NATURE AND ETHICS OF RESEARCH Lecture No.

4 Types of Research
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A. BASIC CONCEPT OF RESEARCH

RESEARCH
 refers to search or inquisitive for knowledge.
 It is a systematic scientific investigation for knowledge/information on a specific
topic.
 a search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding
solution to a problem in research.
 a voyage of discovery in which we learn a lot of new things about something.

Research comprises:
 Defining & redefining problems
 Formulating hypothesis of suggested solutions
 Collecting, organizing & evaluating data
 Making deductions & reaching conclusions
 Carefully testing the conclusions to establish whether they fit to the
hypothesis.

Motivation in Research:
 Desire to get a research degree along with its consequences benefits.
 Desire to face the challenges in solving problem.
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.
 Desire to be of service of society.
 Desire to get respectability.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
 The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the
application of scientific procedures and to discover new knowledge or novelty.

Broad grouping of research objectives entail:

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon/to achieve new insights =

Exploratory/Formulative Research

2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a subject of study =

Descriptive Research

3. To determine the frequency of occurrence of subject of study =

Diagnostic Research

4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables =

Hypothesis-testing Research

B. CLASSIFICATION & TYPES OF RESEARCH

 Types of research can be classified from three different perspectives (Kumar,

2011):

1. Application of the findings of the research study

2. Objectives of the study

3. Mode of enquiry used in conducting the study

The classification of a study on the basis of these three perspectives is not mutually
exclusive; that is, a research study classified from the viewpoint of application can be
classified from the perspectives of objectives and enquiry mode.

1. APPLICATION

1) Basic/Pure Research
 for the development of theories or principles.
  this kind of research is academic in nature and is undertaken in order to
gain knowledge about phenomena that may or may not have applications
in the near future, and to develop new techniques and procedures that
form the body of research methodology.

2) Applied Research
 the application of the results of pure research.
 mostly use in social sciences.
 refers to scientific study ad research that seeks to solve practical
problems.
 used to find solutions to everyday problems, cure illness, and develop
innovative technologies, rather that to acquire knowledge for knowledge’s
sake.
examples:
 Improve agricultural crop production.
 Treat or cure a specific disease.
 Improve the energy efficiency of home, offices, or modes of
transportation.

2. OBJECTIVES

3) Descriptive Research
 studies the variables pertinent to a specific situation.
 a research study classified as a descriptive study attempts to describe
systematically a situation, problem, phenomenon, service or program, or
provide information about the living conditions of a community or
describe attitudes towards an issue.
 refers to research that provides an accurate portrayal of characteristics
of particular individual, situation, or group. Also known as “statistical
research”.

3 Types of Descriptive research:

a) Naturalistic Observation – observation & recording of behavior in
natural state or habitat.
b) Survey – assessment of a sample or population.
c) Case Study – in-depth study of a single participant.

Methods: Case-study method, survey method and observational method.

4) Correlational Research
 the main emphasis is to discover or establish the existence of a
relationship/association/interdependence between two or more variables
or more aspects of a situation.

3 Types of Descriptive research:

a) Naturalistic Observation – observe and record the natural
environment without interference.
b) Survey Method – inexpensive and quick, can cover large
population and dependent on survey respondents &
questionnaire.
c) Case Study – analyze historical records, inexpensive and
questions the reliability of the method used for recording.

 In other words, it determines whether and to what degree a relationship

exists between two or more variables (quantifiable but nothing is
manipulated). The degree of the relationship is expressed as a coefficient
of correlation. (positive/negative/no correlation)

examples:
 What is the impact of an advertising campaign on the sale
of a product?
 What is the relationship between technology and
unemployment?
 5) Explanatory Research
 this kind of research attempts to clarify why and how there is a
relationship between two aspects of a situation or phenomenon.

examples:
 Why stressful living results in heart attacks?
 How home environment affects children’s level of academic
achievement?

Methods: Case-study method, survey method and observational method.

6) Exploratory Research
 it is a study which is undertaken to explore an area where little is known
or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research
study. It is flexible and can answer what, who and why questions.
 a type of research conducted to explore or search through a problem or
situation to provide insights and understanding. Usually based on small
samples.
 it can be quite informal, relying on secondary research such as
reviewing available literature and/or data, or qualitative approaches
such as informal discussions with consumers, employees, management
or competitor, and more formal approaches through in-depth interviews,
focus groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot studies.

Methods: Case-study method, survey method and observational method.

3. MODE OF ENQUIRY

7) Quantitative Research
 the main objective of this research is to quantify the variation and
diversity in a phenomenon, situation, or attitude.
 concerned with discovering facts about social phenomena and assumes a
fixed & measurable reality.

Methods: Data are collected through measuring things

Data are analyzed through numerical comparisons and
statistical inferences.
Data are reported through statistical analyses.

8) Qualitative Research
 the variation and diversity in a phenomenon, situation, or attitude with a
flexible approach so as to identify as much variation and diversity as
possible.
 concerned with understanding human behavior from the informant’s
perspective and assumes a dynamic and negotiated reality.

Methods: Data are collected through participant observation and

interviews.
Data are analyzed by themes from descriptions by
informants.
Data are reported in the language of the informant.

C. ETHICAL GUIDELINES & CONSIDERATIONS IN RESEARCH

Ethics – it is anchored on the moral standards that we follow.

Morality – it is a set of “unwritten” rules that guides us on the things that we should
or should not do in order to attain harmony & orderliness in any undertaking.

Importance of Ethics in Research?

 Ethics is important in research because it keeps the researcher from
committing errors while seeking knowledge and truth.
 Since research may involve experts coming from different fields of expertise,
ethics binds them together by considering the important values such as
 accountability, cooperation, coordination, mutual respect, and fairness among
others.

COMPONENTS OF ETHICS IN RESEARCH

1. Truthfulness
 it is because of the very purpose of science, which is searching for
answers to questions, honesty is of utmost importance.

ex: Fraud & Misconduct

(a) fabricating data
(b) describing results of experiments that were never performed
(c) listing clinical observation of test subjects who do not exist
(d) changing or falsifying existing data in order to achieve some
predetermined goal
(e) data trimming
(f) data cooking
(g) plagiarism, knowingly stealing someone else’s published work and
presenting it without attribution to source.

2. Courtesy
 ethics in research also includes courtesy in dealing with respondents.

ex: Asking permission.

(a) from the school head if the researcher needs to get data from
students
(b) from the president of the farmers’ org if the respondents are
farmers.

3. Respect for Human Rights

 related to showing respect for the respondents is the ethical
implication of eliciting information from respondents.

ex: Respect for Human Dignity

(a) protection of life of the participants
(b) protection of participants from harm and loss of dignity
(c) seeking informed consent of participants
(d) avoid deception
(e) observing confidentiality where it is due
(f) observing the right of the participants to pull out anytime if they so
wish
(g) just compensation or some form of reciprocity where necessary as
well as sharing or research result.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS: The Scientific Approach

A. CONCEPTUALIZING A RESEARCH STUDY

3 PHASES OF RESEARCH PROCESS

1. Conceptual phase
2. Empirical phase
3. Interpretative phase

COMPONENTS OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS

1. Conducting a thorough search of the peer- reviewed literature

2. Finding a research mentor and other collaborator
3. Considering methodology and study design
4. Assessing feasibility

 Finding your focus

 Which aspects of your discipline interest you most?
 What have you observed that you have questions about?
 What articles have you read that have raised questions in your mind?
  What are the gaps in literature?
 By topic (What is not being looked at?
 Methods (What is not being done?
 Populations (Who is not being studied?
 Comparisons (Who is not being compared?

 Where to start?
 Read
 Detailed literature searches
 Attend seminars, conferences and presentations
 Discuss subject area with peers
 Listen and ask questions

 Refining research topics

 Discuss with fellow researchers
 Discuss with stakeholders
 Assess what is most critical to learn
 Assess research sources available

 Questions to ask yourself

 Is this a good idea?
 Who cares?
 Can it be addressed using appropriate research methods?
 Will it stimulate interest by others and the sponsors?
 Is it feasible/practical/doable?
 Is it fundable?

o Writing the research title

 Does the title describe what the study is all about?
 Does the title contain high specificity level?
 Is the title academically phrased and is not verbose?
 Is the title within the twelve (12) substantive word requirement of
the American Psychological Association (APA)?
o Writing an introduction
 What is the problem?
 Why is it a problem?
 How it should be solved?
 Why it should be solved?
 What is the purpose of the study?
o What is a statement of the problem?
 A statement of the problem is a concise description of the issues to
be addressed by the researcher.
o Why do a background study?
 In addition to gaining general knowledge about your topic area,
your goals are to determine the current state of knowledge and to
become familiar with current research.

B. IDENTIFYING THE SOURCES AND AREAS FOR RESEARCH UNDERSTANDING

TYPES OF INFORMATION SOURCES

It’s important to identify what type of information sources you are finding in your
searches- this can clue you in to the level of authority, the intended audience, and
even how you might use each information source. Explore the source types listed here
for more information.
examples:
 Website
 Newspaper
 Magazine
 Blog post
 Academic Journal
 Book
 Encyclopedia
 Videos and Media

Where to Look for Information Sources

Database
A database contains citations of articles in magazines, journals, and
newspapers. They may also contain citations to podcasts, blogs, videos, and
other media types. Some databases contain abstracts or brief summaries of the
articles, while other databases contain complete, full-text articles. Many
databases have a specific subject area so the content is more targeted for you
(i.e. “Psychology and Behavioral Sciences”). Items in databases are usually paid
for, go through the commercial publishing process, and have been evaluated by
a publisher or group of experts. It’s important to access databases from the
library website with your SLCC credentials. Otherwise it’s not free! Use library
databases to:

 Locate articles on your topic in magazines, academic journals or

newspapers
 Access a variety of streaming videos and other media

Library Catalog
A library catalog is an organized and searchable collection of records of every
item in a library and can be found on the library home page. The catalog will
point you to the location of a particular source, or group of sources, that the
library owns on your topic. Use the catalog to:

 Identify what items the library owns on your topic

 Learn where a specific item is located in the library
 Locate printed books, ebooks, encyclopedia titles, and library owned
videos

Internet Search Engine

Library resources do not include most blogs, websites, social media, and other
content found on the open web. It’s usually appropriate to search for your topic
on the internet, especially if the sources you need fall outside the library.
However, you may not be able to access every article or website you find. Use
the internet to:

 Identify the scope of your topic and additional keywords

 Discover content not available through the library (social media,
websites, blogs, etc.)

HOW TO IDENTIFY A RESEARCH AREA

Decide on the general area of your research…

 The first step must be to decide in general terms what you want to do, ie your
area of interest - or at least where to start (because the findings from the first
part of the work may affect future directions).

Key Tasks

 Reading to become familiar with what is already known about your topic area
 Narrowing your topic and developing specific research questions
 Identifyinga working hypothesis to investigate

Background reading
Your job as a thesis student is to…
 Become an expert on your topic
 Extend knowledge within that field in some novel or new way

To do this you will need to

 Read a great deal before you can narrow your topic
 Learn about the most important, frequently cited works on your topic
 Become familiar with the most current work on your topic
 Important points while reading
 Record the complete bibliography for each source
  Take some key notes about what is in each source
 Use computer programs such as RefWorks and EndNote that help do this
efficiently and make formatting your bibliography or reference list simpler
 To avoid inadvertent plagiarism, make direct quotations obvious in your notes
 You should also do any background reading necessary for understanding your
subject area even if it isnt directly related to your topic i.e. if your thesis is on
how a modern author was influenced by Jane Austen, you should do some
reading on Austen.

Choosing a topic
The goal is to go from a broad topic area to a specific research question or questions.
 Choose something you are genuinely interested in studying
 Avoid picking a topic just because it seems simple to do
 Try starting with something that caught your interest in one of your classes

Moving from a topic area to a research question

 Think about things that made you ask more questions
 Is there one key question that you would like to answer?

Your Research Advisor can help you to decide if your topic is likely to work out, and
whether it will be possible to find a Thesis Director who is also interested in your topic.

C. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

RELATED LITERATURE
 Is composed of discussions of facts and principles to which the present study is
related. For instance, if the present study deals with drug addiction, literature
to be reviewed or surveyed should be composed of materials that deal with drug
addiction.
 These materials are usually printed and found in books, encyclopedias,
professional journals, magazines, newspapers, and other publications.
 These materials are classified as
1. Local, if printed in the Philippines; and 2. Foreign, if printed in other lands.

RELATED STUDIES
 Studies, inquiries, or investigations already conducted to which the present
proposed study is relate or has some bearing or similarity. They are usually
unpublished materials such as manuscripts, theses, and dissertations.
 They may be classified as:
1. Local, if the inquiry was conducted in the Philippines; and 2. Foreign, if
conducted in foreign lands

Importance, Purposes, and Functions of Related Literature and Studies

 A survey or review of related literature and studies is very important
because such reviewed literature and studies serve as a foundation of the
proposed study. This is because related literature and studies guide the
researcher in pursuing his research venture.

Reviewed literature and studies help or guide the researcher in the

following ways:
1) They help or guide the researcher in searching for or selecting a better research
problem or topic. By reviewing related materials, a replication of a similar
problem may be found better than the problem already chosen. Replication is
the study of research problem already conducted but in another place.
2) They help the investigator understand his topic for research better. Reviewing
related literature and studies may clarify vague points about his problem.
3) They ensure that there will be no duplication of other studies. There is
duplication if an investigation already made is conducted again in the same
locale using practically the same respondents. This is avoided if a survey of
related literature and studies be made first.
4) They help and guide the researcher in locating more sources of related
information. This is because the bibliography of a study already conducted
indicate references about similar studies.
5) They help and guide the researcher in making his research design especially in:
a. the formulation of specific questions to be researched on; b. the formulation
of assumptions and hypotheses if there should be any; c. the formulation of
 conceptual framework; d. the selection and application of the methods of
research; e. the selection and application of sampling techniques; f. the
selection and/or preparation and validation of research instruments for
gathering data; g. the selection and application of statistical procedures; h. The
analysis, organization, presentation, and interpretation of data; i. The making of
the summary of implications for the whole study; j. The formulation of the
summary of findings, conclusions, and recommendation;
6) They help and guide the researcher in making comparison between his findings
of other researchers on similar studies with the end in view of formulating
generalization or principles which are the contributions of the study to fund of
knowledge.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

1. The surveyed materials must be as recent as possible.

2. Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased.
3. Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study.
4. Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original and true facts or
data to make them valid and reliable.
5. Reviewed materials must not be few or too many.

SOURCES OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

1. Book, encyclopedias, almanacs, and other similar references.

2. Articles published in professional journals, magazines, periodicals, newspapers, and
other publications.
3. Manuscripts, monographs, memoirs, speeches, letters, and diaries.
4. Unpublished theses and dissertations.
5. The Constitution, and laws and statues of the land.
6. Bulletins, circulars, and orders emanating from government offices and
departments, especially from the Office of the President of the Philippines and the
Department of Education, Culture and Sports.
7. Records from schools, public and private, especially reports of their activities.
8. Reports from seminars educational or otherwise.
9. Official reports of all kinds, educational, social, economic, scientific, technological,
political, etc. from the government and other entities.

D. DEVELOPING CONCEPTUAL/THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
 is used in research to outline possible courses of action or to present a
preferred approach to an idea or thought.
 this consists of concepts that are placed within a logical and sequential design.
 represents less formal structure and used for studies in which existing theory is
inapplicable or insufficient.
 based on specific concepts and propositions, derived from empirical observation
and intuition.
 may deduce theories from a conceptual framework.

Purposes of Conceptual Framework

o To clarify concepts and propose relationships among the concepts in a
study.
o To provide a context for interpreting the study findings.
o To explain observations
o To encourage theory development that is useful to practice.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
 The theory provides a point of focus for attacking the unknown in a specific
area.
 If a relationship is found between two or more variables a theory should be
formulated to explain why the relationship exists.
 Theories are purposely created and formulated, never discovered; they can be
tested but never proven.
  Abdellah defined theory as “an explanation of a phenomenon or an abstract
generalization that systematically explains the relationship among given
phenomena, for purposes of explaining, predicting and controlling such
phenomena.”
 The theoretical framework consists of theories that seem to be interrelated.

HOW TO DEVELOP A THEORETICAL/CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK?

1. Select concepts a concept is an image or symbolic representation of an

abstract idea. e.g. health, pain, intelligence …
2. Identify the interrelationships among concepts
3. Formulating definitions: to develop a theoretical framework that can
generate and test hypotheses, concepts must be clearly defined
a. Conceptual definition … conveys the general meaning of the
concept
b. Operational definition … adds another dimension to the
conceptual definition by delineating the procedures or
operations required to measure the concept
c. Some concepts are easily defined in operational terms,
e.g. pulse, other concepts are more difficult to define
operationally, e.g. coping
4. Formulating the theoretical rationale
 Through the literature review, an investigator becomes aware of or
confirms identified theoretical connections between variables.
 In evaluating the formulation of the theoretical rationale, the
internal structures, such as concepts and their definitions, should
have clarity and continuity, and the approach to understanding
phenomena, whether inductive or deductive, should be logical.

E. UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH METHODS AND DESIGNS

Research Methodology
 The way in which the data are collected for the research project.
 All of the techniques, methods and procedures adopted in terminology work to
carry out terminology research. 

Research Method.ppt (slideshare.net)

OBE (Outcome Based Education)

Outcomes-Based Education (slideshare.net)