of similar cells
A biennial completes its life cycle in 2 that work together to perform a specific
years. During the first season, it produces function. An example would be the xylem,
vegetative structures (leaves) and food stor- which functions to move the water through
age organs. The plant overwinters and then a plant or the phloem that moves food.
produces flowers, fruit and seeds during its Plant cells are totipotent. In other words,
second season. Swiss chard, carrots, beets, plant cells retain all of the genetic informa-
sweet William and parsley are examples of tion (encoded in DNA) necessary to devel-
biennials. op into a complete plant. This characteristic
Biennials can sometimes go from seed is the reason vegetative (asexual) reproduc-
germination to seed production in one grow- tion works. It is why it is so easy to share
ing season. This phenomenon is referred houseplants with friends. For example, the
to as bolting. It is a common occurrence in cells of a small leaf cutting from an African
Alaska due to the midnight sun, or long day violet have the genetic information neces-
6 • Botany Basics—Chapter 1
Phloem
Stems Phloem
Spur
Stolon
Crown
and stems, but one sure way is to look for begins growing in the spring, it utilizes the
nodes. Stems have nodes; roots do not. stored food. For this reason, it is important
In potato tubers, the “eyes” are the stem’s not to remove the leaves from lilies and
nodes, and each eye contains a cluster of other bulb producing plants until after they
buds. When growing potatoes from seed have turned yellow or had sufficient time to
pieces, it is important that each piece con- grow. In late summer and early fall, these
tain at least one eye and be at least 2 ounces plants store food for next year’s flowering.
or 2½ inches in diameter, so there will be There are two types of bulbs: tunicate and
enough energy for growth of new plant. nontunicate (Figure 8). Tunicate bulbs (e.g.,
Rhizomes resemble stolons because they tulips and onions) have a thin, papery cov-
grow horizontally from plant to plant. Some ering, which actually is a modified leaf. It
rhizomes are compressed and fleshy (e.g., helps protect the bulb from damage during
iris), while others are slender and have digging and from drying out once it is out
elongated internodes (e.g., bluegrass). Some of the soil. Nontunicate bulbs (e.g., lilies)
grasses are insidious weeds principally do not have this papery covering. They are
because of the spreading capability of their very susceptible to damage and drying out,
rhizomes. and must be handled carefully.
Tulips, lilies and onions produce bulbs, Corms are another kind of belowground
which are shortened, compressed under- stem. Although both bulbs and corms are
ground stems surrounded by fleshy scales composed of stem tissue, they are not the
(leaves) that envelop a central bud at the same. Corms are shaped like bulbs, but do
tip of the stem. In late August you can cut not contain fleshy scales. A corm is a solid,
a tulip or lily bulb in half and see all of the swollen stem with dry, scale-like leaves.
flower parts in miniature. Gladiolus and crocuses produce corms.
After a bulb-producing plant flowers, its Some plants (e.g., tuberous begonias and
phloem transports food reserves from the cyclamen) produce a modified underground
leaves to the bulb’s scales. When the bulb stem called a tuberous stem. These stems
12 • Botany Basics—Chapter 1
Leaves
Stem
Tuberous stem
Internode
Node
Old
corm
Tubers Corm
Rhizome
are short, flat and enlarged. Buds and shoots Types of plants and their stems
arise from the top (crown), and fibrous roots Trees generally have one main trunk,
grow from the bottom. usually more than 12 feet tall when mature.
Other plants (e.g., dahlias and sweet In contrast, shrubs have several main stems,
potatoes) produce underground storage or- less than 12 feet tall when mature.
gans called tuberous roots, which often are Most fruit trees, ornamental trees and
confused with bulbs and tubers. These have shrubs have woody stems. These stems con-
neither nodes nor internodes. tain relatively large amounts of hardened
xylem tissue (heartwood) in the central
Stems and propagation core. The sapwood is the light colored liv-
Stems often are used for vegetative plant ing xylem near the outside just under the
propagation. Using sections of aboveground bark of a tree.
stems that contain nodes and internodes is Herbaceous or succulent stems contain
See Chapter 4, an effective way to propagate many orna- only a little xylem tissue and usually live
Plant
Propagation.
mental plants. Aboveground stem cuttings for only one growing season. In perennial
produce roots and, eventually, new plants. plants, new herbaceous stems develop from
Belowground stems also are good propa- the crown (root-stem interface) each year.
gative tissues. You can divide rhizomes into Canes are stems with relatively large pith
pieces; remove small bulblets or cormels or central strength-giving tissues.
from their parent; and cut tubers into pieces They usually live only 1 or 2 years.
containing eyes and nodes. All of these tis- Examples of plants with canes
sues will produce new plants. include roses, blackberries and See Chapter 13,
Berry Crops.
raspberries. For fruit production, it
Chapter 1—Botany Basics • 13
buds. They may be either active or dormant. mild weather, they remain open. Guard cells
Under the right conditions, they will de- also close in the absence of light.
velop into stems or leaves. Located between the upper and lower
A leaf blade is composed of several lay- epidermis is the mesophyll. It is divided into
ers (Figure 12). On the top and bottom is a a dense upper layer (palisade mesophyll)
layer of thick, tough cells called the epider- and a lower layer that contains lots of air
mis. Its primary function is to protect the space (spongy mesophyll). Located within
other layers of leaf tissue. The arrangement the mesophyll cells are chloroplasts, where
of epidermal cells determines the leaf’s photosynthesis takes place.
surface texture. Some leaves, such as those
of African violets, have hairs (pubescence), Types of leaves
which are extensions of epidermal cells that There are many kinds of leaves. The
make the leaves feel like velvet. most common and conspicuous leaves are
The cuticle is part of the epidermis. It referred to as foliage and are the primary
produces a waxy layer called cutin, which location of photosynthesis. However, there
protects the leaf from dehydration and dis- are many other types of modified leaves:
ease. The amount of cutin on a leaf increas- yy Scale leaves (cataphylls) are found on
es with increasing light intensity. For this rhizomes and buds, which they enclose
reason, when moving plants from shade into and protect.
full sunlight, do so gradually over a period yy Seed leaves (cotyledons) are found on
of a few weeks. This gradual exposure to embryonic plants. They store food for
sunlight is referred to as hardening off. It al- the developing seedling.
lows the cutin layer to build up and protect yy Spines and tendrils, such as those on
the leaves from rapid water loss or sun- barberry and pea plants, protect a plant
scald. Transplants produced indoors should or help support its stems.
be hardened off before planting outdoors. yy Storage leaves, such as those on bul-
The waxy cutin also repels water. For bous plants and succulents, store food.
this reason, many pesticides contain a spray yy Bracts often are brightly colored modi-
additive (sticker, spreader, etc.) to help the fied leaves. The showy structures on
product adhere to, or penetrate, the cutin dogwoods and poinsettias are bracts, not
layer. petals.
Special epidermal cells called guard cells Venation
open and close in response to environmen- The vascular bundles of xylem and
tal stimuli such as changes in weather and phloem extend from the stem, through the
light. They regulate the passage of water, petiole and into the leaf blade as veins.
oxygen and carbon dioxide into and out of The term venation refers to how veins are
the leaf through tiny openings called sto- distributed in the blade. There are two prin-
mata. In most species, the majority of the cipal types of venation: parallel-veined and
stomata are located on the undersides of net-veined (Figure 13).
leaves. In parallel-veined leaves, numerous veins
Conditions that would cause plants to run parallel to each other and are con-
lose a lot of water (high temperature, low nected laterally by minute, straight veinlets.
humidity) stimulate guard cells to close. In Parallel-veined leaves occur most often on
16 • Botany Basics—Chapter 1
Pinnate
Palmate
monocotyledonous plants. The most com- leaves, the leaf blade is a single, continu-
mon type of parallel veining is found in ous unit. Compound leaves are composed
plants of the grass family, whose veins run of several separate leaflets arising from the
from the leaf’s base to its apex. Another same petiole. Some leaves are doubly com-
type of parallel venation is found in plants pound. Leaf type can be confusing because
such as banana, calla and pickerelweed. a deeply lobed simple leaf may look like a
Their veins run laterally from the midrib. compound leaf.
In net-veined leaves (also called reticu- Leaf arrangement along a stem also is
late-veined), veins branch from the main used in plant identification (Figure 18).
rib or ribs and subdivide into finer veinlets. There are four types of leaf arrangement:
These veinlets then unite in a complicated yy Opposite leaves are positioned across
network. This system of enmeshed veins the stem from each other, with two
makes the leaf more resistant to tearing than leaves at each node.
does a parallel vein structure. Net-veined yy Alternate (spiral) leaves are arranged in
leaves occur on dicotyledonous plants. alternate steps along the stem, with only
Net venation may be either pinnate or one leaf at each node.
palmate. In pinnate venation, the veins yy Whorled leaves are arranged in circles
extend laterally from the midrib to the along the stem.
edge (e.g., apples, cherries and peaches). In yy Rosulate leaves are arranged in a rosette
palmate venation, the principal veins extend around a stem with extremely short
outward, like the ribs of a fan, from the base nodes.
of the leaf blade (e.g., grapes and maples).
Leaves as food
Leaves as plant identifiers The leaf blade is the edible part of several
Leaves are useful for plant identifica- horticultural crops, including chives, col-
tion. A leaf’s shape, base, apex and margin lards, endive, kale, leaf lettuce, mustard,
can be important identifying characteristics parsley, spinach, Swiss chard and other
(Figures 14–16). greens. The edible part of leeks, onions, and
Leaf type (Figure 17) also is important Florence fennel is a cluster of fleshy leaf
for identification. There are two types of bases. The petiole is the edible product in
leaves: simple and compound. In simple celery and rhubarb.
Chapter 1—Botany Basics • 17
antee that fertilization will occur. Moisture Other types of simple fruit are dry. Their
and temperature stresses can cause a lack wall is either papery or leathery and hard,
of fertilization. High temperature in green- as opposed to the fleshy examples just
house settings can reduce fruit set in toma- mentioned. Examples are peanuts (legume),
toes and cucumbers. poppies (capsule), maples (samara) and
Cross-fertilization combines genetic walnuts (nut).
material from two similar parent plants from An aggregate fruit develops from a single
the same species. The resulting seed has a flower with many ovaries. Examples are
broader genetic base, which may enable the strawberries, raspberries and blackber-
population to survive under a wider range of ries. The flower is a simple flower with
environmental conditions. Cross-pollinated one corolla, one calyx and one stem, but
plants usually are more successful than self- it has many pistils or ovaries. Each ovary
pollinated plants. Consequently, more plants is fertilized separately. If some ovules are
reproduce by cross than by self-pollination. not pollinated successfully, the fruit will be
misshapen.
Fruit Multiple fruits are derived from a tight
cluster of separate, independent flowers
Structure borne on a single structure. Each flower has
Fruit consists of fertilized, mature ovules its own calyx and corolla. Pineapples and
(seeds) plus the ovary wall. Fruit may be figs are examples.
fleshy, as in an apple, or dry and hard, as
in an acorn. In some fruits, the seeds are Fruit as food
enclosed within the ovary (e.g., apples, Some foods that we call vegetables are
peaches, oranges, squash and cucumbers). actually fruit. A ripened, mature ovary that
In others, seeds are situated on the outside contains seeds is a fruit. Vegetable can also
of fruit tissue (e.g., corn and strawberries). be a human dietary term for some fruit.
The only part of the fruit that contains So, botanically speaking, tomatoes, pep-
genes from both the male and female flow- pers, cucumbers, squash, green beans and
ers is the seed. The rest of the fruit arises eggplants are fruit. Other important fruits
from the maternal plant and is genetically include apple, pear, peach, orange, lemon,
identical to it. lime, banana, pineapple, strawberry, vanilla,
coconut and date.
Types of fruit
Fruits are classified as simple, aggre- Seeds
gate or multiple (Figure 21). Simple fruits A seed contains all of the genetic infor-
develop from a single ovary. They include mation needed to develop into an entire
fleshy fruits such as cherries and peaches plant. It is made up of three parts (Figure
(drupe), pears and apples (pome) and toma- 22). The embryo is a miniature plant in an
toes (berries). Although generally referred arrested state of development. It begins to
to as a vegetable, tomatoes technically are grow when conditions are favorable. The
a fruit because they develop from a flower. endosperm or cotyledon is the seed’s built-
Squash, cucumbers and eggplants also de- in food supply and is made up of proteins,
velop from a single ovary and are classified carbohydrates or fats (orchids are an excep-
botanically as fruits.
22 • Botany Basics—Chapter 1
Fleshy ovary
Seeds Seed
Figure 21.—Types of fruit: (a) Simple fruits (apple, peach, and maple); (b) aggregate fruits (berry and
cone); (c) multiple fruit (pineapple).
tion). The third part is the seed coat, a hard and grows downward in response to gravity.
outer covering that protects the seed from From this primary root, root hairs and lateral
disease and insects. It also prevents water roots develop. Between the radicle and the
from entering the seed and initiating germi- first leaf-like structure is the hypocotyl, which
nation before the proper time. grows upward in response to light.
The seed leaves, or cotyledons, encase
Seed germination the embryo. They usually are shaped differ-
Germination is a complex process where- ently than the leaves the mature plant will
by a seed embryo goes from a dormant produce. Monocots produce one cotyledon,
state to an active, growing state (Figure 23). while dicots produce two.
Before any visible signs of germination ap- Seeds are reproductive structures, im-
pear, the seed must absorb water through its portant to survival, and have evolved many
seed coat. It also must have enough oxygen mechanisms to ensure their survival. One
and a favorable temperature. Some species, such mechanism is seed dormancy. Dor-
such as celery, also require light. Others mancy comes in two forms: seed coat dor-
require darkness. mancy and embryo dormancy.
If these requirements are met, the radicle In seed coat dormancy, a hard seed coat
is the first part of the seedling to emerge from does not allow water to penetrate. Redbud,
the seed. It develops into the primary root locust and many other ornamental trees and
Chapter 1—Botany Basics • 23
Plumule Embryo
Hypocotyl
Radicle
Seed coat Endosperm
Plumule Micropyle Seed coat Plumule (sheathed)
Hypocotyl Cotyledon Endosperm
Perisperm Hypocotyl
Seed coat Cotyledon
Radicle Radicle
Cotyledons
Cotyledon
Cotyledons
Hypocotyl Hypocotyl
Radicle
Radicle
shrubs exhibit this type of dormancy. between 32° and 50°F. The length of time
A process called scarification is used to required varies by species.
break or soften the seed coat. In nature, Even when environmental requirements
scarification is accomplished by means such for seed germination are met and dormancy is
as the heat of a forest fire, digestion of the broken, other factors also affect germination:
seed by a bird or mammal or partial break- yy Age affects seed viability (ability to ger-
down of the seed coat by fungi or insects. minate). Older seed is less viable than
It can be done mechanically by nicking young seed, and if it does germinate,
the seed coat with a file, or chemically by the seedlings are less vigorous and grow
softening the seed coat with sulfuric acid. In more slowly.
either instance, it is important to not dam- yy The seedbed must be properly prepared
age the embryo. and made up of loose, fine-textured soil.
Embryo dormancy is common in ornamen- yy Seeds must have a continual supply of See Chapter 4,
tal plants, including lupine and apple. These moisture; however, if over-watered, Plant
Propagation.
seeds must go through a chilling period they rot.
before germinating. To break this type of yy Seeds must be planted at the proper
dormancy, stratification is used. This process depth and the right temperature.
involves storing seeds in a moist medium The temperature required for germination
(potting soil or paper towels) at temperatures varies by species. Generally, cool-season
24 • Botany Basics—Chapter 1
development Sugars
Photosynthesis, respiration
and transpiration are the three
major physiological functions Starch
or sugar
that drive plant growth and storage
development (Figure 24). All organ
three are essential to a plant’s
survival. How well a plant is
able to regulate these functions
▼
Respiration,
affects its ability to compete and no photorespiration O2
reproduce. H20 and CO2
minerals
enter through
Photosynthesis root hairs
One of the major differences
between plants and animals is Figure 24.—Schematic representation of photosynthesis,
plants’ ability to manufacture respiration, leaf water exchange and translocation of sugar
(photosynthate) in a plant.
their own food. This process is
called photosynthesis, which lit- The formula for photosynthesis can be
erally means “to put together with light.” To written as follows:
produce food, a plant requires energy from
Carbon dioxide + Water + Sunlight =
the sun, carbon dioxide from the air and wa- Sugar + Oxygen
ter transported from the soil through the xy- or
lem. During photosynthesis, it splits carbon 6CO2 + 6H20 = C6H1206 + 602
dioxide into carbon and oxygen, adds water
The produced carbohydrates will be
and forms carbohydrates (starches and
used, stored or built into complex energy
sugars). Carbohydrates are used by the cells
compounds such as oils and proteins. All
or transported through the phloem to other
of these food products are called photosyn-
parts of the plant. Oxygen is a by-product
thates. The plant uses stored products when
that exits the plant through the stomata.
Chapter 1—Botany Basics • 25
Light
Three principal characteristics of light af- 24 hours 24 hours 24 hours
fect plant growth: quantity, quality and dura- Figure 26.—Periodicity of plants. Short-day (long-night) plants
tion (how much, what type and how long). require a long period of uninterrupted darkness to flower. Long-
day (short-night) plants require a short period of uninterrupted
darkness to flower.
28 • Botany Basics—Chapter 1
temperatures. Hardy plants are those that needles then turn brown. To minimize the
are adapted to the cold temperatures of their risk of this type of injury, it is important that
growing environment. plants, especially trees, go into the winter
Woody plants in the temperate zone have well watered.
very sophisticated means for sensing the
progression from fall to winter. Decreas- Water and humidity
ing day length and temperatures trigger Most growing plants contain about 90
hormonal changes that cause leaves to stop percent water. Water is taken up into the
photosynthesizing and to ship nutrients to plant by roots and moved upward through
twigs, buds, stems and roots. An abscission the xylem. Water plays many roles in plants.
layer forms where each petiole joins a stem, It is:
and the leaves eventually fall off. Changes yy a primary component in photosynthesis
within the trunk and stem tissues over a and respiration.
relatively short period of time “freeze- yy responsible for turgor pressure in cells
proof” the plant. (Like air in an inflated balloon, water is
Fall days are longer in Alaska than in the responsible for the fullness and firm-
lower 48 states. Because of this, plants may ness of plant tissue. Turgor is needed
not get the short day triggers necessary to to maintain cell shape and ensure cell
harden off for winter. Consequently, plants growth.).
that would normally withstand cold tem- yy a solvent for moving minerals and car-
perature are not winter hardy in Alaska. bohydrates through the plant.
Winter injury to hardy plants may oc- yy responsible for cooling leaves as it
cur when temperatures drop too quickly evaporates from leaf tissue during tran-
in the fall before a plant has progressed to spiration.
full dormancy. In other cases, a plant may yy a regulator of stomatal opening and
break dormancy in mid- or late winter if the closing, thus controlling transpiration
weather is unseasonably warm. If a sudden, and photosynthesis.
severe cold snap follows the warm spell, yy the source of pressure to move roots
otherwise hardy plants can be seriously through the soil.
damaged. yy the medium in which most biochemical
It is worth noting that the tops of hardy reactions takes place.
plants are much more cold tolerant than Relative humidity is the ratio of water
the roots. Plants that normally are hardy to vapor in the air to the amount of water the
10°F may be killed if they are in containers air could hold at the current temperature
and the roots are exposed to 20°F. and pressure. Warm air can hold more water
Winter injury also may occur because of vapor than cold air. Relative humidity (RH)
desiccation (drying out) of plant tissues. is expressed by the following equation:
People often forget that plants need water
RH = Water in air ÷ Water air could hold
even during winter. In the spring, when the
(at constant temperature and pressure)
soil is frozen, water movement into a plant
is severely restricted. These conditions are Relative humidity is given as a percent. For
common in Alaska. On a windy winter day, example, if a pound of air at 75°F could
broadleaf evergreens can become water- hold 4 grams of water vapor and there are
deficient in a few minutes, and the leaves or
Chapter 1—Botany Basics • 31
only 3 grams of water in the air, then the before a plant can use a chemical element in
(RH) is: a fertilizer.
3 ÷ 4 = 0.75 = 75% Plants need 17 elements for normal
growth. Three of them — carbon, hydrogen See Chapter 3,
Water vapor moves from an area of high and oxygen — are found in air and water. Soils and
relative humidity to one of low relative hu- The rest are found in the soil.
Fertilizers.
See Chapter 8,
midity. The greater the difference in humid- Three soil elements are called primary Vegetable
ity, the faster water moves. This factor is nutrients because they are used in relatively Gardening.
important because the rate of water move- large amounts by plants. They are nitro-
ment directly affects a plant’s transpiration gen, phosphorus and potassium. Calcium,
rate. magnesium and sulfur are called secondary
The relative humidity in the air spaces nutrients because they are used in moder-
between leaf cells approaches 100 percent. ate amounts. Often, primary and secondary
When a stoma opens, water vapor inside nutrients are collectively called macronutri-
the leaf rushes out into the surrounding air ents (Table 3).
(Figure 25), and a bubble of high humidity Seven other soil elements are used in
forms around the stoma. By saturating this much smaller amounts and are called micro-
small area of air, the bubble reduces the dif- nutrients or trace elements (Table 4). They
ference in relative humidity between the air are iron, boron, zinc, copper, manganese,
spaces within the leaf and the air adjacent molybdenum and chlorine.
to the leaf. As a result, transpiration slows Most of the nutrients a plant needs are
down. How does this affect nutrient uptake? dissolved in water and then absorbed by
If wind blows the humidity bubble away, its roots. In fact, 98 percent are absorbed
however, transpiration increases. Thus, tran- from the soil-water solution, and only about
spiration usually is at its peak on hot, dry, 2 percent are actually extracted from soil
windy days. On the other hand, transpira- particles.
tion generally is quite slow when tempera-
tures are cool, humidity is high and there is Fertilizers
no wind. Fertilizers are materials containing plant
Hot, dry conditions generally occur dur- nutrients that are added to the environment
ing the summer, which partially explains around a plant. Generally, fertilizers are
why plants wilt quickly in the summer. If a added to the water or soil, but some can be
constant supply of water is not available to sprayed on leaves. This method is called fo-
be absorbed by the roots and moved to the liar fertilization. It should be done carefully
leaves, turgor pressure is lost and leaves go with a dilute solution, because
limp. a high fertilizer concentration
can injure leaf cells. The nutri-
Plant nutrition ent, however, does need to pass
Plant nutrition often is confused with fer- through the thin layer of wax
tilization. Plant nutrition refers to a plant’s (cutin) on the leaf surface.
need for and use of basic chemical ele- Fertilizers are not plant food!
ments. Fertilization is the term used when Plants produce their own food
these materials are added to the environ- from water, carbon dioxide and
ment around a plant. A lot must happen solar energy through photosyn-
32 • Botany Basics—Chapter 1
Sulfur SO4- Leachable. Not Sulfur excess General yellowing of S often is a carrier or
(S) (sulfate) mobile in plants. usually is in the affected leaves or impurity in fertilizers
form of air the entire plant. and rarely is deficient.
pollution. It also may be absorbed
from the air and is a by-
product of combustion.
thesis. This food (sugars and carbohydrates) available light and moisture.
is combined with plant nutrients to produce As trees and shrubs grow and mature,
proteins, enzymes, vitamins and other ele- you may need to manipulate them, either
ments essential to growth. by removing those that have outgrown their
space or by selective pruning and thinning.
Nutrient absorption Often, understory plants that did well when
Anything that reduces or stops sugar pro- the landscape was young must be replaced
duction in leaves can lower nutrient absorp- with plants that are more shade-tolerant.
tion. If a plant is under stress because of This process is a kind of plant succession,
low light or extreme temperatures, nutrient dictated by the changing light and moisture
deficiency may develop. environment and carried out by the owner.
A plant’s developmental stage or rate of A lawn also is a changing landscape. It
growth also may affect the amount of nutri- starts out as a mix of several adapted grass
ents absorbed. Many plants have a rest (dor- species on bare ground. Weeds sprout from
mant) period during part of the year. Dur- seed reserves in the soil. Additional seeds
ing this time, few nutrients are absorbed. and plants move in and grow if conditions
Plants also may absorb different nutrients as are right. Broadleaf weeds also may find
flower buds begin to develop than they do niches. Moss begins to take over where the
during periods of rapid vegetative growth. lawn is thin, a common problem in semi-
shaded areas. These changes are another
Plants in communities example of plant succession.
To manage invasive plants, keep your
The preceding discussion focused on
lawn grasses competitive by using proper
the structure and physiology of individual
nutrition and cultural practices (mowing,
plants. Interactions among plants also are
thatch, aerating etc.) and by periodically
important for gardeners. The study of these
overseeding. In spite of your best efforts,
interactions is called plant or landscape
however, plant succession may occur.
ecology.
Gardeners who plant wildflower mixtures
In ornamental gardens, we generally aim
often discover that there is much more vari-
to develop a stable community of plants
ety in flowers the first year than in succeed-
that complement each other in form, color,
ing years. Some species do very well, and
leaf characteristics and bloom. We must pay
others simply cannot compete. Again, plant
attention to the differing requirements of
succession occurs.
plants within this community.
The most short-term as-
A garden’s framework
semblage of plants in a garden
often is defined by large
See Chapter 15, occurs in annual vegetable
Sustainable shrubs or trees, which cast
and flower beds. Here there is
Landscape
differing amounts of sum-
Design. no attempt to create a commu-
See Chapter 14, mer shade and winter struc-
nity that will last more than
Lawns. tures over the course of the
See Chapter 20, one season.
year. When choosing plants
Weed Since many of the most
Management. to grow under or near large
competitive weeds thrive in
framework specimens, be
recently disturbed soil, it is
sure their needs match the
a challenge to give desired
Chapter 1—Botany Basics • 35
annual crop plants an advantage. The plant ships are quite complex, and many are not
that captures light first will grow and sup- well understood. They are the subject of ac-
press plants beneath it. Early weed competi- tive research and offer much to think about
tion can have a devastating impact on crop for thoughtful gardeners.
growth. Consistent weeding, mulching, and
the use of transplants improve the odds for
annual vegetable and flower crops. Plant hormones and growth
Another type of relationship between regulators
plants is called allelopathy. In this phenom- Plant hormones and growth regulators
enon, some plants produce compounds in are chemicals that affect flowering; ag-
their leaves, roots or both that inhibit the ing; root growth; distortion and killing of
growth of other plants. Black walnut is the leaves, stems and other plant parts; preven-
most notorious example. Its roots can sup- tion or promotion of stem elongation; color
press many common vegetable plants, and enhancement of fruit; prevention of leaf-
its leaves, if mulched on a vegetable garden ing and/or leaf fall; and many other condi-
over the winter, can affect many annual tions (Table 5). Very small concentrations
crops like an herbicide the following spring. of these substances produce major growth
Some of the worst weeds show allelopathic changes.
traits and prevent desired ornamental or Plants produce hormones naturally, while
vegetable species from growing. humans apply plant growth regulators to
Finally, there are relationships between plants. Plant growth regulators may be syn-
plants that involve pollinators, animals, thetic compounds (e.g., IBA and Cycocel)
birds, pests, predators and even nutrient that mimic naturally occurring plant hor-
transport between species through symbiotic mones, or they may be natural hormones that
fungi called mycorrhizae. These relation- were extracted from plant tissue (e.g., IAA).