Michigan Studies

Disciplines > Leadership > Leadership actions > Ohio State Studies
Research | Action | Discussion | See also

Research
A famous series of studies on leadership were done in Michigan University, starting in the
1950s. They found three critical characteristics of effective leaders.

Actions
Task-oriented behavior
Effective managers studied did not do the same kind work as their subordinates. Their tasks
were different, and included planning and scheduling work, coordinating activities and
providing necessary resources.
They also spent time guiding subordinates in setting task goals that were both challenging
and achievable.
Relationship-oriented behavior
Effective managers not only concentrated on the task, but also on their relationship with
their subordinates. They were more considerate, helpful and supportive of subordinates,
including helping them with their career and personal problems. They recognized effort
with intrinsic as well as extrinsic reward, thanking people for effort.
Overall, the effective preferred a general and hands-off form of supervision rather than
close control. They set goals and provided guidelines, but then gave their subordinates
plenty of leeway as to how the goals would be achieved.
Participative leadership
Effective leaders use a participative style, managing at the group level as well as
individually, for example using team meetings to share ideas and involve the team in group
decisions and problem-solving. By their actions, such leaders model good team-oriented
behavior.
The role of the manager is more facilitative than directive, guiding the conversation and
helping to resolve differences. The manager, however, is responsible for results and is not
absolved of responsibility. As such, they may make final decisions that take
recommendations from the team into account.
The effect of participative leadership is to build a cohesive team which works together
rather than a set of individuals.
Discussion
Although an early study, this is still often referenced. It is notable that the two factors
correlate with the people-task division that appears in other studies and also as preferences
(although the preference scale generally assumes an either-or structure rather than two
independent scales).
The Michigan studies were conducted around the same time as the Ohio State Leadership
Studies, which also identified the focus on task ('Initiating Structure') and people
('Consideration'). The Michigan studies added 'Participative leadership' to the Ohio
findings, moving the debate further into the question of leading teams rather than just
individuals.

See also
Task vs. Person preference, Ohio State Leadership Studies, Participative Leadership
Katz, D. and Kahn, R.L. (1952). Some recent findings in human relations research, In E.
Swanson, T. Newcombe and E. Hartley (eds), Readings in social psychology, NY: Holt,
Reinhart and
Winston
Likert, R. (1961). New patterns of management, NY: McGraw-Hill
Likert R. (1967). The human organization: Its management and value, NY: McGraw-Hill
Ohio State Studies
Disciplines > Leadership > Leadership actions > Ohio State Studies
Research | Action | Discussion | See also

Research
A famous series of studies on leadership were done in Ohio State University, starting in the
1950s. They found two critical characteristics either of which could be high or low and
were independent of one another.
The research was base on questionnaires to leaders and subordinates. These are known as
the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LDBQ) and the Supervisor Behavior
Description Questionnaire (SDBQ). By 1962, the LDBQ was on version XII.

Actions
Consideration
Consideration is the degree to which a leader acts in a friendly and supportive manner
towards his or her subordinates.
Initiating Structure
This is the degree to which a leader defines and structures his or her role and the roles of
the subordinates towards achieving the goals of the group.

Discussion
Although an early study, this is still often referenced. It is notable that the two factors
correlate with the people-task division that appears in other studies and also as preferences
(although the preference scale generally assumes an either-or structure rather than two
independent scales).
Consideration is the people-orientation and Initiating Structure is the task orientation.
The Ohio State studies were conducted around the same time as the Michigan Leadership
Studies, which also identified as critical the focus on task and people.

See also
Task vs. Person preference, Michigan Leadership Studies

Fleishman, E. (1953). The description of supervisory behavior. Journal of Applied

Psychology, 37, 1–6. doi:10.1037/h0056314
Halpin, A.W. and Winer, B.J. (1957). A factorial study of the leader behavior descriptions.
In R.M. Stogdill and A.E. Coons (eds), Leader behavior: Its description and measurement.
Columbus, OH: Bureau of Buisness Research, Ohio State University
Stodgill, R.M., Goode, O.S. and Day, D.R. (1962). New leader behavior description
subscales. Journal of Psychology, 54, 259-269
Schein's leadership culture-change actions
Disciplines > Leadership > Leadership actions > Schein's leadership culture-change actions
Primary mechanisms | Secondary mechanisms | See also

Noted psychologist Edgar Schein identified five primary mechanisms and five secondary
mechanisms by which leaders change cultures.

Primary mechanisms
These are the main ways by which leaders effect cultural change through their visible
actions.
Attention
The values, beliefs, priorities, and so on of the leader appear in where they place their
attention. Followers look at what the leader is looking at and pay close attention to their
emotions. When a leader gets particularly passionate or annoyed, then followers assume
that the subject being attended to is important.
Reactions to crises
In a crisis, people's deeper values are exposed, for example whether they go into self-
preservation mode or whether they gallantly seek to help others first. The higher level of
emotion in crises also means that we will remember what happens then more than at other
times.
The result is that in a crisis, the leader's actions will be both remembered and also taken to
be a truer example of who they really are.
Role modeling
People listen to leaders, and they also watch carefully what they do. When there is a
conflict between these, they will believe the leader's actions before their words. People also
assume the behavior of leaders is what is right and will hence emulate them. How leaders
behave is how their followers will tend to behave.
Allocation of rewards
Rewards, from praise to promotion, are assumed to reflect desired behavior as well
as desired results. If a cultural change to more collaborative behavior is desired and
someone gets a bonus for achieving outstanding result but using selfish behavior, then it
will be assumed that selfish behavior is OK. To change the culture, it would be necessary
for that person to be censured, not rewarded, for their selfish behavior.
Criteria for selection and dismissal
Recruitment, promotion and dismissal are both critical for choosing who does what and
also extreme forms of reward and punishment. The criteria used should consider the style
and personality as well as the technical competence of the person involved. In this way, the
cultural aspects of the organization may be included in the selection and dismissal
processes.

Secondary mechanisms
These are additional methods by which a leader may indirectly change the culture.
Design of organizational structure
'Function follows form' is a common saying, and applies here. It has also been said that
'First we create our organizations and then they create us'. The hierarchical shape of any
organization will have a subtle effect on how they operate. Thus, to change the
organization, changing its structure can be highly effective.
Design of systems and procedures
The systems by which an organization is run have a wide effect on how people think. This
includes budgeting, information systems, performance reviews and management
development activities. Deliberate design of these can ensure alignment with desired
cultural directions.
Design of facilities
The layout of offices often reflects subconsciously the values of an organization, both in
terms of the who sits near who and also in the differentiation in benefits that individuals are
given. More space, thicker carpets, window seats, bigger desks and more are all symbols of
superiority. In some traditional organizations, there are meted out very carefully according
to management grade. In other companies, everyone has the same sized cubicle with very
little differentiation between management levels.
Stories, legends and myths
The stories that people tell and re-tell in organizations typically reflect the values and
beliefs of the culture. Hence, changing the stories will tend to change the culture. This is
particularly powerful as it is spread at the individual level and hence has grass-roots
support and credibility.
Formal statements
Formal statements by the organization, although not always as credible as grass-roots
whisperings, are the public face of the organization, and hence demand attention. They also
may later form the basis of formal arguments and actions, from decisions around allocation
of resource to discipline and dismissal.

See also
Buy Me
Edgar Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership, Jossey-Bass,
1996
One of the very best books on organizational culture.
Intelligent and detailed understanding of what culture is, rather than a
list of cultural attributes. Includes significant chapters on how leaders
shape culture.