SANITARY LANDFILL LINER: UNDERSTANDING THE CFC

COMPOSITE DEVELOPMENTWITH REGARDS TO

GEO - ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATION

A THESIS

Presented to
the College of Engineering
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering
Capitol University
Cagayan de Oro City

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING

JESSA RUTH B. SANTOS

RAYE KRIS VILLARUZ
HEATHER REEN POL
FAISAL CASAN
JIE LUMINDAS

August 2022
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

In 2015, all United Nations Member countries agreed to borrow
the 2030 docket for Sustainable Development. This is centered on the 17
Sustainable Development pretensions (SDGs) as shown in Figure 1. The
pretensions present as a humorless plea for collaborative trouble by all

countries- developed and developing- in a global cooperation.

Figure 1. 2030 Sustainable Development Goals

(https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org ,2017)

Agenda 11 promotes cities and mortal agreement to be inclusive, flexible, safe, and
sustainable. Agenda 11 target for the reduction of the adverse per capita environmental
impacts of cities with focus on air quality and external waste operation. The same agenda is
farther described by its number 6. 1 index on waste operation. The study is anchored on this
agenda that aims to contain external waste residuals thereby lessen the environment impact of
a city, thereby promoting resiliency, safety, and sustainability.
 Agenda 12 on the other hand, calls for ensuring sustainable consumption and product
patterns. The agenda is marked by its target of reducing waste generation through
forestallment, recycling, reduction, and exercise. The application of cover ash as raw material
of this study is a way of reducing waste and reusing similar to develop another Eco-friendly
material. indirect Economy (CE) is described as a system that aims to minimize waste and
making the most out of the given resources. According to
https//www.activesustainability.com (2018), it's presented as a system of resources
application where reduction, exercise and recycling of rudiments prevails. likewise,

Government Europa (2018) says CE is a fairly new system of operation, which aims to ‘close
the circle’ and design waste out of the system. This means a transition from the outdated
‘take, make, dispose’ direct operating model, which is largely extravagant and mischievous
to the environment, to a further responsible each- encompassing and abundant resource
operation system
Figure 2. Linear vs Circular Economy (Weetman, 2016)

Figure 2 is an infographic of the difference between direct and indirect economy.

According to Weetman (2016) direct economy in short is “take, make and discard”, i.e.,
take some materials, make some product, and discard it at the end of its use. This has
resulted to the declination and disruption of earth’s ecosystems. Many manifestations of
earth’s degradation are global warming, climate change, melting of the ice caps, ocean
position rice, among others.

Indirect economy on the other hand resolves the dilemma of “take, make and
discard”, CE uses every resource, using all of it over and designs wastes out of the
products’ production system. This study will use cover ash, waste of coal power plants in

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power generation.

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 According to Meng (2003), fly ash is defined by ACI Committee 226 (1987) as “ the
finely divided residue performing from the combustion of ground or pulverized coal which is
transported from the firebox through the boiler by flue feasts ”. Fly ash is an artificial waste
and is a coal combustion by- product. It generally contains the composites SiO2, Al2O3,
Fe2O3, CaO, MgO and SO3(www.fhwa.dot.gov, 2017).

Fly ash reduces the eventuality of a plastic soil to suffer volumetric expansion by a
physical cementing medium, which cannot be estimated by the malleability indicator. Fly ash
controls shrink- swell by cementing the soil grains together much like a Portland cement
bonds aggregates together to make concrete. By relating the soil grains together, soil particle
movements are confined. Typical addition rates based on dry weight of soil are 12 to 15
percent (www.fhwa.dot.gov, 2017).
Senapati (2011) stated that application of fly ash may be viewed as mollifying
environmental goods and addressing disposal problems. In his study, a number of
applications of fly ash includes fly ash in brick manufacturing, fly ash as cement cumulative,
fly ash in illness, fly ash- grounded pottery, fly ash as toxin and fly ash in road construction.

Clay is defined as a veritably fine soil of colloidal size consisting of hydrated

silicates of aluminum. It's plastic and cohesive soil that shrinks on drying, expands when
undergoes wetting and expels water when compressed. It also has low permeability that
makes it the soil used as liner for landfills.

Figure 3. Misamis Oriental Soil Type Map (http://misamisoriental.gov.ph/, 2013)

4
 Figure 3 depicts the soil chart of Misamis Oriental. The abundance of clay in the area is
shown in the chart. The clay that will be used in the study will be taken from the Municipality of
Villanueva where it shows that soils in the area are clay. Specifically, the clay will be taken
from the area where the LGU of Villanueva has identified as the position of the external sanitary
landfill.

Republic Act (RA) 9003(lawphil.net, 2001), the Ecological Solid Waste Management
Act of 2000 Chapter 3 Composition 1 Section 17 (h) paragraph 4 requires for each municipality
with open dump spots to develop and operate sanitary landfills as final disposal spots for
external and ultimately residual wastes. Sanitary landfill must accommodate the solid and
residual waste from homes that has formerly been reused in a external solid waste recovery
installation.

Still, as shown in Figure 4, the existing illegal dumpsites that tholus have access and use
totaled to 261. There are 20 illegal dumpsites in region 10 alone according toemb.gov.ph (2020).
The figures put the region among the top 50 with LGUs that are non-complaint with RA 9003.
Figure 4. Illegal Dumpsites (emb.gov.ph, 2020)

Since the implementation of RA 9003, only 19 sanitary landfills developed in

Northern Mindanao as shown in Figure 5. This puts the region in the lower 50 of all regions
that’s biddable with RA 9003. Two of these sanitary landfills are in Iligan City and Cagayan
de Oro City. This is a manifestation of the region’s non-compliance of RA 9003.

5
 Figure 5. Sanitary Landfills (emb.gov.ph, 2020)

Accordingly, Senate Economic Planning Office (SEPO)( 2017) states that “ further than
15 times after the passage of the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act (RA No. 9003),
enforcement and compliance with the law remains a daunting task due to specialized, political,
and financial limitations of concerned agencies and original government units (LGU)”.
The financial constraints of the LGU’s perhaps be addressed by lessening the
consistence of the clay liner without compromising its integrity through amending the clay
liner. likewise, Chapter 3 Composition 3 Section41( a) of RA 9003(lawphil.net, 2001) provides
for the use of complexion liner and/ or geosynthetic membrane to contain leachate and reduce
or help adulterant inflow to groundwater.
With the vacuity of fly ash in the region, this study generally aims to address the
brewing problem of cover ash disposal through its application and introduce a CFC compound
as landfill liner. The CFC compound is developed with environmental safety and profitable
feasibility in mind. Hence, this will allow the LGUs to give for an external landfill liner and be
complaint with the provision of RA 9003.

6
Figure 6. Northern Mindanao Map (Google Map)

Figure 7. Villanueva land fill (Google Map)

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 In connection, this is the chart of a municipality in Northern Mindanao (Figure 6)
where the proposed aseptic landfill is located. In the highland bounded in red is the proposed
landfill compound (Figure 7). Within the compound, the position of the aseptic landfill is the
lower area bounded in red. Furthermore, that small area bounded in red is where the
experimenters got the soil sample, which is clay. The experimenters gathered soils from
different part of the said area characterized as Bore Hole 1, Bore Hole 2, and Bore Hole 3.

1.2 Rationale

Significant studies on clay – fly ash mixes are ample in the print and online media sources.
These studies substantially concentrate on perfecting the mechanical parcels of the clay and fly
ash as aseptic landfill liner through mixing different rates of the two factors, clay, and fly ash
according either by mass, weight or volume. This study still develops sanitary landfill liner from
clay and fly ash with cement as binding agent. The combination is known as CFC compound. The
CFC compound employs the molar CaO/ SiO2 (Ca/ Si) rates of0.8,0.9, and1.0 for the
determination of the volume of raw materials to be mixed. The Ca Si rate is banking on the
relation between the chemical composition of calcium- silicate- hydrate (C- S- H) phases. C- H- S
is the element that's responsible for the compressive strength of concrete (Kunther, etal., 2017).]
Furthermore, former studies on clay liners don't include the leachability of the CFC
compound. This study will address that gap since. This study aims to determine the leachability of
the poisonous essence in the CFC compound through US – EPA 1311, toxin characteristic
filtering procedure (TCLP). In addition, this study will investigate the reinforcement capacity of
the HDPE geogrid as sheet reinforcement to carry the stress on the side slopes afforded by the
waste that will be contained in the sanitary landfill.

This is significant since RA 9003 does not indicate the required compressive strength
of the clay liner.
Moreover, this study was supervised because of its main aim and that's to manage the
RA 9003 also comprehended as the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act. The
Composition 6 Section 37 of RA 9003 provides for the prohibition of the application of
public dumpsite and further says that every LGU shall convert its open dumps into controlled
dumpsites within three cycles after the effectivity of this Act and that no contained dumps
shall be allowed five cycles succeeding the effectivity of RA 9003. additionally, this study
also promotes Environmental sustainability that will allow us to conserve natural resources
and secure global ecosystems for unborn health and well- being.

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 Promotes environmental sustainability that will allow us to conserve natural coffers
and secure global ecosystems for coming health and well- being.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

This study aims to determine the physio-chemical characteristics of Villanueva
clay according to the following test.
Specifically, this study aims to:
1. Determine the physio-chemical characteristics of the
Villanueva clay according to the following tests:

a. Permeability Test
2. Determine the optimum values of the permeability and compaction
behavior, in accordance with t h e RA 9003 provisions, of the CFC

Composite with the following as independent variables:

a. Ca/Si ratio (0.8, 0.9, 1)
b. Cement content (0, 1.5%, 3%)
3. Characterize the CFC composite as liner in terms of the
following engineering properties:
a. Direct Shear strength through ASTM 3080.

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 1.4 Conceptual Framework
In this ponder, the C- H- S molar rate is analyzed, which is optimized so that the
pressure driven conductivity and compressive strength of the CFC composite will pass the
RA 9003 and DAO 10- 2006 on sanitary landfill liner. Figure 8 shows the principles that will
be boned. The CFC combination will be elaborated with the aid of mixing fly ash, clay, and
cement at molar extents of0.80,0.90,1.00.

The CFC composite will also be examined in the laboratory to determine its physical
properties, mechanical properties, and the chemical parcels Fly ash may be a pozzolanic
material. It's a finely separated unformed alumina- silicate with varying quantities of calcium
that, when mixed with Portland cement Sort I and water, reacts with the calcium hydroxide
released by the hydration of Portland cement to produce colorful calcium- silicate hydrates
(C- S- H) and calcium- aluminate hydrates.

Clay features a tall- water maintenance volume. Its volume to hold water is adjust to
the surface field (https//www.britannica.com/science/clay-mineral, 2014). Clays ended up
moldable and at long last close- fluid as their water substance raises. Tall versatility soil
encompasses a lesser bearing volume and isn’t break even with for development. Since of the
versatility of clay, distortion and understanding of gathered structures are clear and
prominent.

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 Input Process Output

Material Tests
Raw Materials Raw Material Characteristics
Permeability test.

Clay Coefficient of permeability

CFC Composite: @C-H-S ratios: 0.8 CFC Composite CFC Composite Physical
0.9 Material Tests Characteristics
1.0 Compaction test, Grading curves, Liquid Limit
Permeability test. (LL). Plastic limit (PL),
Shrinkage limit (SL),
Maximum dry density (MDD),
Optimum

CFC Composite Mechanical Test

CFC Composite Physical
CFC Composite Mechanical Test
Characteristics Direct Shear test Shear strength
(Ratios complaint with RA 9003
provisions)

Figure 8. Conceptual Framework of the Study

1.5 Significance of the Study

This consider is advantageous to the taking after substances as information picked up will
be of application to the person concerns. To wit:

This think about will be advantageous to the Nearby Government Units (LGUs) as this
will address the require for locally accessible materials that will line the proposed sanitary
landfills. Hence, tending to the concern on the Executing Rules and Direction (IRR) of RA 9003.
The national government will too advantage from the venture as tholus will be capacitated to
address the arrangements in RA 9003.

Furthermore, the CFC composite can too be shared to other LGUs other than that inside
the Northern Mindanao locale. Assist, RA 9275 something else known as the Clean Water Act,
will moreover be tended to since a appropriately lined landfill will permit the correct collection
and treatment of the leachate and anticipate it from entering underground water frameworks that
will contaminate the bodies of water.

The people in the community will also directly benefit from the results of the study.
Long term negative effects of having sanitary landfill in the locality will be addressed as the
CFC composite will address the permeability issues of the sanitary landfill thereby avoiding

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underground water contamination since leachate will be contained.

The scholarly community will too advantage from the ponder as this will be a commitment
to the body of information particularly in material advancement and circular economy.

1.6 Scope and Limitations

The scope and impediments will decide the particular parameters of our study. To begin
with, this study will center on the improvement of a CFC composite that will be utilized as liners
for clean landfills. The CFC composite will be a blend of clay, fly ash and cement at a
foreordained molar proportion of 0.80, 0.90and 1.0. This study will be employing a cement rate of
0%, 1.5%, 3%, and the same water substance will moreover be utilized. Furthermore, this study is
restricted only to the assurance of the compressive quality, and shear quality of the CFC
composite that will be developed. Also, the materials that will be utilized within the study is
constrained only the clay soil found within the proposed sanitary landfill area in Villanueva,
Misamis Oriental. The fly ash will be from Steag State Power Inc. too from Villanueva,
Misamis Oriental. And the Portland cement will be from Holcim

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 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Agreeing to Chakradhar and Katoch (2016), a sanitary landfill could be a rubbish

transfer office that's meant to defend against natural contamination and wellbeing concerns. It
is additionally characterized as a gap where layers of strong rubbish are stacked, compacted,
and secured for inevitable disposal.
The leftover municipal waste is put away in a sanitary landfill. Organic exercises
breakdown these wastes. The method happens at variable rates of disintegration. Water
invades through falling apart wastes, causing filtering of breakdown byproducts and the
generation of leachate. In the event that the sanitary landfill's clay liner comes up short to
retain the leachate accurately, it will contaminate not just the fundamental soil but moreover
the underground water. This will endanger the wellbeing of the neighboring community. As a
result, it is basic that the sterile landfill liner performs as aiming and built.

To anticipate groundwater contamination, sanitary landfills are lined at the bottom.

Sanitary landfills ordinarily have a lined bottom, a leachate collection and treatment framework,
groundwater checking, gas extraction (the gas is flared or utilized to produce vitality), and a
capping system.

Landfills are represented by the Resource Transformation Recuperation Act

(RCRA) Subtitle D for strong waste and Subtitle C for unsafe waste, concurring to the
Joined together States Natural Assurance Office, US EPA, (2019). Subtitle D centers on
state and nearby governments as major arranging, directing, and actualizing
organizations for nonhazardous strong waste administration, such as household waste
and nonhazardous mechanical strong waste. Municipal Strong Waste Landfills and
Industrial Waste Landfills are cases of Subtitle D landfills. The Office of Environment
and Normal Assets Authoritative Arrange (DAO) 10 Arrangement of 2006 discloses the
clean landfill classifications within the Philippines. These categories are based on the
sum of rubbish (in tons) acknowledged by the sterile landfill each day. These categories
are appeared in Table 1 below.
 Table 1. Sanitary Landfill Category (DAO 10 S. of 2006)
Sanitary Description
Landfill
Figure 9
Category
Category 1 A final disposal facility applied to LGUs with net residual generated
of less than or equal to 15tons per day (TPD). It shall also apply to a
cluster of LGUs with collective disposal residual waste of less than
or equal to 15TPD.
Category 2 A final disposal facility applied to LGUs with net residual generated
of greater than 15TPD but less than or equal to 75TPD. It shall also
apply to a cluster of LGUs with collective disposal residual waste of
greater than 15TPD but less than or equal to 75TPD.

Category 3 A final disposal facility applied to LGUs with net residual generated
of greater than 75TPD but less than or equal to 200TPD. It shall also
apply to a cluster of LGUs with collective disposal residual waste of
greater than 75TPD
but less than or equal to 200TPD.
Category 4 A final disposal facility applied to LGUs with net residual generated
of greater than 200TPD. It shall also apply to a
cluster of LGUs with collective disposal residual waste of greater than
200TPD.
007-F (1987). The graph delineates the components of the sterile landfill's basal liner. The
establishment of the landfill, as outlined within the same picture, is made up of the taking
after layers: compacted squanders, covers oil, a layer of leachate waste and collecting
framework, a geomembrane, and a compacted clay liner. Figure 10, on the other side, Atiola
delineates a cross area of a modern clean landfill (2019). Toxin checking wells, a leachate
administration framework, and leachate barriers are portrayed within the picture. Moreover,
the modern clean landfill prioritizes long-term natural preservation (Atiola, 2019). Moreover,
when landfills are full, they are not deserted. Instep, taking after closure, there ought to be
continued monitoring with a center on water wells to guarantee ground water preservation.

15
Figure 9. Cross section of an idealized sanitary landfill (EPA/530-SW-86-007- F, 1987)

Figure 10. A cross section of modern sanitary landfill (Atiola, 2019)

Figure 11 outlines the base liner format of the Squander Administration and
Reusing Center (WMRC) clean landfill in Bais City. The base lines system, as seen
within the picture, comprises of a 0.30m rock deplete for leachate collection and a
0.60m clay liner over normal base-rock. However, due to budgetary limits, the LGU
serious to utilize locally available materials, agreeing to Paul et al. (2010). As a result,
the region created the primary Bentonite-enhanced clay-liner framework within the
Philippines (Paul, 2003, Paul et al., 2010)

16
 Figure 11. Cross section of WMRC sanitary landfill, Bais City (Paul, et al.,2010)
`
This inquire about at that point centers on the prospect of progressing the local clay in
Villanueva, Misamis Oriental, as a sterile landfill liner by utilizing and combining it with fly
cinder, a abundant byproduct from coal control plants within the same zone. Table 2 appears
a outline of the least clay line necessities per DAO 10-2006 and the Actualizing Rules and
Controls (IRR) of RA 9003, US EPA/530- SW-86-007-F (Plan, Development, and
Assessment of Clay Liners for Strong Squander Administration (1986), and US eCFR (2019)
Title 40: Assurance of the Environment, Portion 258—Criteria for Civil Solid Waste
Landfills It is clear that our penetrability and thickness requirements are lower than those of
the Joined together States. Typically aiming for clay liners in categories 1 and 2. As a result,
this consider prompts changing the characteristics of the nearby clay to move forward the
porousness of the clay liner.

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 Table 2. Minimum Clay Liner Requirement for SLF Category Levels (DAO 10-
2006)

Liner DAO 10-2006 and IRR RA 9003 Rule XIV EPA/530- US

Feature Section 1(j) SW-86- eCFR
S Category 007-F 2019
1 2 3 4
≤ 15tpd > 15tpd, > 75tpd, >
≤ 75tpd ≤ 200tpd 200tpd
Clay 0.60m 0.75m 0.75m 0.75m 0.60m 0.60m
Liner thick, thick, thick, thick, thick, thick,
permea permea permea permea permea permea
bility of bility of bility of bility of bility of -bility of
-5
10 cm/s -6
10 cm/s -7
10 cm/s 10-7cm/s 10-7cm/s 10-7cm/s
HDPE 1.5mm 1.5mm 1.524m
membr HDPE HDPE m
ane membra membra HDPE
over ne ne membr
Clay permea permea ane
Liner -bility of -bility of
10 - 10-
14cm/s 14cm/s
over over
0.60m 0.60m
thick clay thick clay
liner with liner with
permea permea
-bility of -bility of
10 cm/s 10-7cm/s
-6

flexible 0.762m
membr m
ane FML
liner
(FML)
over
Clay
Liner

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 Agreeing to the National Strong Squander Administration Status Report (2015) the
Philippines’ waste generation is anticipated to extend from 13.48million tons in 2010 to
14.66 million tons in 2014 to 16.63 million tons in 2020.This projection is based on the
normal per capita era rate of 0.40 kg per day. Republic Act 9003 otherwise known as the
“Ecological Strong Waste Administration Act of 2000, sanctioned on January 26, 2001,
points to address the developing problem on strong wastes within the nation. It gives the
legitimate system for the country’s efficient, comprehensive, and environmental strong waste
administration program that might guarantee security of open wellbeing and the environment.

However, Castillo and Otoma (2013) expressed that, in common, the

Philippines' lessening, reuse, and reusing framework, as well as last transfer in
environmentally sanitary landfills, might still be respected ineffectual and wasteful in
accomplishing a clean environment. This is often illustrated by LGUs' destitute
compliance with Republic Act 9003, as seen in Table 3 underneath. As it were
25percent of LGUs had get to to sterile landfills as of January 2022. There are fair
245 sterile dumps serving 478 neighborhood government units. Indeed, in spite of the
fact that the number of SFLs is developing, it as it were serves 478 LGUs, or 25
percent of the LGUs within the Philippines.

Wanigarathna, Kurukulasuriya, Hamamoto, and Kawamoto (2013)

examination on the compatibility of locally open expansive soils finds that the
pressure driven conductivity of all test examples was less than 1x10-9m/s, comparing
to the water powered conductivity parameters proposed for liner materials. The same
study ran comparable tests on broad soils from Moragahakanda, Sri Lanka, which
had been adjusted with 5% bentonite (Sodium Bentonite). The expansion of
bentonite come about in a 0.22x10-9m/s drop in pressure driven conductivity. As a
result, Wanigarathna et al.(2013) found that, in case the strength criteria are met, the
broad soils of Digana and Moragahakanda are suitable as liner materials and possibly
combined into a sensibly lean liner by altering with bentonite.

Table 3. Number and percentage of LGUs with access to SLFs (emb.gov.ph,

2019)
Paramet Year
ers 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2022
Populati 101,883,76 103,320,22 104,918,09 106,512,07 108,116,61 112,233,33
on of the 4 2 0 4 5 9
Philippin es

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 Number 101 118 135 165 182 245
of
operatin g
SLFs

Number of 228 248 293 353 387 478

LGUs
with
access to
SLFs
Percent 13.95% 15.17% 17.93% 21.78% 23.68% 25%
of LGUs
with
access
to SLFs
*https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/philippines-population/, 2019

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 Clays are routinely utilized as landfill boundaries (Bend, 1998). Clays' innate physical
and chemical qualities make them suited for landfill utilization. Since clays are broadly open
inside the region, they constitute the preeminent cost-effective choice for squander control.
Besides, since clays have small particle sizes, they have an dreadfully dejected penetrability.
This licenses for incredibly moo rates of spillage of the fluids found in landfills. At long
final, clay minerals are the result of land weathering over various thousands of a long time
and are consequently essentially sit out of gear and not slanted to significant chemical
reactions with leachate (Bend, 1998). As a result, clay is regarded as a basic texture for clean
landfill liners due to its common central focuses: moo porousness, moo taken a toll, and
distant coming to accessibility.
Clay liners are built as a basic boundary to secure ground water from waste
defilement. The compacted clay layers in composite and twofold liners are frequently two to
five feet thick (Hughes, Christy, & Heimlich, 2011), depending on the basic geology and the
kind of liner to be presented. The clay utilized must have a slightest thickness of 0.75 m and a
penetrability of 1 x 10-6 cm/sec or less, concurring to RA 9003.
Mishra and Ravindra (2015) explored the achievability of cement included to course
F fly ash in extents of 0, 2, 5, and 10% to set up its adequacy as landfill liner material. Blends
were compressed to realize greatest dry thickness and ideal dampness substance (OMC)
(MDD). The combination tests uncovered a comparatively lower esteem of compression list
for all combinations, showing that settling due to overburden weight application would be
negligible. The water powered conductivity of the tests was watched to diminish as the stack
expanded. In any case, none of the blends had a water powered conductivity esteem less than
109 m/s, which is a constraining condition set up by various natural organizations for the
fabric to be utilized as a landfill liner. The same consider found that blends of 90 percent fly
ash and 10% cement compacted at 5% damp of OMC-MDD had a water powered
conductivity esteem of less than 109 m/s. All of the blends shrank to some degree after
drying. The unconsolidated undrained test discoveries appeared that as the cement
concentration within the blends expanded, so did the shear quality esteem.
Chakradhar and Katoch (2016) explored the utilize of fly ash as a landfill liner. Fly
ash is considered and evaluated in this work for a few parameters connected with the
behavior of water powered boundaries in landfills to advance it as a landfill liner. The ponder
found that Lesson C fly ash has self- cementitious properties and consequently does not
require stabilization, but Course F fly ash needs free lime, coming about within the absence
of self-cementing properties, but may be cured utilizing added substances such as lime,
bentonite, and so on. The study too illustrates that fly ash may get pressure driven

21
conductivities on the arrange of 10-7 cm/s with satisfactory compaction at ideal dampness
substance. Moreover, fly ashes decrease to some degree but don't change in volume. It was
subsequently found that fly fiery remains, with the addition of lime, may be developed to
realize satisfactory quality and worthy pressure driven conductivity.
Uniaxial compressive quality (UCS) is found to develop to begin with (up to40%
fly fiery debris) and along these lines diminish with extra increment in fly ash. Besides, it has
been found that curing time encompasses a impressive affect on UCS. The comes about appear
that a blend with 70% or less fly fiery debris substance (in a fly ash-bentonite blend) may fulfill
routine pressure driven conductivity and UCS benchmarks. With nickel and lead as show
poisons, the Langmuir isotherm is appeared to way better characterize the sorption behavior of
fly ash-expansive soil. All the blends tried in their ponder had the most elevated Pb+2 take-up.
Sorption lessens as it were unassumingly in blends with a few extending soil component, but
essentially in mixes with fair fly ash substance.

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 Ghosh and Subbarao (2007) utilized unconfined compression tests and
unconsolidated undrained triaxial tests with pore-pressure estimations to examine the shear
quality of a Course F fly fiery remains. The fly ash was stabilized utilizing 4- 10% lime
alone or in conjunction with gypsum (0.5 and 1.0 percent). The tests were cured for up to
90 days. Unconfined compression tests were performed both soaked and unsoaked. The
comes about appear that stabilizing a moo lime Course F fly ash with lime up to 10%
makes strides shear quality highlights, which including a unassuming extent of gypsum, 0.5
and 1.0 percent, coupled with lime to fly fiery debris progresses shear quality pick up amid
early curing periods of 7 and 28 days. Agreeing to the same think about, fly fiery remains
stabilized with 10% lime and 1% gypsum has an unconfined compressive quality of 6308
kPa after 90 days of curing, and the pore-pressure reaction of the stabilized fly cinder is
like that of solid soils. It was decided that streak with CaO as moo as 1.4 percent, stabilized
with lime and a little extent of gypsum, offers guarantee in street and bank building
applications due to its quality, flexibility, life span, and natural.
Agreeing to the test discoveries from Kunther, Ferriero, and Skibsted (2017), the
compressive quality of C-S-H glues rises when the Ca/Si proportion brings down. The
molar volumes of the C-S-H stages drop when the Ca/Si proportion brings down. This
think about too uncovered the discoveries of the hydration of Portland cement utilizing
tests with molar Ca/Si proportions of 0.83, 1.0, 1.25, and 1.5 with curing times of up to
three months. This consider moreover utilized a steady water/solid proportion of 1.1 by
volume to produce blends with indistinguishable beginning porosity. In any case, trails
illustrated that the sum of silica contains a noteworthy affect on water utilize. To get a
workable glue, a super- plasticizer was included at 20% of the mass of silica, coming
about in a small takeoff from the required water/solid volume proportion. As a result, the
genuine water/solid weight proportion ranges from 0.63 to 0.68.
Nontananandh, Boonyong, Yoobanpot, and Chantawarangul (2004) found that the
created quality of the tests expanded proportionately with the sum of CSH. The sum of the
essential response items, such as calcium Silicate hydrates, was found to be specifically
related to the increment in compressive quality (CSH). The reason of this investigate was to
upgrade delicate marine clay by combining standards from chemical ground enhancement
strategies and natural geotechnics (Nontananandh, et al., 2004). The same consider found that
hydration items affect the compressive quality of cementitious materials. Calcium silicate
hydrate (C-S-H) impacts the physical and mechanical characteristics of most cementitious
materials, agreeing to Pelliser, Gleize, and Mikowski (2012). There are by and by no basic
models that connect chemical composition, nanostructure, and microstructure to

23
physicochemical and mechanical qualities

24
 The space procedure was utilized in their work to survey the
micro/nanomechanical characteristics of manufactured C-S-H with shifting CaO/SiO2
(Ca/Si) molar proportions. X-ray diffractometry (XRD), Fourier change infrared
spectroscopy (FT-IR), and X- beam fluorescence was too utilized to analyze C-S-H.
(XRF). The results appeared that when the Ca/Si molar proportion of C-S-H fell, the
flexible modulus and hardness rose, with flexible modulus values of 27 and 20 GPa
for Ca/Si proportions of 0.7 and 2.1, individually. The same think about found that
smaller scale- and nano porosity had a considerable affect on the result. The consider
was kept to engineered C-S-H, but it clarifies the plausibility of the Ca/Si proportion
to influence mechanical characteristics whereas permitting investigation of C-S-H
without the nearness of extra damp Portland cement stage.

Table 4. Summary of Calcium silicate hydrates studies

Author Material Ca/Si Ratio Compressi Findings
ve strength
Suda, Saeki synthesize d Increase linear relationship
and Saito C-S-H between the Ca/Si
(2015) ratio and the
density of C-
S-H

Kunther, Portland 0.83, 1.0, Increase compressive

Ferriero and cement 1.25 and 1.5 strength of the C-
Skibsted (2017) S-H pastes
increases as the
Ca/Si ratio
decrease
Nontananand h, soft marine Increase increase in
Boonyong, compressive strength
Yoobanpot is

and Chantawaran clay + directly proportional

gul (2004) cement to the amounts of the
major reaction
products, i.e. C-
S-H

Pelliser, Gleize synthesize elastic modulus

and Mikowski d C-S-H and hardness
(2012) increased when
the Ca/Si molar
ratio of C-S-H
decreased

25
 Table 4 portrays the investigate on the connect between the Ca/Si proportion and
compressive quality Most investigate illustrate that when the Ca/Si proportion decreases, the
compressive quality of the materials examined increases. Amu, Fajobi, and Afekhuai (2005)
utilized sweeping clay soil tests that were at first submitted to common classification tests on
three classes of tests: 12% cement perfect blend, 9% cement + 3% fly fiery debris ideal
blend, and 0% (unstabilized) normal clay soil test. Greatest Dry Densities (MDD), Ideal
Dampness Substance (OMC), California Bearing Proportion (CBR),Unconfined
Compression, and the Undrained Triaxial test were at that point performed on the three
partitioned classes of tests. The results uncovered that the soil test stabilized with a blend of 9
percent cement additionally 3 percent fly fiery remains outperformed the test stabilized with
12 percent cement also percent fly cinder in terms of MDD, OMC, Bearing Capacity, and
Shearing Resistance. This illustrates that the expansion of a specific sum of fly ash
progresses cement's stabilizing capacity on an growing clay soil.
Pawar and Garud (2014) examined the blending of diverse qualities of fly ash with clay
fabric (5-50 percent by weight, in proportion of dried fly ash to damp clay, at 5% interims) and
delivered 16 bricks of each extent. Strategies and hardware comparable to those utilized in clay
brick producers are utilized within the generation prepare. The coming about bricks were up to
10.60% lighter than clay bricks. The compressive quality of fly ash bricks was more noteworthy
than 5 N/mm2, which is more prominent than that of clay bricks. This surpasses the stack
bearing clay bricks and is a few times way better than commercially accessible worthy
conventional clay bricks. Other critical properties of the fly cinder bricks were moreover
examined. Water assimilation capacity, compressive quality, and Efflorescence tests were
among them. Fly fiery remains bricks assimilate less water, as required by I.S. required.
As illustrated in Table 5, fly ash compounds are compared to cement. Both shapes of
fly ash and cement contain basically the same chemicals. As a result, commercially made
cement contains fly ash components.
Table 5. Sample Oxide Analyses of Fly ash and Portland Cement
Compounds Fly Ash Fly Ash Portland
Class F Class C Cement
𝑆𝑖𝑂2 55 40 23
𝐴𝑙2𝑂3 26 17 4
𝐹𝑒2𝑂3 7 6 2
𝐶𝑎𝑂 9 24 64
𝑀𝑔𝑂 2 5 2
𝑆𝑂3 1 3 2
Source: https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/Pavement/recycling/fac h01.cfm

26
 An assortment of applications and employments for fly ash have been explored.
Concurring to www.fhwa.dot.gov (2017), as it were 32% of the complete fly yield within the
Joined together States of 62 million mT in 2001 was utilized. These incorporate applications
like flowable fills, basic fills, street establishment and sub-base, and soil alteration, among
others, with the transportation industry seeing the foremost utilize. Table 6. Summary of
Previous studies on sanitary landfill liner improvement

Author Raw Proporti Properties studied

material s on Hydraulic Consolidati on UCS Shear
used conductivi ty Test (Settlement Strengt h
)

Mishra Fly ash + % by weight Decreases as Small Increas

and cement load settlement es as
Ravindra increases; due to cement
(2015) 10−9 m/s overburden content
increas
es
Chakradh Fly ash + % by 10-7 cm/s Small
ar and lime weight volume
Katoch change
(2016)
Li, Lin, and Clay + % by
Zhang shale weight
(2017)
Buragohai fly ash + % by weight Decreases increas
n, Garg, bentonit e But meet the e first
Lin, Hong, standard at (up to
Yi, and 70 % or 40 % fly
lower fly ash
Sreedeep ash)
content
(2018) and
then
reduce
s with
further
increas
e in fly
ash
Ghosh Fly ash + % by Low 6308
and Subbarao lime + weight kPa
(2007) gypsum

Amu, Cement % by Decrease increas

Fajobi Fly ash weight for clay + e
and clay 9% fly ash + for clay
Afekhuai 3% cement) + 9% fly
(2005) ash +
3%
cemen
t)

27
Table 6. Summary of Previous studies on sanitary landfill liner improvement

Author Raw Proporti Properties studied

material on Hydraulic Consolidati UCS Shear
s used conductivi on Test Strengt
ty (Settlement h
)
Mishra Fly ash + % by Decreases Small Increas
and cement weight as load settlement es as
Ravindra due to cement
(2015) increases; overburden content
10−9 m/s increas
es
Chakradh Fly ash + % by 10-7 cm/s Small
ar and lime weight volume
Katoc change
h
(2016)
Li, Lin, Clay + % by
and shale weight
Zhang
(2017)
Buragohai fly ash + % by Decreases increas
n, Garg, bentonit weight But meet e first
Lin, Hong, (up to
Yi, and e the 40 % fly
Sreedeep standard ash)
(2018) at 70 % and
or lower then
fly ash reduce
content s with
further
increas
e in fly
ash
Ghosh Fly ash + % by Low 6308
and lime + weight kPa
Subbarao gypsum
(2007)
Amu, Cement % by Decrease increas
Fajobi Fly ash weight for clay + e
and clay 9% fly ash + for clay
Afekhuai 3% cement) + 9% fly
(2005) ash +
3%
cemen
t)

28
 Table 6 presents a outline of the considers specified It illustrates that none of the
examinations on clay, fly ash, or cement investigated the utilization of the Ca/Si molar proportion.
In any case, the pressure driven conductivity can fulfill the prerequisites of RA 9003.
As a result, the CFC composite examination must be completed to set up its practicality
for utilization as a sterile landfill liner. In any case, examinations as often as possible utilize
proportions based on the weight or number of essential components. This consider will consider
and examine the molar proportions of the crude fabric components based on the Ca/Si proportion.

30
 CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Locale

This study will take place at Capitol College. Inspecting will start from two
sources: Fly ash from Steag State Power in Villanueva, Misamis Oriental, and clay
will start from the proposed municipal sanitary landfill in Villanueva, Misamis
Oriental.

The cement to be utilized as a folio should be Standard Portland cement.

Samples will be blended and handled within the building at Capitol College. Testing
of the examples will be done at the Capitol College Research facility and Mega
testing Center Inc. – Cagayan de Oro Branch.

3.2 Research locale

Fly ash will be collected from Steag State Power Inc. at Villanueva, Misamis
Oriental. Fly ash could be a buildup delivered by burning coal at temperatures between 600
and 800°C. Fly ash is delivered at a rate of roughly 8-10 tons per day.

The clay, on the opposite, will come from Villanueva, Misamis Oriental. Particularly,
clay will be collected from the municipality’s proposed sanitary landfill location to be able to
utilize its data.

The cement to be utilized as a cover specialist should be Conventional Portland

cement and will be obtained from Holcim Philippines. The materials will be dealt with,
bundled, and fixed suitably from the sources to the research facilities.

31
 3.4 Research Process
This geo-environmental study will be worn out two stages. The primary stage
will be the advancement of the CFC composite. As outlined in figure12, this stage
will incorporate gathering of crude materials, characterization of the crude materials,
the blending and curing of the CFC composite, characterization of the CFC

CFC Composite Development

Characterization of Mixing and Permeability Test Compaction
raw materials Curing of CFC Test
Composite
composite through the penetrability test. composite, characterization of the CFC
composite through the penetrability test.

Geo-environmental Application

DIRECT SHEAR TEST

Figure 12. Research Design

The second arrange is the geo-ecological utilize of the CFC composites clean landfill
liner. The CFC composite will go through the going with test: coordinates shear test. The
CFC composite and geomembrane interface will too be tried through the coordinate shear test
to decide the shear quality between the CFC composite and the geomembrane.

32
 Figure 13.
Research
activities sequencing

Figure 13 appears the course of action of the testing works out recorded in Figure 12. The
development will start from the combination of normal substances from its person sources. The unrefined
substances are at that point depicted as per the consequent box in Figure 3.2. The unrefined substances are
mixed by the pre-decided molar extents of 0.8, 0.9and 1.0. The mixed materials are depicted and soothed
for 28 days. The reestablished tests are attempted. The comes about of the tests serve as input information
for the expository and numerical recreations.

3.4.1Characterization of Raw Materials (Objective 1)

● Permeability (Falling Head) Test (Not standardized by ASTM or AASHTO) to determine
the permeability index of the CFC composite.

33
 Parameters Sample
1 2 3
D = Diameter of soil specimen (centimetres)
L = Length of soil specimen (centimetres)
H1 = Head across sample at the test beginning (centimetres)

H2 = Head across sample at the test end

(centimetres)
t = Collection duration (seconds)
d = Diameter of the standpipe (millimetres)
T = Temperature at the lab (centigrade degrees)
A = Cross-sectional area of specimen (square centimeters)

a = Cross-sectional area of the burette (square centimeters)

KT° C = Coefficient of permeability (centimetres per second)

= Relative-temperature
viscosity of water
K20° C = Coefficient of permeability (centimeters per second)

Table 7 Permeability Data

3.4.2 Test Specimens

The fly ash and clay will be mixed in accordance with the pre- determined ratio of C-S-H of 0.8,
0.9 and 1.0. Three specimens will be made for each of the combinations identified. The samples will then
be cured for 28 days. The samples will be tested following the tests described in Section3.4.3.

3.4.3 Characterization of Specimens (Objective 2)

34
 The following tests will be conducted to characterize the geo-composite that developed as sanitary
landfill liner, to wit:

● Standard Proctor (Compaction) test (ASTM D698) to determine the maximum dry
density and optimum moisture content

Table 8 Standard Proctor Test Data

TRIAL NUMBER 1 2 3 4 5 6
Mass of Soil & Mold (Mt)
(g):
Mass of Mold (Mmold) (g):
Mass of Soil (Ms) (g):
Wet Density (𝜌wet)
(g/cm3):
Can Number
Mass of Empty Can (g):
Mass Can & Soil (Wet) (g):
Mass Can & Soil (Dry) (g):
Mass of Soil (g):
Mass of Water (g):
Water Content w (%):
Dry Density (𝜌dry) (g/cm3):

● Permeability (Falling Head) Test (Not standardized by ASTM or AASHTO) to determine

the permeability index of the CFC composite.

Table 9. Permeability Test Data

Parameters Sample
1 2 3
D = Diameter of soil specimen (centimetres)
L = Length of soil specimen (centimetres)
H1 = Head across sample at the test beginning (centimetres)

35
H2 = Head across sample at the test end
(centimetres)
t = Collection duration (seconds)
d = Diameter of the standpipe (millimetres)
T = Temperature at the lab (centigrade degrees)
A = Cross-sectional area of specimen (square centimetres)

a = Cross-sectional area of the burette (square centimetres)

KT° C = Coefficient of permeability (centimetres per second)

= Relative-temperature
viscosity of water
K20° C = Coefficient of permeability (centimetres per second)

36
 3.4.4 Testing of Specimens (Objective 3)

 Direct Shear Test (ASTM D3080) to determine the shear strength of geo-
composite.
Table 10. Direct Shear Test

Horizontal Vertical Force Horizontal Vertical Shea Shea

Deformatio Deformatio Readin Displaceme Displaceme r r
n Reading n Reading g nt nt Forc Stres
𝐺𝑉 𝐺𝐻 𝐺𝐹 ∆𝐻 ∆𝑉 e s
𝐹 𝑟

3.4.7 DATA ANALYSIS

Statistical analysis of data will be using statistics in Microsoft Excel.

37
 CHAPTER IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Permeability Test (objective 1)

TEST NO. BH 1 BH 2 BH 3
Diameter of specimen, D (cm) 7.2 7.2 7.2
Length of specimen, L (cm) 5.7 3.8 7.3
Area of Specimen, A (cm^2) 38.48 38.48 38.48
Beginning head difference, h1 (cm) 8.4 9.4 12.4
Ending head difference, h2 (cm) 7.4 7.3 11.3
tes duration, t (seconds) 86,400 272,340 127,200
Volume of water Flow through specimen, Vw (cm^3) 13 76 20
0.000003
K = [ 2.303(Vw)L / (h1-h2) tA] Log h2/h2
0.0000028 3 0.0000025
Figure 14. Falling head permeability test

As seen in figure above, permeability test was performed on three samples that were
prepared at the optimum water content of 10%. BH 3 has the lowest coefficient of
permeability and to be followed by BH 1 and BH 2. However, the three results are not far
apart since they were taken from the same place.
On the other-hand, Clay is impermeable, or at least it has a very low permeability.
The clay used must have a minimum thickness and permeability of 1 x 10^-6 according to
RA 9003. So therefore, basing on their coefficient of permeability, BH1, BH2 and BH3 are
identified as clay.

4.2 Compaction Test (objective 2)

4.3 Permeability Test (objective 2)

4.4 Direct Shear Test (objective 3)

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