Chapter 6.

Context-oriented
research: Case studies
DEFINITION OF CASE STUDY
WHEN TO USE CASE STUDIES
CASE STUDY DESIGN
COLLECTING DATA
ANALYZING CASE-STUDY DATA
 The focus in this chapter is on
 how to investigate external factors affecting individual translators,
 the circumstances in which translations take place and
 how translations influence the receiving culture.
Definition of case study

 Gillham (2000:1) defines a case as “a unit of human activity embedded in the real world;
which can only be studied or understood in context; which exists in the here and now; that
merges in with its context so that precise boundaries are difficult to draw”.
 Yin defines the case study as “an empirical inquiry that investigate a contemporary
phenomenon in depth and within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries
between the phenomenon and context are not clearly evident” (2009:18).
 A crucial step in designing a case study is to establish boundaries to the unit of analysis, i.e. the case. This
need underlies a key aspect of the definition of ‘case’: it should be a real-life phenomenon, not an
abstraction such as a topic, an argument, or a hypothesis (Yin 2009:32).
 A case can be anything from an individual person (translator, interpreter, author) or text (note that text
fragments cannot be cases because of the requirement of contextualization), to a whole organization, such as
a training institution or a translation agency, and even a literary system. A case can also be a process or an
event.
 For example, a case study may look at the process of training which is from the moment a student is
registered on a translator training course to the moment where they enter the job market.
 An event can be a particular historical moment, the onset of a war, the election of a president, a change in
legislation, all of which will trigger a series of translation or a change in translation policy.
 It should be noted, however, that a case study also requires some form of conceptual structure. We cannot
choose an institution or an event as the aim of our analysis; the study needs to be organized around
research questions or issues. So, rather than studying ‘an institution’ we choose to study ‘how the
introduction of new technology affects the translation output and working environment within an
institution’
Identifying a case and difference between sample and example

 A case is not a sample or an example. Sample is a small part of a group that is taken to be
representative of the whole group, and therefore studying the sample allows the researcher
to make inferences about the whole group.
 An example is a single instance that is used to illustrate what is typical of a more general
group or rule; therefore, using examples requires the prior identification of a group (of
people, texts, strategies, etc.) that shares certain characteristics or of a norm, a behaviour
that tends to occur given certain circumstances.
 Cases, on the other hand, are a unit that is part of a larger population (of translations, translators, training
institutions, literary systems) and we investigate them because we are interested in that population.
 However, the case study is not carried out with the assumption that it will enable us to generalize the results
to the larger group of which the case forms a part.
When to use case studies

 One of the purposes of a case study is to consider elements that are specific to the particular case and
therefore different from all others.
 Because of the multiple nature of causality, generalization from one piece of research to other cases is
always done under the assumption of all other things being equal.
 In case study research it is difficult to generalize to other cases because the individuality of the case
generally prevents us from making assumptions that all things can be equal in a different scenario.
 Therefore, the case study belongs to the group of qualitative research methods that can make
contribution to knowledge in three different scenarios:
 (1) in exploring questions of how and why,
 (2) for hypothesis generating ,
 (3) for testing the viability of a theoretical framework.
Examples of the three scenario

 1) Koskinen (2008)in her study describes how the drafting and translating of EU
documents results in shifts that reveal competing tendencies: towards readability on the
one hand and towards ‘institutionalization’ on the other.
 She also shows how translators favour readability in their practice even though they
complain about not being able to take the reader into account.
 2)Susam-Sarajeva (2006) provides an example of the use of case studies to formulate hypotheses in
translation theory.
 She is interested in exploring the role of translation in the ‘travelling’ of literary and cultural theories across
linguistic and cultural borders.
 3) The third scenario where case studies can contribute to general knowledge is when they are used to test
the viability of a new model, or in order to test the limits of more established ones: Hanna (2006), for
example, uses Arabic translations of Shakespeare’s great tragedies in order to explore the possibility of
applying the sociological model developed by Bourdieu to the field of drama translation.
Case study design
Types of case studies

 Choosing between single and multiple cases depends on whether the population of
existing cases is heterogeneous or homogeneous (Gerring 2007).
 Data from several similar cases can help us present cumulative evidence about a single
phenomenon. (unit homogeneity).
 When adjacent cases are heterogeneous, studying more than one case is ‘expensive’ in
the sense that a wider range of factors may have to be taken into consideration, and harder
because it is more difficult to establish meaningful comparisons, since what is relevant in
one case may not be relevant in others.
 However, depending on time and resources, cross-case studies of heterogeneous cases can
provide a particularly rich picture.
 Sometimes it is possible to identify sub-units of analysis, such as several translations of one piece of work,
or several individuals constituting a group of translators who share certain characteristics such as a political
agenda. In this case we have an embedded case study.
 Sturge (2004), for example, takes into consideration all translations published or censored during the Nazi
regime. She uses two embedded case studies where she considers certain translations in more detail.
extreme cases, deviant cases, crucial or critical
cases and revelatory cases.

 Extreme cases, as the term suggests, are those where one aspect is particularly striking
(extreme) when compared to similar cases. Sturge describes her study of literary
translation under Nazi Germany as “an extreme case of translation’s implication in the
construction of nationalist literary boundaries” (2004:20),
 Deviant cases are those where something unexpected happens. In medicine, researchers
are keen to investigate those individuals who, despite repeated exposure to a virus such as
HIV, do not become infected.
 Revelatory cases offer an opportunity to investigate a phenomenon previously
inaccessible to scientific investigation. These do not occur very often, but when they do
they raise particularly interesting issues.
 The crucial or critical case was introduced to the social sciences by Eckstein in 1975 as one “that must
closely fit a theory if one is to have confidence in the theory’s validity, or, conversely, must not fit equally
well any rule contrary to that proposed” (1975:18, in Gerring 2007:115).
 If we have a theory that has specified a clear set of propositions as well as the circumstances within which
the propositions are believed to be true, we could identify one case that meets all the conditions.
 For example, Einstein’s theory of relativity.
Delimiting case studies

 In order to impose limits, it is helpful to think along three dimensions: social, spatial and
temporal.
 Temporal boundaries are self-explanatory: we can choose to look at contemporary or
historical situations, at translations published in the last ten years or in the first decade of
the twentieth century, etc.
 To establish social boundaries it is useful to think in terms of populations of cases, i.e.
groups of cases that share the key characteristics that make our case one of a kind, such as
literary translators, trainee translators, translation trainers, training institutions, etc.
 When establishing spatial boundaries we can focus on geographical limits, such as
particular nations or regions (e.g. the EU, Latin America).
Collecting data

 The case study is a broad method which may encompass the use of several types of data
gathered and analyzed using different methodologies, both quantitative and qualitative.
 The choice of sources will depend on the nature of the research project, the relevance and
availability of data from various sources and the skills and background of the
researcher(s).
Written sources

 Texts, and in particular source texts and translations, but also translator’s drafts paratexts
(prefaces, footnotes, blurbs) and metatexts (reviews, academic articles constitute one of
the primary sources of information in translation studies research in general.
 As in any other type of research, a literature review is essential in case studies in order to
contextualize our theoretical viewpoint or subject area. In addition academic literature can
be one of our main sources of information.
 Other types of written sources include documents such as letters, agendas,
 minutes of meetings, progress reports, etc. commonly used in research focusing
 on institutions; legal instruments, such as those used in research on court interpreting;
syllabi, course specifications, essays, etc. as used in translator training research.
Verbal reports

 Interviews are another element of case study research.

 Interviews are only one of a range of ways in which we can obtain information directly by
talking to people.
 It is important to explain that we would like to use the information provided and request
their permission to do so, and to clarify whether their contribution is to be reported
anonymously or not.
Observation

 In very general terms, we can distinguish two broad types of observation, detached and
participant observation, depending on whether the observer comes to the situation as an
outsider or takes an active role within the group, institution or process being observed.
 In both detached and participant observation, one of the main problems affecting the
validity of the research is the inevitable observer or Hawthorne effect(People act
differently when they know they are being observed, whether they are used to the
participant being in the same environment or not.).
 Detached observation will require a schedule listing the key behaviours or events we want to focus on, as
well as the aspects of that behaviour/event that require particular attention. If certain behaviours, events or
actions are particularly frequent, they may need to be sampled so as to get a good overview.
 Participant observation is a technique most frequently used in anthropological studies of cultural and
subcultural groups, and is a key element of the ethnographic method.
 When observation is carried out as part of an ethnographic project, it tends to be participant rather than
detached observation. In these cases, the researcher must “do as others do, live with others, eat, work and
experience the same daily patterns as others” (Madden 2010:16).
Physical artefacts

 physical artefacts are non-textual objects that are revealing of the situation or play an
important part in the event or processes studied.
 These can be technological devices such as tools or instruments, a work of art,
photographs, etc. In translation studies, copies of a particular edition of the translation
under study are often used.
Quantitative data

 Quantitative data can be archival records.

 Statistics used in case studies tend to be descriptive rather than inferential.
 Inferential statistics enable you to draw inferences from the data. They involve
calculations that derive non-immediate meanings from the data, such as the likelihood
that a result could be down to chance; for example, whether the difference between the
averages for two populations (trainee translators and professional translators) is
‘significant’ or not.
 Descriptive statistics simply help you to summarize and compare information; for
example, in the form of averages or percentages.
Using a database to manage data
 In order to keep track of and manage data from different sources, it is recommended that a database be compiled in order to maintain a
comprehensive record of all the data gathered, the sources, date of access, etc.
 We can think of the database as our own personal research archive. It may include, for example:
 An annotated bibliography;
 A list of documents accessed with dates and place of access;
 An expanded list of names of informants, including details such as date of birth, nationality, background, and other relevant observations
 Full transcriptions of interviews, together with vignettes and interview profiles,
 Detailed descriptions of any coding system used to analyze textual data of any kind, including transcripts;
 The research diary or log book;
 Photographs;
 Emails and letters exchanged with informants, organizations, etc.;
 An index of all the information contained in the database.
Ethical considerations

 Case studies aim to provide in-depth pictures of the object of study, often including
subjective views and opinions from a range of informants or participants, thereby raising
issues of confidentiality.
 Participants should be allowed to preview the report before it is made publicly available,
so as to correct any misinterpretations and confirm that they are happy with the record of
their contribution. Any signs of concerns should be taken seriously.
Analyzing case-study data
General principles

 The research process in case studies tends to follow the iterative pattern of qualitative methods.
 The researcher starts analyzing at the same time as collecting the data, and the analysis informs
subsequent data collection and may even lead to adjustments in the research design.
 It is important, however, not to start theorizing at a too early stage in the investigation, at the
risk of over-narrowing our perspective and becoming blind to the new insights that new data
can provide.
 Further evidence may qualify, complicate or even contradict our first impressions.
 Even at the stage of writing up a report, the researcher may need to go back and review data
that have already been analyzed. Having a database helps to ensure that information is easily
retrievable.
 In brief, the process of data analysis starts during the data collection, but we need to proceed carefully, not
jump to conclusions, and make sure our analysis remains grounded in the evidence accumulated.
 Evidence should be examined with an open mind, actively looking for information that is incompatible with
the hypotheses that – invariably– we start to formulate as we become acquainted with the data.
 Our analysis should be based on thorough knowledge of the context of investigation and our chosen
theoretical model.
Practical suggestions

 These are: the research diary, analytical memos and visual data displays.
 In the research diary or log book we record all our notes, which can be grouped into two
broad types: (1) notes on the different pieces of evidence examined, such as remarks
during observations, impressions from an interview, observations made in the process of
reading a document, etc.; and (2) personal notes on questions we need to reflect on,
preliminary hypotheses, ideas for the final report, etc.
 Analytical memos are notes taken during the process of analysis, especially when coding is used, to help
researchers maintain track of how the argument and theory are developing as they do the analysis.
 Visual data displays, such as tables, tree diagrams, graphs and charts, are also useful at this stage to help
organize ideas and identify patterns, and may also be useful when producing the research report at a later
stage.
Computer-aided qualitative analysis

 They simply help in managing and organizing the data, rather than analyzing them.
 Thank You.