RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

SESSION III 2019

BACHELAR OF EDUCATION

Lecturer: Ms. Jane BATAMULIZA

 Introduction and Aims
• It is something inconceivable for a residence
constructor to build a house without drawing
plans or designs at a prior stage.
• Scientific research aims at providing students
with a practical tool, which enables them to better
structure their research works.
• It provides a small guide to be used as a handbook
for preparing and conducting research works.
• This course emphasizes key areas of research
methodology.
 COURSE OUTLINE

• i) Define various concepts in research

• ii) Apply various methods of carrying out
research
• iii) Interpret the collected data
• iv) Identifying and use statistical
tools/methods
 Definition of key concepts

Research
Collection of information about particular subject.
Intellectually Investigate to discover, interpret or
revise erroneous or incomplete knowledge.
• Research comprises:
Selecting a research topic and defining its problem

 cont’d
Defining the problems,
Formulating hypotheses or suggested
solutions;
Collecting , organizing and evaluating data;
Making deductions and reaching
conclusions;
And carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulated
hypothesis.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
 The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is
hidden and which has not been discovered as yet.
 Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we
may think of research objectives as falling into a number of
following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new
insights into it (studies with exploratory or formulative
research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group (studies with this object in
view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between
variables (such studies are known as hypothesis-testing
research studies).
 TYPES OF RESEARCH

 Types of research methods can be broadly divided

into two quantitative and qualitative categories.
Quantitative research “describes, infers/ introduce,
and resolves problems using numbers. Emphasis is
placed on the collection of numerical data.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is based on
words, feelings, emotions and other non-numerical
and unquantifiable elements. It has been noted that
“information is considered qualitative in nature if it
cannot be analysed by means of mathematical
techniques.
Types of Research Methods According to Nature of
the Study
Research can be divided into two groups:
descriptive and analytical. Descriptive
research usually involves surveys and
studies that aim to identify the facts. It
mainly deals with the description of the state
of affairs as it is at present while Analytical
research the researcher has to use facts, or
 information already available and analyse
them in order to make a critical evaluation
of the material.
• Types of Research Methods According to
the Purpose of the Study
Research methods can be divided into two
categories: applied research and 
fundamental research. Applied research is
also referred to as an action research, and
the fundamental research is sometimes
called basic or pure research
Basic Research or pure or fundamental
research, deals with generalization and
formulation of theory about human behavior.
It is aligned towards collecting information
that has universal applicability. Therefore,
basic research helps in adding new knowledge
to the already existing knowledge.
• Applied Research

 Applied research focuses on analyzing and

solving real-life problems. This type of research
refers to the study that helps solve practical
problems using scientific methods. This research
plays an important role in solving issues that
impact the overall well-being of humans. For
example, finding a specific cure for a disease.
Types of Research Methods according to
Research Design

Research methods can be divided into two

groups – exploratory and conclusive.
Exploratory research used to investigate a
problem which is not clearly defined. It is
conducted to have a better understanding of the
existing problem, but will not provide
conclusive results. For instance,
 Co’nt
Consider a scenario where a juice bar owner
feels that increasing the variety of juices will
enable increase in customers, however he is
not sure and needs more information. The
owner intends to carry out an exploratory
research to find out and hence decides to do an
exploratory research to find out if expanding
their juices selection will enable him to get
more customers of if there is a better idea.
 conclusive Research

The research provides information that is

useful in reaching conclusions or
decision-making. It tends to be
quantitative in nature, that is to say in the
form of numbers that can be quantified
and summarized.
 Research design
The research design refers to the overall
strategy/plan that you choose to integrate the
different components of the study in a coherent and
logical way to answer your research question.
In brief, research design must, at least, contain:
(a) a clear statement of the research problem;
(b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering
information;
(c) the population to be studied;
(d) methods to be used in processing and analyzing
data.
 Con’t

Types of research design

Action Research Design ,Case Study Design,
Casual design, Cohort Design, Cross-
Sectional Design, Descriptive Design
Experimental Design, Exploratory Design
Historical Design, Longitudinal design
 Descriptive research design
Descriptive research is used for observing
and recording behavior. It consists of
i) Naturalistic Observation Research
In naturalistic research, the participants
are studied in their real natural world.
One can, for example, do a naturalistic
research by observing children as they
play in the, neighbourhood, or observe
them in the classroom.
 ii) Participant Observation
Participant observation occurs when the
researcher is actively involved as a
participant in the research activity. The
researcher observes whatever he is
supposed to observe over a period of time and
He takes detailed notes
iii) Interviews and questionnaires
Interviews and questionnaires are also used to
obtain descriptive data.
 iv) Case study research design
A case study is an in-depth look at an
individual or a single entity. The case
study method can also be used to study
groups or projects. It can provide data on
the history of the group, group dynamics
and processes. Case studies provide in-
depth information about an individual or
group. The results can be fairly accurate
if the observations and other data
collection methods are carried out well.
 v) Ethnographic studies

An ethnographic study is an in-depth description

and interpretation of behaviors in a cultural
group. The researcher lives among the group,
participates in the group activities and collects
information through interviews, observation and
study of documents.
vi) Historical research
Historical research is the systematic and
objectives study which evaluates and synthesizes
data collected in order to establish facts and
draw conclusions concerning past events.
 Correlational research design

is a design in which the researcher gathers

information without changing the participant’s
experiences and examines relations between
variables. correlation coefficient ranges from 1.0
to -1.0. A correlation of 0 means that there is no
relationship between two variables. for example,
the older people get; the more patient they
become. A negative correlation between two
variables indicates that they tend to change in the
opposite direction. For example, the older one
gets; the slower the physical movements.
 Experimental research design
It comprises of experimental design, modified
experimental design, and natural experiment.
i) Experimental design
• This is research design in which participants are
randomly assigned to two or more treatment
conditions. A treatment such as a new teaching
method is introduced in one
Group( test group) and not in another similar group
which is referred to as a control group. The two
groups are matched for all factors except the
teaching method.
 ii) Modified experimental designs
Field experiments are a type of modified experimental
design. Field experiments are designs in which the
participants are randomly assigned to treatment conditions
in natural settings. Treatment refers to a condition such as
training or teaching method. ex, one can randomly assign
children from one class into two groups. One group is taught
Maths by a teacher who only works all the examples on the
chalk board. In the other group, the teacher works the
examples on the chalk board and then children practice in
their exercise books. After some lessons, children are tested
to find out if there is a difference in the performance of the
two groups. Permits generalization of findings to the real
world.
 iii) Natural experiment
This is a design in which the researcher studies
already existing treatments in natural settings
by carefully selecting groups of participants
with similar characteristics. One can, ex.
compare pre-schools, carefully selecting the
participants to ensure they have similar
characteristics. In natural experiments, one can
study the same group before and after the
treatments and compare it with a group that
has not undergone the treatment.
 Time-span research designs
It comprises by:
i) Longitudinal research design
• is a research in which participants are studied
repeatedly at different ages over a period of
time. The time span may range form months to
several years. The same group of children can
be studied on their performance in Maths or
Social Skills at the age of 3, 5 and 7 years. It is
possible to examine relationships between
early and later events and behaviour
 ii) Cross sectional research design

This is a research in which groups of

participants of different ages are studied at the
same point in time. One can study children’s
academic aspirations by comparing at the
same time responses of 5, 7 and 9 year-olds.
One can compare and understand behavior of
children of different ages in one go.
 SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

The main purpose of the research is to get

deep into the topic so that something
helpful can be churned/pdced out which
can be helpful for everybody and used in
that particular niche sector.
 cont’d

The quality which you maintain while

research should always be high so that
the information that you get can be used
in certain policy and any future project
implications.
Any kind of educational research requires
a few steps of inquiry to provide the
solution to any particular research.
 SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

.Educational research not just involves viewing areas

and conducting investigations, but it involves
conducting analysis and investigations in a specific,
accurate, methodical and an organized manner.
.It is a systematic application of scientific methods to
provide solutions to educational problems.
• It allows the educationists to work towards the
achievement of goals and objectives in an adequate
manner.
.It is used to understand, predict, explain and control
human behaviour.
 Methodology

Research methods may be understood as

all those methods/techniques that are used
for conduction of research.
Research techniques refer to the
behavior and instruments we use in
performing research operations such as
making observations, recording data and
techniques of processing data.
 con’t

• From what has been stated above, we can

say that methods are more general. It is
the methods that generate techniques.
• However, in practice, the two terms are
taken as interchangeable and when we
talk of research methods we do, by
implication, include research techniques
within their compass.
 Methodology (cont’d)
research methods can be put into three groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which
are concerned with the collection of data. These
methods will be used where the data already
available are not sufficient to arrive at the required
solution;
2. The second group consists of those statistical
techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between the data and the unknowns;
3. The third group consists of those methods which are
used to evaluate the accuracy of the results
obtained.
 Research Methodology
Researchers not only need to know how to
develop certain indices or tests, how to
calculate the mean, the mode, the median or
the standard deviation or chi-square, how to
apply particular research techniques, but
they also need to know which of these
methods or techniques, are relevant and
which are not, and what would they mean and
indicate and why.
 Scientific Research
scientific method implies an objective,
logical and systematic method, i.e, a
method free from personal bias,
demonstrable qualities of a phenomenon,
capable of being verified, a method
wherein the researcher is guided by the
rules of logical reasoning, investigation
proceeds in an orderly manner and a
method that implies internal consistency.
 Scientific Research Process

1. Select a research topic and Formulate the

research problem
• Start with a question: What is the problem you
are attempting to address? What is the unsolved
problem that your research will attempt to
resolve?
• State a goal: It essentially answers the ‘nature’ of
the answer to your research question but does not
answer the question. This statement will let you
know when you are done.
 Scientific Research Process
2. Do extensive literature survey.
Literature review involves identification, reading,
location and critical analysis of as many materials that are
related to the problem under investigation. This is purely
based on the earlier research works done by others. The
main task is to paraphrase the research works/findings or
results of renowned/ popular researchers and determine
what has already been done in relation to your topic
3. Prepare the research design
It is a roadmap for getting from where you are to the
goal. It does not mean that you cannot change the plan
but it does remind you of what your intent was when you
started.
 Scientific Research Process

4. Determining sample design

5. Collecting data
6. Execution of the project;
7. Analysis of data
8. Hypothesis testing
9. Generalizations and interpretation
10. Writing the report or thesis
 Criteria of Good Research

1. The purpose of the research should be

clearly defined and common concepts be
used.
2. The research procedure used should be
described in sufficient detail to permit
another researcher to repeat the research for
further advancement, keeping the continuity
of what has already been attained.
 Criteria con’t
3. The procedural design of the research should be
carefully planned to yield results that are as
objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete
frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently
adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate.
The validity and reliability of the data should be
checked carefully.
 Criteria of Good Research

6. Conclusions should be confined to those

justified by the data of the research and
limited to those for which the data
provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is
warranted if the researcher is
experienced, has a good reputation in
research and is a person of integrity.
 Qualities of Good Research
1. Good research is systematic: It means that
research is structured with specified steps to
be taken in a specified sequence in
accordance with the well defined set of
rules. Systematic characteristic of the
research does not rule out creative thinking
but it certainly does reject the use of
guessing and intuition in arriving at
conclusions.
 Qualities con’t
2. Good research is logical: This implies that
research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction
and deduction are of great value in carrying out
research. In fact, logical reasoning makes
research more meaningful in the context of
decision making.
 Qualities con’t
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that
research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals with
concrete data that provides a basis for
external validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This
characteristic allows research results to be
verified by replicating the study and thereby
building a sound basis for decisions.
 Research Topic
Choice of Research Topic
A research topic is a subject or issue that a researcher is
interested in when conducting research to “prove”
something, . A well-defined research topic is the starting
point of every successful research project. the most difficult
part of the research process is selecting a topic.The first step
of scientific research is to choose a research topic and to have
precise knowledge about it. This step is divided in two sub-
steps: Exploratory research and the formulation of the problem
statement.
 When deciding on a topic, there are a few things you must take into account:

• personal experience /brainstorm for ideas

• Strategic/intentional interests;
• Social utility of the research;
• Development of science
• choose a topic that will enable you to read and
understand the literature
• ensure that the topic is manageable and that
material is available
• research and read more about your topic
 Quality of the research topic
1. Clarity (concision and precision): The
initial questions must be precise and concise.
It must be brief, not confusing (Clarifying
what? Where? Whom? When?)
2. Research feasability: it takes into account
the resources at the researcher’s hand (time,
money, logistic means, human resources,
resource- person). depends on the
possibilities for observation and access to
data pertaining to the hypotheses indicators.
 Quality of the research topic
3. Scientific and non-moral relevance:
A research topic is scientifically
pertinent/relevant if it is not moralising and
if its objective is something which exists or
can exist, something observable.
4. Empirical foundation/base
This means that the initial question/research
topic must be founded on experimental,
verifiable, observable phenomena through
our senses.
 Research problem/Problem statement
A research problem is considered as a gap to be
filled in the field of our knowledge and which is
situated between what we know and what we should
know or would like to know about the real.
A problem statement is the description of an issue
currently existing which needs to be addressed. It
provides the context for the research study and
generates the questions which the research aims to
answer. The statement of the problem is the focal
point of any research
 Why formulating a research problem?

Like a medical doctor, a researcher must examine

all the symptoms (presented to him or observed
by him) concerning a problem before he can
diagnose correctly.
Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly
stated is a problem half solved. This statement
signifies the need for defining a research
problem. The problem to be investigated must be
defined unambiguously for that will help to
discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant
ones.
 Why formulating a research problem?
A proper definition of research problem will
enable the researcher to be on the track whereas
an ill-defined problem may create hurdles.
Questions like:
 What data are to be collected?
 What characteristics of data are relevant and
need to be studied?
 What techniques are to be used for the purpose?
 Pay attention on this !!!
The following points may be observed by a
researcher in selecting a research problem
or a subject for research:
(i) Subject which is overdone should not be
normally chosen, for it will be a difficult
task to throw any new light in such a case.
(ii) Controversial subject should not become
the choice of an average researcher.
 attention con’t !!!
(iii) Too narrow or too vague problems should be
avoided.
(iv) The subject selected for research should be familiar
and feasible so that the related research material or
sources of research are within one’s reach. For this
purpose, a researcher should contact an expert or a
professor in the University who is already engaged in
research. He may as well read articles published in
current literature available on the subject and may
think how the techniques and ideas discussed therein
might be applied to the solution of other problems.
 attention con’t
(v) In other words, before the final selection of a
problem is done, a researcher must ask himself
the following questions:
(a) Whether he is well equipped in terms of his
background to carry out the research?
(b) Whether the study falls within the budget he
can afford?
(c) Whether the necessary cooperation can be
obtained from those who must participate in
research as subjects?
 Techniques of defining a research problem
1. Statement of the problem in general way
 The problem should be first stated in a broad
general way, keeping in view some practical
concern or some scientific or intellectual interest.
2. Understanding the nature of the problem
 You should understand its origin and nature
clearly.
 The researcher should also keep in view the
environment within which the problem is to be
studied and understood.
 Techniques of defining a research problem
3. Surveying the available literature
 This means that the researcher must be well
conversant with relevant theories in the field,
reports and records as also other relevant
literature. if are available for operational
purposes.
 This would help also a researcher to know if
there are certain gaps in the theories, or whether
existing theories applicable to the problem under
study are inconsistent with each other.
 Techniques of defining a research problem
4. Developing the ideas through discussions
A researcher must discuss his problem with his
colleagues and others who have enough
experience in the same area or in working
with similar problems.
5. Rephrasing the research problem into a
working proposition: The researcher must
finally rephrase the research problem into a
working proposition, analytical or operational
terms.
 Con’t
In other words, after having identified
gaps contained in anterior/previous
researches. At this point, it is a matter of
individualising the problem, of singling it
out by specifying the particular space or
environment of our interest in relation to
other domains already analysed/studied,
 Characteristics of a good research
problem
 Indicators
 Code Criteria
 Simple questions with What, Why, and How of the
S = Specific S.M.A.R.T. model.
 Goals should be measurable so that you have
M = Measurable tangible evidence that you have accomplished the
goal.
 A= Attainable or  Goals should be achievable; very well defined.
 Researcher must possess the appropriate knowledge,
Achievable skills, and abilities needed to achieve the goal.
  Observed and registered Results focused to
outcomes not to activities.

 R= Realistic  Very well plan, research steps defined, effective

timeframe that allows researcher to carry out all the
T = Time planned steps without pressure or tension between
Bound/Timeable the current reality and the vision of the research
project.
 Problem definition may include
information on:
Magnitude: What is the incidence and prevalence
of the problem?
Time Frame: When does it occur? Is it current?
Geographic area: Where does the problem
generally occur?
Population:  Does the problem affect certain groups
of people? If so, what are their characteristics?
Why? What are the probable reasons for the
problem? Is there agreement or conflict over these
reasons?
 Problem definition may include
information on:
Solutions: What solutions have already
been tried?  How successful have they
been?  What untried solutions might there
be?
Unanswered Questions:  What parts of
the problem need further research?
 Scope of the research

The scope of research refers to the areas that

were covered in the research. The researcher
specifies the restrictions and the limitations he
imposes on the study. The delimitation will
therefore help the researcher to avoid bias and
mismanagement of the budget, time and to
limit interesting information that lie beyond
the precincts or limits of the problem under
investigation by the subject which is
compulsorily delimitated at 3 levels:
 Con’t
 Scope in time: The date indicating the beginning and
the end of the studied period. They are justified in
function of the assessment of the studied phenomenon.
 Scope of space: At this point the researcher has to
present briefly the geographical area in which the
study is conducted by locating it at the updated
administrative map.
 Scope in domain: This aspect defines the real
position of the research in the research field in general
or in particular. The researcher states the field or the
discipline which have relationship with the domain of
the research project.
 Significance of the research
It makes the purpose worth pursuing. The
significance of the study answers the following
questions: Why is the study important? To whom is it
important? What benefit(s) will occur if the study is
done?
The study should have a value not only to the
researcher but also to the management of the
institution, the company, the community wherein
researcher lives, the respondents themselves,
furthermore, it should have an impact on the field of
specialization and researcher should mention the
sectors that will be benefited by the study.
 Stating /formulating the research questions and hypotheses

After the problem has been identified, the next

stage is where the researcher tries to formulate
pertinent research questions and hypotheses that
will guide the investigation. These research
questions and hypotheses provide clues to the
researcher as to where to search for the solution of
the problem.
 Research questions

Generally, research questions are classified into

three types of questions that the research project
can address: descriptive (1), relational (2) and
causal (3) questions:
1.To describe statistically the proportion existing
between variables;
2. To know relationship existing between variables.
3. To establish the correlation between causes and
effects of the problem investigated, to be
answered after research process by yes, no, or
without any specific answer.
 Example.1
1.The teaching method (IV) has an effect on learning achievement (DV).

RQ:

i. What are teaching methods used in public secondary schools?

ii.What are the effects of teaching method on students performance?

iii.What are relationship between teaching method and learners’ academic

achievement?

2.There is relationship between students’ attitudes, motivation, commitment,

representations (IV) and their academic performance ( indicators: scores,

results, marks, etc.) (DV). in X or Z module, unit, course.

 Hypotheses

i. A hypothesis is an estimated answer to

the research question.
ii. This provisional answer is confirmed or
rejected through observations or
experimentations.
iii. A hypothesis generally foretell a relation
between (two) variables.
 Example

1.The teaching method (IV) has an effect on

learning achievement (DV).

H 1:
i. Teaching methods can contribute to student
high performance
ii. Teaching method can impact on student’s
commitment in schools
iii. Teaching method contribute to low repetition
rate
 Types of hypotheses

There are two types of hypotheses: alternative

and null hypothesis
Alternative hypothesis
A research or alternative hypothesis denoted
(H1) is the hypothesis that a researcher wants to
verify. It is stated in terms of dependent and
independent variables. It states that there is an
effect of the independent variable on the
dependent variable or that the two variables are
related.
 CON’T
• In the world of statistics and science, most
hypotheses are written as "if...then"
statements. For example someone performing
experiments on plant growth might report this
hypothesis: "If I give a plant an unlimited
amount of sunlight, then the plant will grow to
its largest possible size." Hypotheses cannot be
proven correct from the data obtained in the
experiment, instead hypotheses are either
supported by the data collected or refuted by
the data collected.
 Types of hypotheses

Statistical or null hypothesis

The statistical or null hypothesis denoted (H0) states that there
is no effect of the independent variable on the dependent
variable.
•  Examples:
– There is no relationship between teaching method (IV) and
learning achievement (DV).
– There is no effect of students’ attitudes (IV) on their
academic performance (DV) in X or Z module, unit,
course.
 NB: The research or alternative hypothesis and Statistical or
null hypotheses are complementary. This means that when
one of them is true, the other is false and vice versa.
 Example. 3

•School Management( indicators: incentives, recognition, awords, regular payment

private, supervision & evaluation, cooperation) and Teachers’ Motivation ( turnover,

incompetence, poor performance of learners, absenteeism , ownership spirit)

H1 and RQn
•Provisional of incentive will reduce teachers’ turnover
•Does Provisional of incentive reduce teachers’ turnover?
•Work done recognition can reduce absenteeism of teachers at school
•can recognition of work reduce teachers’ absenteeism?
•supervision & evaluation influence learners academic performance.
•does supervision & evaluation influence learners academic performance?
 
 Ex. 4
Research topic No1: school feeding program and
teaching – learning process in schools.
Hypothesis and research questions
1. school feeding can contribute to high enrollment
• Does school feeding contribute to high enrollment ?
2.school feeding can impact on learners ‘ motivation in
schools.
• Does the school feeding impact on learners
motivation ?
3. school feeding contribute to low repetition rate
• Does school feeding contribute to low repetition
rate?
 Literature review
• The purpose of a literature review is to convey to
the reader what knowledge and ideas have been
established on a topic and what are the strengths
and weaknesses. 
• The literature review allows the reader to be
brought up to date regarding the state of research
in the field and familiarizes the reader with any
contrasting perspectives and viewpoints on the
topic. 
• There are good reasons for beginning a literature
review before starting a research paper.  These
reasons include:
 Literature (cont’d)
 To see what has and has not been investigated.
 To identify potential relationships between
concepts and to identify researchable
hypotheses.
 To learn how others have defined and
measured key concepts.
 To identify data sources that other researches
have used.
 To discover how a research project is related to
the work of others.
 Research objectives
• The general objective goes with the research topic. For
example the objective of above topic is to evaluate the
impact of school feeding on teaching and learning
process in public secondary schools( case study name)

• The specific objectives are operational objectives that

clarify how the general objective will be attended
• At this point, the specific objectives refer to the
research questions and hypotheses.
• For example the specific objectives for this study consist
of:
 Research objectives
specific Objectives
• to determine whether school feeding can
contribute to high enrollment
• to evaluate how school feeding impact on
learners’ motivation
• to examine the impact of school feeding on
repitetion rate.
 Sampling Methods

 Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g.,

people, organizations) from a population of
interest (study population) so that by studying
the sample we may fairly generalize our results
back to the population from which they were
chosen.
 Sampling is the act, process, or technique of
selecting a suitable sample, or a representative
part of a population for the purpose of
determining parameters or characteristics of the
whole population.
 Con’t
• We obtain a sample rather than a
complete enumeration (a census) of the
population for many reasons like cost,
time factor, very large population, partly
accessible population, destructive nature
of the observation, etc.
 Sampling Terminology and steps
1. Population
The major question that motivates sampling in the first
place is: "Who do you want to generalize to?“The group
you wish to generalize to is often called the population in
your study. this is the group you are interested in
generalizing to.
2. Sampling unit
A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit
before selecting sample. Sampling unit may be a
geographical one such as state, district, village, etc., or a
construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a
social unit such as family, club, school, etc., or it may be an
individual.
 Sampling Terminology & steps
3. Theoretical population and accessible population
We probably should make a distinction between the population
you would like to generalize to, and the population that will be
accessible to you. We'll call the former the theoretical
population and the latter the accessible population. If we want
to conduct a study on homeless males, in this example, the
accessible population might be homeless males between the ages
of 30 and 50 in six selected urban areas across the Rwanda
4. Study population or target population or statistical universe,
Study Population is the total universe or group to which the
results of the study are applicable. It is the aggregation of items or
objects or people from which or who sample is drawn. This
population is also technically called “universe”.
 Co’nt

The first step in developing any sample design is to

clearly define the set of objects, technically called the
Universe, to be studied. The universe can be finite or
Infinite. In finite universe the number of items is certain,
but in case of an infinite universe the number of items is
infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea about the total
number of items. The population of a city, the number of
workers in a factory and the like are examples of finite
universes, whereas the number of stars in the sky,
listeners of a specific radio programme, etc. are examples
of infinite universes.
 Sampling Terminology (cont’d)
5. Sampling frame or source list
.Once you've identified the theoretical and
accessible populations, you have to do one more
thing before you can actually draw a sample
.You have to get a list of the members of the
accessible population, called the sampling frame
or Source list.
.It contains the names of all items of a universe (in
case of finite universe only). If source list is not
available, researcher has to prepare it
Sampling Terminology (cont’d)
If you were doing a phone survey and
selecting names from the telephone book,
the book would be your sampling frame.
Finally, you actually draw your sample
(using one of the many sampling
procedures).
 Sampling Terminology (cont’d)

6. Sample
Sample is the sub group that is selected from the target
population to actually participate in the research study or
the part of the population that is taken to represent the
population in the study.
For instance, even if you are able to identify perfectly
the population of interest, you may not have access to all
of them. And even if you do, you may not have a
complete and accurate enumeration or sampling frame
from which to select. And, even if you do, you may not
draw the sample correctly or accurately. And, even if
you do, they may not all come and they may not all stay.
 7.Sample size

The sample size refers to the number of items to

be selected from the universe to constitute a
sample. The size of sample should neither be
excessively large, nor too small. It should be
optimum(fulfills the requirements of efficiency,
representativeness, reliability and flexibility), and
it can be determined by various constraints/
database. Ex. Use The Raosoft formula available
at http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html
 Sample size con’t

Before deciding how large a sample should

be, you have to define your study
population. For example, all children
below age three in Kigali.
Then determine your sampling frame which
could be a list of all the children below
three as recorded by Kigali City.
 Methods of selecting samples
There exist two methods of sampling: the
probability sampling and the non-
probability sampling.
In the probability sampling, each unit has a
“chance” to be selected; something not
feasible with the non-probabilistic
sampling.
In the non-probability sampling, each unit
included within a population doesn’t present
the same “chance” to be selected.
 Probability Sampling

• There are the most current methods of

probabilistic sampling: Simple random
sampling, Systematic sampling, Stratified
random sampling, Clustered sampling,
Multi-level sampling.
• But in our context we shall see the 4 first
methods
 Simple random sampling

•  A simple random sample: is obtained by

choosing elementary units in such a way
that each unit in the population has an
equal chance of being selected.
• You have to elaborate a list of all the units
included in the observed population in
order to select a simple random sampling.
 1.Simple random sampling
Example
• Suppose that your school holds 500 students and that
you have to conduct a short survey on the quality of
food catered for in the cafeteria.
• You advise yourself that a 50 students sample will
meet your ends ( i. e 10%). In order to obtain your
sample, you attribute to each student a number
comprised between 1 and 500. In order to select this
sample, you use a table of numbers generated at
random.
• You put them in a basket and select randomly ten
numbers.
 2. Systematic sampling

Sometimes also called “sampling by intervals”,

systematic sampling means that there does exist a
gap or an interval between each selected unit,
which is included in the sample. Here are the steps
you need to follow:
 Select one unit on a random basis and choose
additional elementary units at evenly spaced
intervals until the desired number of units is
obtained.
 For example, there are 100 students in your class.
 Systematic sampling con’t

 You want a sample of 20 from these 100 and you have their
names listed on a piece of paper may be in an alphabetical
order.
 If you choose to use systematic random sampling, divide
100 by 20, you will get 5. Randomly select any number
between 1 and 5. Suppose the number you have picked is
4, that will be your starting number.
 So, student number 4 has been selected. From there you
will select every 5th name until you reach the last one,
number one hundred. You will end up with 20 selected
students.
 3.Stratified random sampling

 Stratified random sampling, also called proportional

or quota random sampling, involves dividing your
population into homogeneous subgroups and then
taking a simple random sample in each subgroup.
 In more formal terms: Divide the population into
non-overlapping groups (i.e. strata) N1, N2, N3, ….,
Ni, such that N1 + N2 + N3 + … +Ni = N. Then do a
simple random sample of f=n/N in each stratum.
 A stratified sample is obtained by independently
selecting a separate simple random sample from
each population stratum.
 Stratified random sampling
 A population can be divided into different groups may be
based on some characteristic or variable like income or
education. Like any body with 10 years of education will be
in group A, between 10 and 20 group B and between 20 and
30 group C. These groups are referred to as strata.
 You can then randomly select from each stratum a given
number of units which may be based on proportion like if
group A has 100 persons while group B has 50, and C has 30
you may decide you will take 10% of each.
 So, you end up with 10 from group A, 5 from group B and 3
from group C.
 When the simple random sampling is used in order to select
the sample within each stratum, the sampling plan is called a
stratified simple random sampling.
 4.Clustered sampling

 Clustered sampling technique entails a

division of the population in groups or clusters
as indicated by its name. usually along
geographic boundaries).
 According to this technique, a certain number
of clusters is selected at random in order to
represent the total population; then all the
units included within the selected clusters are
inserted in the sample.
 Clustered sampling

Example:
Consider a school district that has 2000
students divided into 50 classrooms
(clusters), each classroom with 40 students.
If one were to use simple random sampling
 or systematic random sampling to select
200 students, this may involve students from
perhaps all the 50 classrooms, the researcher
may randomly select 5 of these classrooms
to obtain the sample of 200 students.
 Non – probability sampling (cont’d)
.Non-probability sampling is also known by
different names such as deliberate sampling,
purposive sampling and judgment sampling.
. In this type of sampling, items for the sample
are selected deliberately by the researcher; his
choice concerning the items remains supreme.
.In other words, under non-probability sampling
the organisers of the inquiry purposively
choose the particular units of the universe for
constituting a sample
 Non – probability sampling (cont’d)
.There are methods used :
Commodity sampling or blind or
accidental or purposive sampling;
Voluntary sampling
Sampling per quota;
Reasoned or judged sampling;
Snowball sampling
 Non – probability sampling (cont’d)
Commodity, blind or accidental sampling:

• In clinical practice, we might use clients who

are available to us as our sample. In many
research contexts, we sample simply by asking for
volunteers.
• Clearly, the problem with all of these types of
samples is that we have no evidence that they
are representative of the populations we're
interested in generalizing to and in many cases
we would clearly suspect that they are not. This is
a selection based on availability.
 Commodity, blind or accidental, sampling con’t

• Assume that you were walking down the

street and an interviewer chooses to
videotape you for the evening local news
broadcast. Can be termed accidental or
random sampling? It is accidental sampling
because this was a mere selection based on
your availability and willingness to talk.
• The obvious advantage of the method is
that it is easy to use; but the presence of
bias tremendously harms this method.
 Voluntary and judgment sampling

Voluntary: this sampling intervenes

when people willingly offer their services
for the study of concern..
Judgment or purposive sampling: We
use this method when we select a sample
on the basis of certain judgments about
the overall population. The hypothesis
which supports its use is that the
investigator will select units which will
be characteristic to the population.
 Example: If a researcher plans to carry
out a research on impact of cooperatives
on poverty reduction, he/she will select
those who are members of cooperatives
because he believes they have much
information on cooperatives. In this case,
the judgment of the researcher in
selecting the respondents is more useful
than the representativeness of the sample.
 Sampling per quotas

sampling per quota is really a means to meet the objectives in

matter of the sample size for certain sub-populations. Quotas
can be founded on the population’s proportions.
If a population, for example, counts 100 men and 100 women
and if we have to select a sample of 20 individuals so that
they may participate to a cola tasting contest, it is possible
that you would like to divide the sampling in equal
proportions between sexes, thus having MEN=WOMEN.
We could think that the sampling per quotas is preferable to
other forms of non-probabilistic sampling (such as the
sampling per judgment, because it imposes inclusion in the
sample of members from different sub-populations.
 Snow ball technique

.The “Snow ball” sampling doesn’t directly

relate to a technique requiring the
constitution of a sample at a prior step.
.It supposes that the researcher requests his
interlocutors to indicate him other
individuals to be interviewed, the individual
who are considered to be committed in the
study or who hold precision information.
 Data collection process

Data: information generated from research.

Types: Primary data and secondary data.
Primary data refers to the information a researcher
obtains from the field, i.e. from the subjects in the
sample.
Secondary data refers to the information a researcher
obtains from research articles, books, interviews, etc.
It can be in the form of words generated from
interview (qualitative data) or numbers generated by a
questionnaire (quantitative data).Therefore, data may
be also classified as quantitative (numerical) or
qualiitative (words, phrases).
 Data collection process
.Data collection is the process of gathering
information on variables of interest, in an
established systematic fashion that enables
one to answer stated research questions, test
hypotheses, and outcomes.
.Consequences from improperly collected
data include: inability to answer research
questions accurately and inability to repeat
and validate the study.
 Triangulation process
.Triangulation is defined as the use of multiple methods mainly qualitative and
quantitative methods in studying the same phenomenon for the purpose of
increasing study credibility. This implies that triangulation is the combination of
two or more methodological approaches, theoretical perspectives, data sources,
investigators and analysis methods to study the same phenomenon.
. Types of triangulation
1. Data triangulation, which entails gathering data through several sampling
strategies,, as well as on a variety of people.
2. Investigator triangulation: use of more than one researcher in the field to gather
and interpret data.
3. Theoretical triangulation, which refers to the use of more than one theoretical
position in interpreting data.
4. Methodological triangulation, which refers to the use of more than one method
for gathering data.
5. Time triangulation is the collection of data at different points in time.

• 6. Space triangulation is a collection of data at different places and sites.

 Instruments of data collection

1.Documentation
.This technique involves delivering information by
carefully studying written documents or visual
information from sources called documents. ex.
textbooks; news papers, and many others. Some
precautions must be taken in order to avoid the
weakness of that secondary source.
2.Observation
.Observation means viewing or seeing and establishes
direct contact with his domain and sample. The
researcher observes the individual or the group in the
course of activities in their natural environment.
 Types of observation

• Participant observation:
• Direct observation:
• Indirect observation:
• Interviewing
• The interviewer comes up with a scheme of questions
conceived for each interviewed. Research interview is
not rigid, nor is to be submitted to the inspiration of
the moment. The interview or face to face is the
flexible method in data collecting. It is generally built
around some questions or themes stated in the course
or at the beginning of the interview according to
whether it is directory or semi- directory.
 Types of interview

• (1) Structured or directive interview with a detailed standardized schedule,

same questions asked in the same way and order: promotes reliability,
comparison of data, no problems with recording and coding of data information,
but the scope of exploration is limited somehow;
• (2) Unstructured or non-directive interview where the interviewer encourages
the respondents to talk freely about a given topic with a minimum guidance and
gets more opportunity to explore the various aspects of the problem: coding
needs more time;
• (3) Focused interview is a semi-structured interview where the investigator
attempts to focus the discussion on the actual effects of a given experience or
event by choosing selected sequences of questions considered in the research
process;
• (4) Clinical interview is similar to the focused interview but is concerned with
broad underlying feelings or motivations based on individual’s life experiences
and personal histories; and
• (5) Depth interview is intensive like hard talk on BBC requires more skills and
expertise in x domain of focal point and the interviewer motivates the
interviewed by using encouraging expressions “ yes”, “uuuh”, “ok” or “I see”.
• Interviewing process
• It has the following stages:
 preparation requires strategic planning, time, budget, schedule, interview guide, material,
sample;
 introduction procedures in accordance with a cultural pattern and with specific styles
related to the respondents; developing rapport cementing a friendly relationship,
confidence, discretion in striking a happy medium and interaction between the respondent
and the interviewer;
 carrying the interview forward aiming at more gathering specific and relevant
information applicable effectively to the questions linked to the research problem and
highlighting objectives of each question;
 additional sittings involving longer duration having more than one sitting with the consent
of the respondent; recording the interview with a tape recorder with note-taking during the
interview; closing the interview before assembling papers and other material the
interviewer will kindly thank the respondent, give him a final handshake and good-bye;
 editing respondents’ answers needs to replace abbreviations by full words;
 call backs and if possible to organize a panel method from well-trained interviewed for
validation of all the answers recorded during the previous interviews which can be shown
by different projective techniques: visual, verbal and expressive techniques. The basic
assumption of projective techniques is that a person projects his own thoughts and ideas
when he perceives and responds to ambiguous or unstructured materials or stimuli.
 Instruments of data collection

3. Questionnaire.
popular means of collecting data, but are difficult to design and often
require many rewrites before an acceptable questionnaire is produced.
Types of questionnaires:
1. Open ended questions:They may be of four kinds:
– Specific open questions ask questions or interrogations
anticipating factual responses. For ex.: What do you think about
your future after graduation?
– Clarification questions: seek further elucidation after selection of a
category. It may be in form of "Please specify".
– Sentence completion: a respondent is asked to complete a
sentence. "Democracy is practiced well.
– Short answer questions: comprises more than a sentence, but less
than a paragraph.
 Instruments of data collection
2. close-ended questions
Liker scale has a statement of which a
respondent is expected to rate, for
instance from the best to the worst
position; or from "strongly agree" to
"strongly disagree"; True-false items;
Declarative questions vs Multiple choices
containing more than two alternatives;
Rank order of items involves a list of
which the respondent is asked to rank.
 Methods of data analysis

. Analytical method: This method enables a

systematic analysis of information and data
collected.
. Experimental method: It is mainly used in
exact sciences, mostly in laboratories. It helps
the researcher to make an observation as an
experiment on a natural phenomenon,
formula and check the hypothesis made at the
beginning of the research.
.Synthetic method: it enables the researcher
to synthetize the data collected and analyzed
Inductive method: It consists in attempting some generalisations from
the particulars. Precise characteristics are observed in one or more
individuals (items) of a class and we try to demonstrate the possibility
to generalise these characteristics to the whole class under
consideration.
Deductive method: It consists in analysing the particular on the basis of
the general, in reading a concrete situation by means of a generally
pre-established theoretical scheme (for example, applying the law of
offer and demand to the study of the determinants of inflation.
Historical method: Historical method or diachronically approach is
based on fact analysis or on idea of a precise period or of a limited of
time in the past. The focus is on the development of facts which is
being studied; their genesis up to their situation, the day of the
research. This method helps well understand and interpret the past
facts (sociological, historical, political, economic fact), in order to
comprehend the present facts and propose how they will look like in
the future. Ex. Critical analysis based on gender based violence and
perspectives.
Comparative method: Comparative analysis consists to seek
for differences and similarities existing between situations
which call for comparison. At the same time, one should
interpret the meaning of these resemblances and
dichotomies, and try afterwards to sort out regularities
through them. This method can for example, be used
when comparing the evolution of the commercial balance
in Rwanda and Uganda during the decade 2000 – 2010.
Statistical or quantitative method: Quantitative method
gives priority to searching for statistic regularities
(frequencies). Quantitative method lends itself to the
analysis of practices presenting a certain frequency.
Quantitative method aims at collecting measurable and
comparable data.
ETHICAL ISSUES RELATED TO RESEARCH

Research plagiarism: It refers to situations where a

researcher refers to another person’s work as theirs without
acknowledging the author. In addition, stealing ideas from
another scholar is also plagiarism. Plagiarism is a crime
punishable by law.
Misuse of privileges: Researcher has some power over the
subjects owing to the training they have, they expertise, their
legal authority to undertake research. Research subjects
therefore participate in the research on trust. It would be
unethical for researchers to abuse this trust by using their
power negatively.
Data Mismanagement: Researchers should not manufacture
data or publish findings on data they dreamed up.
 Confidentiality and privacy: Respondents should
be protected by keeping the information given
confidential, especially if confidentiality has been
promised. Lack of confidentiality and mishandling
the information provided may cause respondents
physical or even psychological harm. For example,
releasing the names of people who are in bankrupt
may stigmatize them and cause them to lose credit
facilities which would disadvantageous to them.
Voluntariness: The participant’s consent to
participate must be voluntary and free of any
coercion or promises of benefits likely to result
from participation.
 Report writing
References or sources
These guidelines refer to the American Psychological
Association (APA)
Recommendations: Type format Times New Roman with
a 12 point front size.
Concerning the Quotation
• For one author:
 Author’s name,
 Year of publication and the Page number into brackets
after the quotation like this in the text.
 E.g: As stipulated by Ruzibiza, (2006: 230),……
 Concerning the Quotation

For a scientific work with two authors

To indicate the names of both authors with
parentheses with the use of “&” between the
authors’ names or not if the authors are placed at
the beginning of the sentence quoted indirectly.
• Ex1: According to Sothern and Gordon (2003:104),
“Environmental factors may contribute as much as
80% to the causes of childhood obesity”.
•  Ex2: Obese children often engage in limited
physical activity (Sothern & Gordon, 2003, p. 104).
 Concerning the Quotation

Two or more works in the same

parentheses
Researchers have indicated that studies
of pharmacological treatments for
childhood obesity are inconclusive
(Berkowitz et al., 2003; McDuffie et al.,
2002).