Botany

Realyn D. Tañeca Ms. Ailyn Tabefranca

BEEd-4A
Assignment #1
1. What are the characteristics of Plants?
Plants are autotrophs; they produce their own food. They do so via photosynthesis, which
is the process of making nutrients such as sugars from light energy and carbon dioxide.
Photosynthesis occurs in cell organelles called chloroplasts, which
contain chlorophyll and carotenoids, molecules that absorb light energy and change it
into a usable form. Heterotrophs, on the other hand, are organisms that cannot make their
own food and must eat other organisms to survive. Many heterotrophs eat plants. Other
heterotrophs eat animals that have eaten plants. Plants are primary producers in many
ecosystems, giving them a vital role in the survival of many other organisms. In addition,
oxygen is a byproduct of photosynthesis, and many organisms depend on oxygen to
survive. We couldn’t live without plants.

Plants are multicellular organisms with eukaryotic cells. A eukaryotic cell is a relatively
large cell with a true nucleus and other organelles that perform specific functions. Plants,
protists, fungi, and animals all have eukaryotic cells. Plant cells are distinguished by their
cell walls containing cellulose, chloroplasts that perform photosynthesis, and a
large central vacuole that holds water and keeps the plant turgid. Prokaryotic cells, on the
other hand, are small with no true nucleus or organelles except ribosomes, which produce
proteins. Bacteria and archaea have prokaryotic cells.

Many plants have vascular tissue, such as xylem and phloem, that carries water and
nutrients throughout the plant. This is particularly important for plants that grow
upwards; water needs to travel from the roots up the stem to the leaves. Vascular tissue is
found in more “complex” plants. Plants are believed to have evolved from algae-like
ancestors. Today, most modern-day algae are classified as bacteria, not plants. However,
green algae, which also have cellulose in their cell walls and have chloroplasts that
perform photosynthesis, are sometimes grouped with plants.

Plants reproduce both sexually and asexually and have what is known as alternation of
generations. A haploid stage alternates with a diploid stage. Haploid is when cells contain
one set of chromosomes, while diploid is when cells contain two sets. (For reference,
humans are diploid but their gametes—sperm and eggs—are haploid). In plants, two
haploid gametes join to form a diploid zygote. This diploid zygote divides
through mitosis to become a multicellular organism. It is called the sporophyte, and at
maturity, it asexually produces haploid spores. The haploid spores then germinate into
multicellular organisms called gametophytes. Gametophytes produce haploid gametes,
which fuse to make a diploid organism, and the alternation between diploid and haploid
starts all over again.

2. Forms of the Plants

Plants exhibit an enormous range of shape and form. Common shapes include the conical
form of conifers, the vase shape of many shrubs, the linearity of scrambling vines, and
the clumped form of a daylily. Ferns have a range of forms nearly as great as flowering
plants, while mosses usually take the form of miniature herbs. These plant forms result
from enhanced growth in one region occurring at the expense of growth in another area.
Shape results from differential growth, localized cell division, and cell expansion.
New plant cells come from single embryonic cells or groups of embryonic cells called
meristems. Two groups of embryonic cells are responsible for the origin of all new shoot
parts in seed plants: the shoot apical meristems and the lateral meristems. Shoot apical
meristems, also called primary meristems or growing points, are found at the tips of all
stems. Cells from these meristems grow primarily by elongation. The meristems may be
active simultaneously, with the apical meristems of branches increasing branch length
while the apical meristem of the main stem increasing plant height.

The lateral meristems, which are also called secondary meristems, produce the secondary
growth or the widening of plant stems. The two lateral meristems (the vascular cambium
and the cork cambium) increase the diameter of the stem. The vascular cambium is a
continuous circle of cells in the stem interior and when active produces the woody
portions of the stem. The cork cambium, also a continuous circle of cells, lies near the
stem surface and when active produces the outer bark region. The activity of the lateral
meristems is responsible for the increasing girth of plants as they age. Lateral meristems
are active in plant regions where primary growth has ceased. Although increases in stem
girth are associated with perennial plants, lateral meristems are also active in some annual
plants (e.g., soybean) and increase their girth during the season.

Contribution of the Stem

Stems contribute to overall form in five major ways: growth direction, diameter, length
between leaves, branches, and branch location.

Growth Direction.

Stems are upright in most plants (such as corn or oak), growing away from gravity, but
may be prostrate, as in creeping plants (e.g., creeping devil cactus), which grow at right
angles to or without respect to gravity. Creeping stems of pot-grown plants may grow
beyond the pot edge, down the side of the pot, and across the table the pot is on. This type
of stem growth is contact dependent. The stems are not weak, but often quite stout. Stems
of other shoots are lax (e.g., ivy), unable to support themselves, and their direction of
growth is related to the availability of a host plant or a substrate to provide support.

The number, location, and growth angle of the branches regulate tree form. Stems
growing in different orientations are frequently found on the same plant. Christmas trees
(fir or spruce, usually) have a main stem, which grows upright, and many side stems
(branches) that grow at a regular angle to the stem. Many branches grow out at the same
location and their orientation with respect to the stem yields a highly symmetrical, regular
tree. On the other hand, branching in oaks and maples produces trees with a broad crown
but a less regular form. Herbaceous plants exhibit the same features, although they are
not as obvious as in conifers or large trees. The branches in these examples duplicate the
architecture of the main stem, sometimes with great precision, to provide additional
surface area for continued vegetative growth. Profuse branching in one plant shades out
neighbor plants and limits their ability to compete for sunlight.

Branches may also be specialized for propagation and for reproduction rather than
photosynthetic activity. Herbaceous plants such as strawberries have a main stem with
only a few branches. Each branch extends far from the parent plant but finally touches the
ground to establish a new plant. The new plant becomes independent of the parent and
the linking stem can be severed with no harm to the new plant. These branches are called
runners or stolons. Runners do not change the form of the parent plant, but instead
duplicate the entire plant at a nearby location. The length of the runner prevents both
plants from competing for the same resources, and the strategy is an effective means
of vegetative propagation.

Reproduction often triggers change in plant form, commonly by enormous extension of

the main axis, which might be topped by a single flower (e.g., iris, amaryllis, spring
bulbs). Flowering in other species results in the outgrowth of branches from the main
axis; reproductive branches may perfectly replicate or produce a slight modification of
the pattern of flowers on the main stem.

Stem Diameter.

Stem diameter may be the same along its entire length, either narrow (many annuals) or
broad (palms). Other plants have conical stems (the main stem of a woody perennial),
which result from secondary growth occurring at the base of the stem, while primary
growth occurs at the top of the stem. With each new season of growth the stem base
broadens. Lastly, stems may have an obconate form (upside-down cone), broader at the
top than the base. Such a stem is inherently unstable and two conditions are common. In
corn, the stem has roots that grow out from lower leaf positions. These stem-borne roots
act as guide wires to stabilize the plant. In other species, secondary growth from an active
vascular cambium stabilizes the plant and masks the obconate form.

Length Between Leaves.

The stem length between adjacent leaves, leaf pairs, or whorls of leaves varies. When it
is very short, a rosette plant is produced (e.g., strawberry, lettuce, ferns) that hugs the
ground with a tight cluster of leaves. Tree ferns and palms have aerial rosettes, a series of
closely spaced leaves produced each growing season. The stem is exposed as the old
leaves die and fall, leaving a clump of green leaves at the top of the stem. Neither of these
plants grows quickly, so tall tree ferns and palms are often more than one hundred years
old. At the other extreme is papyrus, which bears a single internode topped by a cluster
of leaves and associated floral branches. Sweet woodruff, a common garden plant, has
stems with what appear to be whorls of leaves clustered at a single point on the stem
followed by a substantial internode. When studied carefully, the whorl is a spiral of
leaves with very short internodes, but a long internode separates each pseudowhorl of
leaves. This is an obvious example of how differential growth yields variation in plant
form.

Plants often have internodes of different length along the stem. A common pattern is
short internodes at the base followed by long internodes and topped by short internodes.
The diameter of these internodes changes as well, with short basal internodes having a
greater diameter than the short internodes at the top. Again, differential growth regulates
plant form. There may be a structural advantage to this organization: the short broad
intern-odes at the bottom supporting a tall stem with short terminal internodes in the
reproductive region. This organization would be advantageous in flower display to
pollinators and in pollen dissemination by the wind.

Vines display an entirely different growth that is linked to their life strategy. In these
plants, the internodes are long, even near the shoot tip, and leaf growth is limited.
However, once the vine has made contact with a support, then leaf growth occurs. Vines
put their energy into extending the stem into the light and attaching themselves to the
substrate, and then the leaves expand.

Branches and Branch Location.

A branch develops from a bud located where the leaf joins the stem (the axil ). Each bud
has growth potential, but some buds never grow out and sometimes only buds in
particular locations extend. Differential growth of the shoot apical meristems regulates
overall plant form. If the buds do not develop, the stem remains unbranched. In some
instances, the terminal apical meristem prevents the outgrowth of lateral buds, but the
buds grow out if the meristem is removed or damaged. Gardeners often remove the main
shoot apical meristem so new buds will grow out and ultimately produce more flowers.
On some plant species (such as chrysanthemum), meristem removal takes place several
times during the season to create a bushy plant covered with flowers.
In other species, only buds located at the base of the stem extend as branches, which
results in a shrub that with each succeeding season grows more dense. In yet other plants,
like the conifers, buds at a particular location (produced near the beginning or end of
a growing season) will expand to give the plant a tiered appearance. Thus, the lower tiers
have longer branches than those near the top because they have grown for more seasons.
This gives the Christmas tree its conical shape.

Some trees take on a candelabra appearance (e.g., buckthorn, lilac) because the apical
meristem on the main axis dies at the end of the year and two or more branches grow out
in its place. In the following year, the apical meristem of each branch dies and two new
branches grow out in place of the old one. The death and replacement strategy creates
plants with highly regular forms. The same strategy is found
in Philodendron and Anthurium, common houseplants, and many orchids, although it is
less obvious in these species because only a single replacement branch grows out and
subsequent plant growth obscures the branching pattern. The horsechestnut (Aesculus )
also has single replacement branches.

Contribution of the Leaf

Leaves contribute to overall plant form through their size, shape, and arrangement around
the stem. Leaves consist of two or three parts. Corn and leek leaves have two parts, a
basal ensheathing portion and a long blade region. Geranium and oak leaves have three
parts, a base region, a stalk called the petiole, and a terminal blade. The blade may be
simple, an entire unit, or dissected, divided into several units called leaflets. The leaflets
occur in two arrangements. When leaflets lie on opposite sides of a central axis and are
terminated by a leaflet, the arrangement is featherlike or pin-nate. When all leaflets are
attached to the end of the petiole, the arrangement is fanlike or palmate (like the digits of
a hand). Sometimes leaflets are attached around the entire circumference of the petiole, as
in lupines, or the petiole is attached to the middle of the leaf blade, as in nasturtium.

Leaves are frequently similar in shape but differ in size. For example, leaves of banana
and scallion or green onions are united by shape, as are those of feather palms and many
common ferns. Leaves on a single plant may also differ in shape; sometimes shape
change is dramatic and other times quite subtle. These changes may be related to the life
history of the plant or result from a change in the direction of growth.

Leaves are present either in spirals (one leaf at each stem position) or in whorls (two or
more leaves at each stem position). The most obvious spiral leaf arrangement is shown
by Costus, a member of the ginger family, in which single leaves are arranged in an
ascending spiral around the stem. Corn, which has leaves present in two vertical rows
along the stem, also has a spiral arrangement. One can demonstrate a plant's spiral nature
by winding a string from one leaf position to the next higher leaf position. In a few
plants, a spiral of leaves will have little space between each leaf, making them appear
whorled, and a large gap before the next spiral of leaves. These are pseudo-whorled
arrangements and found in select species of Impatiens and Peperomia and in a common
garden plant, sweet woodruff.

The simplest form of whorled leaf arrangement is that of two leaves at a common stem
position, seen in sunflowers, plants with opposite leaf arrangements. In members of the
mint family, which includes garden mints and the common houseplant coleus, leaves
originate in pairs, but each successive pair is offset 90 degrees from the previous pair.
There are also plants with whorls of three leaves, such as oleander, where the succeeding
set of leaves is offset from the preceding set. Looking down the length of the stem, there
are six leaf positions, but only three positions are filled by each individual whorl.

3. Uses of the Plants

Human beings depend on plants and animals for survival. In this topic, we are discussing
the uses of plants for class 2 kids. Below are 10 important uses of plants:

1. Food from plants – Plants give us fruits, vegetables, seeds, flowers

o From roots, we get potatoes, radish, beetroot, carrot, etc.

o Seeds of some plants provide us with almonds, groundnut, rice, wheat, etc.
o From leaves and stem, we get silverbeet, lettuce etc.
o Fruits like Mango, apple, grapes etc.

2. Wood from plants – trees provide us with timber and firewood

o Furniture like table, chair, window, door etc. is made of wood

3. Cotton plants – They provide us with cotton clothes like pillow, towel, bed-sheets
etc.

4. Fibre plants help us with ropes, jute bags etc.

5. Plants give us medicines – Some plants are of medicinal importance. Medicines

made from such plants are called medicinal plants

o Example : Tulsi, Neem Brahmi etc.

6. Plants give us rubber, gum, paper – Some plants give us gum. Rubber plant gives
us rubber

o Eraser, tyre etc.

o Plants like eucalyptus and bamboo are used to make paper

7. Oil from plants – Seeds of some plants are oily and hence oil is extracted. This oil
is used in cooking and various other purposes.

o Sunflower oil, groundnut oil, mustard oil are used for cooking
o Almond oil, coconut oil, etc are used to apply for hair

8. Perfume from plants – Flowers of some plants are used to make perfumes

o Apart from decorative purpose, flowers like jasmine, rose are used to
make perfumes

9. Manure from plants – Plant waste is used as manure for the growth of other plants

10. Clean air to breathe – Plants and trees help in controlling air pollution. During the
process of photosynthesis, they take in carbon dioxide and give out oxygen. We
inhale the oxygen from the air and exhale carbon dioxide. Hence, the process
continues and the air is pollution-free for us to breathe.

4. How do we name Plants

-just like people do. ... Known as the “International Code of Botanical Nomenclature,”
the code is based on a two-name (binomial) system developed by the famous botanist
Linnaeus. Each plant is given a first name and last name, generally based in Latin, that
is unique to each species.
At the simplest level of scientific classification, each plant has a name made up of two
parts, a generic (or genus) name and a specific name or epithet. Together, these two
names are referred to as a binomial.

A generic name is a ‘collective name’ for a group of plants. It indicates a grouping of

organisms that all share a suite of similar characters. Ideally these should all have
evolved from one common ancestor. The specific name, allows us to distinguish between
different organisms within a genus.

Binomial names are always written with the generic name first, starting with a capital
letter, e.g.: Grevillea

The specific epithet always follows the generic name, starting with a lower-case letter,
e.g.: victoriae

The full species name or binomial being Grevillea victoriae.

Generic and specific names are generally in Latin or are Latinised words from other
languages, particularly Greek. Other derivations are also sometimes used, such as
Aboriginal names or even acronyms. Specific epithets also need to conform to certain
grammatical rules depending on the form of the generic name.

There are hierarchical levels of classification (ranks) above and below the genus and
species, the most commonly referred to is the grouping of several genera (plural of
genus) into a family. As with plants within the same genus, plants in the same family
have many characteristics in common. Grevillea victoriae is in the family Proteaceae,
along with Banksia, Hakea, Macadamia and many other genera. Family names start with
a capital letter and generally end in “…ceae”.

There are a number of levels of classification below that of species, with the most
commonly used being subspecies and variety, abbreviated to 'subsp.', (or less usefully
'ssp.') and 'var.' respectively. This allows further subdivision of plant groups to reflect the
variation in form and distribution we see in nature. These subdivisions, along with
species, genera, families and other groupings or ranks within plant classification, are
referred to as taxa (plural) or a taxon (singular).

For example, three subspecies are recognised within Grevillea victoriae:

      Grevillea victoriae subsp. victoriae – the one closest to the original description of the
species.
      Grevillea victoriae subsp. nivalis – differing slightly from the original description of
the species.
      Grevillea victoriae subsp. brindabella – a subspecies described in 2010 from the
Southern Tablelands of NSW-ACT.

References:
www.encyclopedia.com
www.anbg.gov.au
www.byjus.com