Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology 25S (2011) S3–S10

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Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.de/jtemb

FOURTH INTERNATIONAL FESTEM SYMPOSIUM

Bioelementology as an interdisciplinary integrative approach in life sciences:

Terminology, classification, perspectives
Anatoly V. Skalny a,b,∗
a
Institute of Bioelementology, Orenburg State University, Pobedy Avenue 13, Orenburg 460352, Russia
b
Federal State Scientific Institution “Institute of Toxicology”, Federal Medico-Biological Agency of Russia, Bekhtereva str. 1, St. Petersburg 192019, Russia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The article presents the proposed concept of bioelements and the basic postulates of bioelementology for
Received 18 September 2010 assessing and discussing them in the scientific community. It is known that chemical elements exist in the
Accepted 26 October 2010 organism not by themselves, but in certain species having close interaction with other components. Such
units are proposed to be called bioelements: the elementary functioning units of living matter, which are
Keywords: biologically active complexes of chemical elements as atoms, ions or nanoparticles with organic com-
Bioelement
pounds of exogenous or biogenous origin. The scientific discipline that studies bioelements, is proposed
Bioelementology
to be called bioelementology. This discipline could lay the foundation for the integration of bioorganic
Life science
Integrative concept
chemistry, bioinorganic chemistry, biophysics, molecular biology and other parts of life sciences.
© 2010 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

Introduction ing organisms, deepened the knowledge of toxic and carcinogenic

“Despite evident expectations that a great deal of future out-
standing discoveries will be made in the interdisciplinary areas
of science, there are still ‘language’ barriers between the his-
torically separate spheres of chemistry, biology, medicine and
physics. Thus, it is one of the aims . . . to catalyse mutual ‘under-
standing’.”
(Metal Ions in Life Sciences, 2010)
At present, scientific and educational literature on traditional
bioinorganic chemistry is rather good and extensively describes the
elementary structure, physical properties and functions of isolated
biological molecules such as proteins and enzymes, containing or
interacting with one or several chemical elements [1–3]. However,
there is much less information about the functional significance of
chemical elements in living organisms in the ways in which these
elements participate in the processes of life, i.e., in vivo, as well as
about the meaning and significance of selection of the elements
(and their isotopes), the processes of absorption (binding), trans-
port and final localization in cells, the regulation of these processes
and control of their interactions in a complex set of the holistic
system [4].
The biological role of chemical elements has experienced inten-
sive studying in the second half of the twentieth century. There was
expressed the essentiality of about 20 chemical elements to liv-
properties of a number of trace elements, created tens of thou-
sands of drugs and dietary supplements containing trace elements,
and food products fortified with them. But “the lack of multidis-
ciplinary approach has been the Achilles heel of biological trace
element research” [5].
However, we strongly believe that new developments in this
direction are possible on the basis of synergetic achievements of
bioorganic and bioinorganic chemistry, the disciplines which have
played a distinct positive role in modern biological chemistry and,
at the same time, to some extent a negative one – due to the artificial
division of the unified science, investigating the biological role of
all the chemical elements from organogens (O, H, N, C) to ultratrace
elements, as well as proteomics, genomics, transcriptomics, met-
allomics and other “omics”, rapidly developing in recent decades.
The desire to integrate the “organic” and “inorganic” approach
in studying the biological role of chemical elements is observed
in a number of fundamental works [6,7]. We [8–11] put forward
and develop the concept of bioelements and bioelementology as
an integrative scientific direction.
This article is dedicated to the presentation of our concept of
bioelements and the basic postulates of bioelementology for assess-
ing and discussing them in the scientific community. The basic
terms, the idea and classification of bioelementology are presented
below.

Bioelements: proposed basic terminology and classification

∗ Corresponding author. Well, the main term of bioelementology is “bioelement”. In liter-

E-mail address: skalny3@microelements.ru ature we found the term “bioelement”. Different authors are using

0946-672X/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jtemb.2010.10.005
S4 A.V. Skalny / Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology 25S (2011) S3–S10
Table 1
Classification of bioelements.
Primary Simple
Complicated
Secondary Complicated (components of bioelemental
systems, “omes”)
Note: Structural, electrolytic and enzymatic bioelements are separated according to Sansoni and Iyengar [17].
a
Essential only for animals.
b
Essential only for plants.
it mainly as a synonym to “chemical element” which “plays some
biological role” or “exists in the living body”. Why did we name
elements “chemical” but not “physical” – only following tradition,
because chemistry as science formed much earlier than nuclear
physics and physics of elementary particles? The elements have
chemical and even more physical properties, but it is nonsense to
separate special “biological elements”. The active use of the term
“bioelement” by me and my followers in recent years in scientific
articles [9,11], books [10,12,13], textbooks [14,15], and reports at
international scientific meetings showed that part of the scientists,
especially chemists, feel a certain rejection of it because of the
association with the term “chemical element.” Nevertheless, it is
difficult to find another term which would be more apt and appar-
ently satisfying for most scientists. In fact, “element” is a multivocal
word. We comfortably use expressions “electrical element”, “heat-
ing element”, or “data element”. So, “bioelement” can be a similar
case.
It is known that the chemical element exists in the organism
not by itself, but in close interaction with other components. There
are no any particular elements in the cell that are solely typical of
living nature. On the atom level there are no differences between
the chemical composition of organic and inorganic matter. The dif-
ferences are found on the higher, molecular level of organization.
Thus, the position and classification of the chemical elements in
the Periodic System of Elements (PSE) does not permit any state-
ment to be made about their functional essentiality or their acute or
chronic toxicity for living organisms. This is due to the fact that the
Periodic System is based on purely physicochemical aspects [16].
Therefore B. Markert developed an idea about a Biological System
of Elements (BSE), which primarily considers aspects of basic bio-
chemical and physiological research. As the author said, “Biological
C, H, N, O, P, S, Si, Ca (structural)
K, Na, Ca, Cl, Mg (electrolytic)
Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, Co, Cr, Mo, Sea , Sna , Fa , Ia , Nia , Va , Bb
(enzymatic)
H2 O, O2 , N2 , etc.
Nucleic acids (deoxyadenosine, deoxycytidine,
deoxyguanosine, deoxythymidine, adenosine, cytidine,
guanosine, uridine)
Glycans (fucose, galactose, glucose, glucuronic acid,
mannose, N-acetylgalactosamine, N-acetylglucosamine,
neuraminic acid, xylose, nononic acid, octulosonic acid,
arabinose, arabinofuranose, colitose, fructose,
galactofuranose, galacturonic acid, glucolactilic acid,
heptose, legionaminic acid, mannuronic acid,
N-acetylfucosamine, N-acetylgalacturonic acid,
N-acetylmannosamine, N-acetylmannosaminuronic acid,
N-acetylmuramic acid, N-acetylperosamine,
N-acetylquinovosamine, perosamine, pseudaminic acid,
rhamnose, talose)
Proteins (alanine, arginine, aspartic acid, asparagine,
cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, histidine,
isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine,
proline, serine, threonine, tryptophan, tyrosine, valine)
Lipids (fatty acyls, glycerolipids, glycerophospholipids,
polyketides, prenol lipids, saccharolipids, sphingolipids,
sterol lipids)
Metabolome (components)
Metallome
Lipidome
Proteome
Genome
Transcriptome
(. . .?)
processes on the molecular level are frequently based on physical
and chemical conditions. . .. However, these physical and chemi-
cal regularities are frequently modified in biological systems”. The
BSE of B. Markert is obtained from data on correlation analysis,
physiological function of individual elements in the living organ-
ism, evolutional development out of the inorganic environment and
with respect to their uptake by the living organism as a neutral
molecule or charged ion.
Atoms, atomic nuclei, elementary particles and fields that bind
them, which have independent significance at the physicochemi-
cal stage of evolution, after being included in biological molecules
lose this self-importance and play their role in the ensemble that I
call bioelement, where everything is interdependent, more compli-
cated and at the same time more vulnerable to external influence.
Since the general conditions of biological evolution (the composi-
tion of biosphere), are continuously changing, a set of bioelements
in a living organism can also change. This distinguishes them
from chemical elements as objects of physicochemical stage, which
remain identical to themselves along the course of evolution. So,
bioelement is the elemental functioning unit of living matter, which
is a biologically active complex of chemical elements as atoms, ions
and nanoparticles with organic compounds of exogenous (primary)
or biogenous (secondary) origin (this is Postulate 1).
It should be noted that our views on the definition of bioele-
ments in recent years also underwent a considerable evolution
[8–11]. Initially, me and my colleague professor Rudakov imag-
ine bioelements as chemical elements which constantly occur in
the body, are necessary for its functioning and exhibiting biolog-
ical properties (i.e., new, non-chemical and physical properties,
such as the body’s need for the element, the toxicity of the ele-
ment for the body, synergism and antagonism within the organism)
 A.V. Skalny / Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology 25S (2011) S3–S10
Table 2
The fundamental main characteristics of chemical elements and bioelements.
Chemical element
There in the biosphere and beyond. Weight is virtually unlimited.
No quantitative limits.
Exists in 2000–3000 species of minerals and corresponding chemical
compounds.
Involved in formation of biologically inert natural objects by physico-chemical
and geological processes, regardless of the previously existed natural objects.
Its formation may occur in living bodies, varying in its manifestations and
giving inert natural bodies elements incorporated in living natural body
(e.g., concretions in kidneys).
The process of turning abioelements into inorganic matter, as the processes
that created the inert natural object, is reversible in time.
Number of elements as components of inert natural objects does not depend
on size of the planet, but is determined by the properties of planetary matter
– by energy.
Modified from ideas of V.I. Vernadsky, 2002 about abiotic and biotic matter.
[11]. At that moment we determined bioelementology as scientific
and practical direction, studying the composition, content, rela-
tions and interaction of chemical elements and their compounds
in living systems. At the same time among bioelements we initially
attributed only organogens, macroelements and essential trace ele-
ments. However, the deepening into this problem demonstrated
the insufficiency of such ideas.
Later [9] I based the definition and subdivision of bioelements
on two columns: the first is the classification of chemical ele-
ments proposed by Sansoni and Iyengar [17], who, in my opinion,
quite correctly in terms of biological functions divided the chemical
elements into structural, electrolytic and enzymatic (see Markert
[16]). The second is the notion of building blocks of life by Marth
[18], with the necessary additions from my point of view, namely
the separation of the group critically vital simple molecules such
as H2 O, O2 , H2 , N2 , etc. At the same time, some “omes” are systems
(or ensembles) of closely related bioelements. Since the synthesis
of secondary bioelements became possible for the first time only in
the protocell, we have attributed genome (DNA) and transcriptome
(RNA) to the secondary (complicated) bioelements. The generalized
classification of bioelements is presented in Table 1.
In principle, bioelements include any chemical structures found
in living nature but do not possess a set of fundamental properties
of living things themselves: metabolism, variability, reproduction
and heredity. Primarily, these are organogens (C, H, N, O), P, S and
representatives of four classes of small organic molecules which
compose the cells: amino acids, nucleotides, sugars, fatty acids,
and coordination structures, aquated ions of vital macro and trace
elements and water as well.
Bioelement is not a chemical element inside a molecular
compound, but it is a temporarily formed biocomplex, whereas
the chemical element is bound by a covalent (chelate) bond to
the organic molecule. They should not be considered separately,
because, interacting, together they produce biological effect of new
quality [19].
If a chemical element is a physicochemical unit of the mat-
ter’s evolution, then a bioelement is a precursor of a biological
S5
Bioelement
There mainly in biosphere. Outside biosphere, existence is temporary or
impossible. Weight limited.
The quantitative limit exists (depends on the space of the biosphere), as space
available for organisms is limited.
Limit of bioelements in the “mass of life” is constant in the course of geological
time.
Exists in millions of biological compounds.
Like a living organism can be born only by another living organism, the new
bioelement appears in biochemical transformations of the previous
compounds (living objects, containing bioelements). In the course of
geological time, some qualitative changes in forms of bioelements happen,
which lead to the evolution of species or loss of some of them.
Bioelements are formed not only during natural biochemical transformations
of other living bodies, containing bioelements, but can also be created as a
result of human activities (industrial synthesis of bioelements, biotech
processes) from abiotic substances or other bioelements (from simple to
complicated).
Formation of bioelement (i.e., form of existence of a chemical element in the
biosphere), as well as the creation of a natural living body, is process
irreversible in time.
Number of bioelements and number of living natural bodies are limited by the
size of the biosphere (Earth).
unit, which has physicochemical nature. Fundamental differences
between chemical elements and their compounds in abiogenic
media and bioelements are described in Table 2.
Bioelements can continuously form from ionic compounds
when entering the cell. Inside the cell, biopolymers and their com-
plexes create a complicated, coordinated and regulated system for
the transformation of substances. The cell is the main place of nat-
ural birth of secondary bioelements and their destruction.
According to modern views, life processes cannot occur out-
side the cell. Therefore, the cell is considered the smallest quantum
of life, which, for managing its internal parameters and perform-
ing cell–cell interactions, use information, energy and substances,
including bioelements they obtain from the environment. Bioele-
ment is yet a substance. A cell (organism) is already a being. In
our opinion (Fig. 1), bioelements are precursors of living matter, a
successful combination of which, particularly of polymer–ion reac-
tions running autocatalytically, led to the formation of cells (this is
Postulate 2).
We propose to call the assembly of bioelements “bioelemen-
tome” unlike elementome as an assembly of chemical elements
and their compounds. Bioelementome is a particular continuum
of molecules for the maintenance of biological units of evolution,
possessing the ability to control the process, and biological objects
(this is Postulate 3).
However, when considering the biological role of bioelements,
we should clearly distinguish two questions. The first is a ques-
tion of initial formation and participation of bioelements in the
origin of life. The second is a question concerning the role of bioele-
ments in the modern biosphere, at the anthropogenic stage of its
development. i.e., one should separate the role of bioelements dur-
ing the early formation of the biosphere, and the modern role of
bioelements. While before and during the early formation of the
biosphere bioelements formed by the exchange synthesis or came
from the outside universe, now an increasingly significant role is
passing to biogenous synthesis of bioelements by living organisms.
According to modern ideas, the origin of life on Earth was ini-
tiated from simple physical–chemical substances and phenomena,
S6 A.V. Skalny / Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology 25S (2011) S3–S10
Fig. 1. Structural levels of the matter.
By Yu.N. Orlov [20], expanded by A.V. Skalny).
whose “participants” are always atoms of the five major compo-
nents of biological molecules (C, H, N, O, P) and a set of other
chemical elements. Over billions of years, the atoms connecting
with each other under certain conditions (climate, water avail-
ability, etc.) by different types of bonds (ionic, covalent, metallic,
molecular, hydrogen, etc.) produced the most stable compounds
capable of copying themselves.
Currently in the scientific literature a number of hypotheses
of life origin are presented [7,21–25]. All these ideas are in their
infancy, and none of the hypotheses are transformed even in the-
ory [26]. But, from our point of view, one thing is clear: the origin of
life is based on the formation of its precursors which themselves are
necessary but not sufficient conditions for the emergence of life as
a biological phenomenon. These particular “quasi-living” or “pre-
living” molecules we propose to call bioelements (primary ones)
(this is Postulate 4).
Primary bioelements once produced the first protocell – LUCA
[24] or probiont [27] – a hypothetical primary organism which orig-
inated all the modern diversity of life on Earth, contained, inter alia,
the macromolecules (pro-proteins and pro-DNA) and acquired the
ability to reproduce itself [27].
Primary bioelements existed long before the emergence of life;
they had the highest resistance to external conditions due to its
simplicity.
Some of the bioelements became components of active centres
in enzymes, dramatically accelerating the evolution of life due to
the formation of metabolic pathways. Bioelements are components
and legacy of the “primordial soup”, from separate ions to H2 O, CO2 ,
O2 , glucose and other sugars, amino acids and “proto-RNA”.
Electric discharges, electromagnetic fields, ultraviolet and visi-
ble light, gases – these are the conditions (environment) in which
bioelements can unite and “turn into the living”.
We call these simple bioelements the first-order bioelements or
organogens that produce under certain conditions the first organic
molecule (DNA, RNA, ATP?) [7,27]. These bioelements together
with Ca constitute 99% of the human body mass. It is believed
that only certain non-metals C, N, O, S and Se are able to create
stable polymeric structures in normal conditions of contemporary
environment [4]. These non-metals form strong bonds with carbon,
and therefore are able to encode information in the form of certain
sequences of atoms and functional groups. They can easily share
electrons of the outer shell to atoms of elements not only from
the mentioned list, but also from other groups of the Mendeleev’s
Periodic System, including metals, forming compounds with ionic,
covalent or donor–acceptor bonds. These elements form functional
groups of bioligands, forming coordination compounds with met-
als.
These functional groups can rather easily form coordination
compounds with metals mainly of the III and IV periods of Peri-
odic System: Na, K, Mg, Ca, V, Cr, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn and Mo – the
elements of the V period as an exception. Only these chemical ele-
ments have mostly the same size as atoms, as non-metals, and have
no obvious steric constraints toward the formation of coordination
compounds [3].
The above-mentioned chemical elements of the III and IV peri-
ods of the Periodic System play different biological roles [12]. Alkali
metals K, Na play a dominant role in maintaining electrolyte home-
ostasis, in providing functions of messengers. Transition metals in
accordance with their abundance and characteristics of the elec-
tron shells take part in active centres of energy exchange enzymes
and in cyclic redox reactions [3].
Thus, the course of chemical evolution has selected the key
molecules which provided emergence and existence of pri-
mary organisms: these are nitrogenous bases and nucleic acids,
amino acids, peptides, proteins, mono, oligo and polysaccharides,
carotenoids, fatty acids, porphyrin structure and, the main thing
from our point of view, complexes of these molecules with transi-
tion metals.
The complexation provided a transfer of electrons and protons
in enzymatic systems. It solved the problem of energy for organic
life. About 4 billion years ago the first living cells were formed and
biochemical homogeneity of living beings was achieved. The cells
 A.V. Skalny / Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology 25S (2011) S3–S10 S7

contained a matrix system, a set of catalysts surrounded by a mem- This division is necessary for us to better understand the nature
brane, and used organic molecules from the environment as the and role of bioelements. For example, the fact that life is a self-
sources of energy and carbon. sustaining process that can produce “raw material” for new living
The biological stage of evolution has come. structures. This agrees with the theory of natural self-organization
Thus, as a result of chemical evolution on the Earth there of pre-biological processes by Eigen [30] and ideas of Prigogine [31]
appeared the “pre-biological organic world” [28], a variety of living about self-organization in open systems.
systems, which consists of the same set of molecules (bioelements), Based on the ideas of Kaznacheev [32], we can consider
work by the same laws, have the metabolism based on the same bioelements the internal condition (medium) for the existence
principles, and the system of homeostasis that can control the flows of biological systems, whereas electromagnetic components can
of food, energy and information. be considered the external condition (environment). Biosphere is
an assembly of bioelements and living organisms existing under
“. . . the part of history preceding the emergence of the sim-
permanent regulatory influence of physico-chemical factors of ter-
plest organism is under a tight veil of secrecy.” Physics, as well
restrial and cosmic origin.
as molecular biology and biochemistry are “powerless to over-
Let us consider the creation of a secondary bioelement from
come the conflict” between their basic laws and “the need to
metals (as adapted from Kriss et al. [33]).
simultaneously have both an enzyme that controls the synthesis
of informational molecules (DNA or RNA) and these molecules Bioelements:
themselves to encode the synthesis of the enzyme that controls
their synthesis” [28]. a) aqua-ions of alkali metals;
b) aqua-ions and relatively unstable complexes with different lig-
The biological evolution has led to a sharp increase in mass and
ands of alkaline earth metals;
diversity of the living substance on the planet, including formation
c) complexes (of different strength) of transition metal ions with
of new chemical compounds and molecules, the novel (secondary)
relatively simple ligands (amino acids, carbohydrates, carboxylic
bioelements (in cells) (this is Postulate 5).
acids, etc.) that form membrane-transport forms of metals.
The biosphere appeared as an open thermodynamic system in
which some secondary bioelements can disappear and others can
The creation of membrane transport forms of metals in the
appear, while the set of primary bioelements – progenitors of life
digestive tract is the first stage of the formation of secondary
– is likely to remain mainly stable.
bioelements – the extracellular stage (where low molecular weight
Simple bioelements produced four fundamental components
metal–ligand complexes and aqua-ions – precursors of true bioele-
of cellular life, which, according to Marth [18], are divided into
ments – are formed).
68 molecular building blocks (“building blocks of life”), i.e., the
Metal ions or their simple complexes, passed through the mem-
simplest bioelements formed more complicated, macromolecular
brane, remain inside the cell or (transition metal ions) interact with
bioelements.
transferrins – high-molecular transport proteins.This is the stage II
Following this logic, we propose to subdivide bioelements into
(intracellular).
simple (atoms, ions and water as the universal solvent), and com-
Metal ion in the form of aqua-ion, low-molecular or metal-
plicated ones, consisting of the above-mentioned 68 molecules (8
bound transferrin, reacts with a protein, nucleotide or nucleic acid,
of them are nucleosides, which compose DNA and RNA, 20 are nat-
and being included in this metal complex, performs its basic (bio-
ural amino acids necessary for protein synthesis, at least 32 glycans,
logical) function. Most often, metal ions interact with apoenzyme,
8 types of lipids, see Table 1) [18] (this is Postulate 6).
forming metalloenzymes, or activate enzymes without being a part
The above-mentioned (a) simplest (H, C, O, N, P, S, vital chemical
of their active centres.
elements, evolutionarily selected by cells from the environment to
Metal ions with proteins may form metalloproteins for other
supply biological functions) and (b) derivative (the 68 molecules,
functions. Thus, the function of kalmodulin changes when it forms
water, oxygen, etc.) bioelements we propose to call primary
a complex with calcium. Iron ion in haem, binding to the globin,
bioelements, respectively, simple (a) and complicated (b). Primary
turns the latter into myoglobin or haemoglobin.This is the stage III.
bioelements are, in essence, pre-biological elements or “prebiotic”
With time, metalloproteins become decomposed, remnants of
[29]. Other bioelements are likely secondary, because for their for-
the proteins are eliminated from the organism, and metal ions are
mation the primary bioelements were “selected” by cells from
either also eliminated, or included again in the metabolic chain.
the extracellular environment in the process of evolution for per-
This is the stage IV of the bioelement formation.
forming specific regulatory functions (this is Postulate 7). It is very
Bioelemental analysis is the analysis of bioelements in living
important for understanding the biological role of chemical ele-
systems and their environment, in contrast to elemental analysis,
ments, which is determined not so much by a chemical element as
which is an analysis of chemical elements in all media including
such, as by its chemical species in the body. i.e., the talk about a spe-
biological fluids and tissues (this is Postulate 8).
cific role of a chemical element in living organism has no biological
meaning. The biological meaning is in its chemical variety.
For example, during photosynthesis there formed bioelements: Bioelementology as an integrative science
organic compounds, and oxygen. Bioelements provide not only
building material for the “living matter”, but also the energy to We believe that the developing concept of bioelements lays the
maintain body functions. The content of chemical elements such foundation for the integration of bioorganic chemistry, bioinor-
as C, N, O, H, S, P (in simple and complex molecules) in a living ganic chemistry, biophysics, molecular biology and other parts of
organism is the most stable, since they are part of its basis, the life sciences (Fig. 2), for reasons of their hierarchical structuriza-
matrix of the living matter or organism. In turn, the content of trace tion, subdividing them (after the integration) into the “pre-biology”
elements and especially ultratrace elements in living organisms is and biology. The personal experience of existence and develop-
highly dependent on living conditions, nutrition, and the state of ment of the Chair of Nutritiology and Bioelementology, the Institute
the organism. of Bioelementology, founded by the author in 2003 at Oren-
Thus, bioelements can be subdivided into primary, i.e., those burg State University, the debates at the International symposium
which could exist before the origin of life, and secondary ones, “Bioelements” and on the pages of thematic supplements “Bioele-
i.e., those which have formed as producers of living organisms. mentologiya” to the journal “Vestnik of Orenburg State University”,
S8 A.V. Skalny / Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology 25S (2011) S3–S10
Fig. 2. The bioelementology, an integrative scheme.
as well as the discussion at II RUSTEM Congress (Tver, 2008) and
IV FESTEM Symposium (St. Petersburg, 2010) have convinced us of
the timeliness and advisability of bioelementology. However, we
are aware of the necessity to discuss new terms introducing into
scientific use or modifications of already known terms.
In recent years, along with the evolution of our knowledge and
understanding of bioelements, the definitions of bioelementology
evolved [9–11]. Here we try to define bioelementology from our
current point of view:
Bioelementology is a science, which can unite all the “omics”,
probably including genomics. It would be great to call such unify-
ing discipline “biomics”, however this term already exists. Authors
of the term “genomics”, McKusick and Riddle, in the editorial arti-
cle to the first issue of the journal “Genomics” have explained the
introduction of the new term as follows: “. . .logies” are very aca-
demic, while “. . .omics” are more aggressive and democratic [34]
in style of live matter studying.
I am pleased to note that since 2010 in Russia the Insti-
tute of Biochemical Genetics, Ural Scientific Center, Russian
Academy of Sciences has issued the electronic journal “Biomics”
[http://ibg.anrb.ru/biomics.html]. The founders of this issue con-
sider “biomics” as a synonym of “modern biology”. According to
the editorial board, once it happens that part of the root, suffix and
the ending “omics” have become an integral part of a series of new
biological disciplines, this part of the root, suffix and the ending may
unite a whole group of biological sciences which apply methods of
physicochemical biology in their researches. Although the authors
did not aim to introduce a new scientific term “biomics”, they actu-
ally, and concurrently with my own publication [9], came to the
opinion about the appropriateness and timeliness of integration of
the “omics”.
Also, from Wikipedia we know, that biomics is the biological
study of biomes, and the processing of data, such as ecological
communities of plants, animals and soil organisms.
Traditionally, biomics is a part of biogeography, ecosystems
and habitats research. In molecular biology, biomics uses bioin-
formatics approaches to collectively analyze diverse biome data.
A biome may contain very large scale omics information, such as
metagenome and pangenome where genomic sequences are mass
produced. So, bioelementology could be called biomics sensu lato.
It seems to me that the idea of BSE is very interesting, but from the
standpoint of bioelementology is not very productive, as it covers
an important, but only “preliminary” part of the problem, isolating
chemical elements in living systems from other members of bio-
logical processes. There is no visible “bridge” between elementary
(simple) and more complex components of the “pre-life.”
Thus, bioelementology is a part of biology (and of the “life sci-
ence” in terms of Vernadsky), a science about the biological role
of substances, important for building and existence of the living
matter (this is Postulate 9).
Bioelementology is a direction of fundamental science studying
the transition state of the matter (evolution from biologically inert
 A.V. Skalny / Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology 25S (2011) S3–S10
to living), formation and change of bioelements, which are vital or
conditionally essential for the living matter, under the influence of
various physical interactions and the matrix effect of water.
The term “bioelementology” was first used in the scientific lit-
erature by Bikkulova and Ishmuratova in 1999 [35]. The subject
of bioelementology, however, was considered by the authors as
a study of biologically active simple, complex and coordinated
compounds of chemical elements (metals and non-metals except
f-elements of the Periodic System), and the influence of their defi-
ciency or excess on human organism and biosphere.
As it was stated above, we conceive of the genius Russian scien-
tist Vladimir Vernadsky as the forerunner of bioelementology.
Bioelementology as an integrative science, based on the ideas of
Vernadsky, will bring us closer to understanding the origin of life.
Unlike the currently prevailing molecular approach, which unfor-
tunately does not solve the problem of the life origin despite the
involvement in consideration of new biochemical factors – nucleic
acids, matrix mechanisms of continuity and biochemical memory
[32], – bioelementology, in our view, will help to consider the con-
ditions of life more holistically as the presence of bioelements is
already the most important condition for its maintenance. Both
the planetary environment, which surrounds the living substance,
and the extraplanetary space environment which is influencing it
provide the necessary material and energy flows for the proper
functioning and continual renewal of the structure of living matter.
The ideas of autotrophy of the mankind and noosphere, sug-
gested by Vernadsky in 1923 [19], have fostered the epoch of
nanobiology, the living matter of Universe. We believe that bioele-
mentology can help to solve the main problem of mankind –
achievement of autotrophy – through answering the question for
the essence of the living matter of Earth and the identification of
this essence with a wider principle of life existence in the Universe
[36].
The bioelementology combines the systemic and integrative
approaches in life science and is a possible precursor to systemic
biology.
Conclusion
The materials above illustrate that the evolution of living organ-
isms on Earth was accompanied by a broadening and deepening of
the utilization of chemical elements and their compounds, i.e., in
fact, by diversification, improvement and complication of bioele-
ments. This process continues today in both natural and artificial
environment, if allowing for the development of biotechnology,
genetic engineering and pharmacy.
Diversification of bioelements is a natural tool of the evolu-
tion aimed at the adaptation of living organisms to the changing
conditions of their existence. The emergence of new bioelements
accompanies the process of evolution from simple prokaryotic cells
(universal) to specialized cells within multicellular organisms with
longer duration of individual life at a deceleration of reproduction
rate. Changing the composition of the extracellular environment,
such as the concentration of key ions or gases, it is possible to
cause a cascade of formation of new bioelements. A more diverse
set of bioelements is observed in organisms with relatively low
reproduction rates, but with a longer individual life.
Bioelements existed yet before the emergence of life. The life
itself (since the formation of the cell) became a powerful and very
efficient producer and consumer of new bioelements. The change
from anaerobic to aerobic life was accompanied by a widening of
the spectrum (variety) of bioelements. Therefore an evolutionary
or revolutionary (with the help of new technologies) creation of
new forms of cells and hence of new life is possible that can open
to mankind unprecedented prospects for development, as well as
S9
new threats to its existence if the process of the formation of new
life forms will be uncontrolled or inadequately controlled.
It must be remembered that a set of bioelements is a necessary
but not sufficient condition for the formation of life. In many cases
in medicine, in our opinion, it is possible to use bioelements for
maintaining organs and tissues instead of using cell cultures and
tissues, because it is not always necessary or possible (including
for financial reasons) to recover the function by a substance, organ
or tissue, completely identical to the living one (e.g., in transplan-
tology, orthopedics, in treatment of osteoporosis, diseases of skin,
and hair.).
The development of bioelementology may lead to the appear-
ance of modified cells or technologies for the creation of new cells
which can be used for medical purposes. Without going into detail,
we only note that this tale may sooner become reality with the cor-
rect formulation of tasks, based on the correct understanding of the
hierarchy of “pre-living” processes and of life itself, on the forma-
tion of new methodological approaches on its basis, on the proper
division of essential substances in necessary and sufficient, pri-
mary and secondary, with a better understanding of the boundary
between “pre-living” and “living”, between the set of bioelements
and life.
Thus, which further steps can result from appearance and
establishment of the new term and new integrative scientific direc-
tion? Change in educational programs for high school students
of biological, chemical and physical specialties, creation of spe-
cial programs for biotechnologists, medical researchers, ecologists
and pharmacists. And this will demand united efforts of scien-
tists and specialists from adjacent fields. Integration of scientific
researches without division into separate parts, studied by only
one of the “omics”, though this will demand deeper and more
global planning of scientific investigations on the basis of the mul-
tidisciplinary concept. One should start from the fact that, like
multielement analysis in biology and medicine, the study of the
limited number of parameters (one omics) will lead to further accu-
mulation of “intermediate” scientific investigations, which really
solve not one question of modern biology. The ranking of studies
on biological systems (bioelementology, biology of plants, verte-
brates, humans, etc.) will allow to “scan” the living matter from the
physico-chemical stage of its evolution to the highest social stage
(noosphere) in a relatively short historical period.
Acknowledgement
I would like to thank my colleague Dr. Andrei Grabeklis for his
valuable help and advice.
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