t

Perspectives on Effective Leadership Behaviour

Learning Outcomes:
 Understand the findings in the early research on leadership behavior.
 Understand why task and relations behavior are important for leadership effective-
ness.
 Understand how specific types of task and relations behavior can be used effectively.

This section reviews research using methods such as behavior description questionnaires,
laboratory and field experiments, and critical incidents to discover how effective leaders
differ in behavior from ineffective leaders. We begin by examining some of the early
research on leader behavior conducted by psychologists in the 1950s and 1960s.
Much of the research on leadership behavior during the past five decades has followed
the pattern set by the pioneering research programs at Ohio State University and the
University of Michigan. These programs and subsequent research are described briefly.
Some aspects of task- and relationship-oriented behavior that are important for effective
leadership are described at the end.

THE OHIO STATE LEADERSHIP STUDIES

Questionnaire research on effective leadership behavior has been dominated by
the influence of the early research at Ohio State University. During the 1950s, the
initial task of the researchers was to identify categories of relevant leadership
behavior and develop questionnaires describing this behavior. The researchers compiled a
list of about 1,800 examples of leadership behavior, and then reduced the list to 150
items that appeared to be good examples of important leadership functions. A
preliminary questionnaire composed of these items was used by samples of military and
civilian personnel to describe the behavior of their supervisors (Fleishman, 1953; Halpin
& Winer. 1957; Hemphill & Coons, 1957).

L eade r Beha vio r Ca teg or ie s

Factor analysis of the questionnaire responses indicated that subordinates perceived
their supervisor's behavior primarily in terms of two broadly defined categories, one
concerned with task objectives and the other concerned with interpersonal rela tions.

Consideration. The leader acts in a friendly and supportive manner, shows concern for
subordinates, and looks out for their welfare. Examples include doing personal favors for
subordinates, finding time to listen to subordinates' problems, backing up or going to bat
for a subordinate, consulting with subordinates on important matters, being willing to
accept subordinate suggestions, and treating a subordinate as an equal,

Initiating Structure. The leader defines and structures his or her own role and the roles
of subordinates toward attainment of the group's formal goals. Examples include criticizing
poor work, emphasizing the importance of meeting deadlines, assigning subordinates to
tasks, maintaining definite standards of performance, asking subordinates to follow
standard procedures, offering new approaches to problems, and coordinating the
activities of different subordinates.

Consideration and initiating structure were found to be relatively independent behavior

categories. This means that some leaders are rated high on consideration and low on
Cross-Cultural Leadership 1
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initiating structure; some leaders are rated low on consideration and high on initiating
structure; some leaders are rated high on both; and some leaders are rated low on
both. Most leaders probably fall along a continuum between the extreme high and low
scores.

R e su lt s f r o m t h e S u r ve y R e se a rc h
The Ohio State leadership questionnaires and modified versions of them have been used in
hundreds of survey studies by many different researchers. The results have been weak and
inconsistent for most criteria of leadership effectiveness (Bass, 1990; Fisher & Edwards,
1988). In some studies subordinates were more satisfied and performed better with a
structuring leader, whereas other studies found the opposite relationship or no significant
relationship at all. The findings were also inconsistent for the relationship between
consideration and subordinate performance. The only mostly consistent finding was a
positive relationship between consideration and subordinate satisfaction. As suggested by
the Fleishman and Harris study, subordinates are usually more satisfied with a leader
who is at least moderately considerate. However, unlike Fleishman and Harris,
most researchers neglected to test for the possibility of curvilinear relationships or an
interaction between consideration and initiating structure.

THE MICHIGAN LEADERSHIP STUDIES

A second major program of research on leadership behavior was carried out by
researchers at the University of Michigan at approximately the same time as the Ohio State
leadership studies. The focus of the Michigan research was the identification of
relationships among leader behavior, group processes, and measures of group perfor-
mance. The initial research was a series of field studies with a variety of leaders, including
section managers in an insurance company (Katz, Maccoby, & Morse, 1950),
supervisors in a large manufacturing company (Katz & Kahn, 1952), and supervisors of
railroad section gangs (Katz, Maccoby, Gurin, & Floor, 1951). Information about managerial
behavior was collected with interviews and questionnaires. Objective measures of group
productivity were used to classify managers as relatively effective or ineffective. A
comparison of effective and ineffective managers revealed some interesting differences
in managerial behavior, which were summarized by Likert (1961,1967).

Effective Leadership Behaviors

The research found that three types of leadership behavior differentiated between
effective and ineffective managers. Each type of behavior is described briefly.

1. Task-Oriented Behavior. Effective managers did not spend their time and effort doing
the same kind of work as their subordinates. Instead, the more effective managers
concentrated on task-oriented functions such as planning and scheduling the work,
coordinating subordinate activities, and providing necessary supplies, equipment, and
technical assistance. Moreover, effective managers guided subordinates in setting
performance goals that were high but realistic. The task oriented behaviors identified in the
Michigan studies appear similar to the behaviors labeled “initiating structure” in the Ohio
State leadership studies.

2. Relations-Oriented Behavior. For the effective managers, task-oriented behavior did not
occur at the expense of concern for human relations. The effective managers were also
more supportive and helpful with subordinates. Supportive behaviors that were correlated
with effective leadership included showing trust and confidence, acting friendly and
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considerate, trying to understand subordinate problems, helping to develop subordinates

and further their careers, keeping subordinates informed, showing appreciation for
subordinates' ideas, and providing recognition for subordinates’ contributions and
accomplishments. These behaviors are similar to the behaviors labeled “consideration” in
the Ohio State leadership studies. The Michigan studies also found that effective managers
tended to use general supervision rather than close supervision. That is, the managers
established goals and general guidelines for subordinates, but allowed them some
autonomy in deciding how to do the work and how to pace themselves; Likert proposed
that a manager should treat each subordinate in a supportive way that will build and
maintain the person's sense of personal worth and importance.

3. Participative Leadership. Effective managers used more group supervision instead of

supervising each subordinate separately. Group meetings facilitate subordinate
participation in decision making, improve communication, promote cooperation, and
facilitate conflict resolution. The role of the manager in group meetings should be primarily
to guide the discussion and keep it supportive, constructive, and oriented toward problem
solving. The use of participation does not imply abdication of responsibilities, and the
manager remains responsible for all decisions and their results.

Definitions of Managerial Practices

Planning and Organizing: Determining long-term objectives and strategies, allocating resources
according to priorities, determining how to use personnel and resources to accomplish a task
efficiently, and determining how to improve coordination, productivity, and the effectiveness of the
organizational unit.
Problem Solving Identifying work-related problems, analyzing problems in a timely but systematic
manner to identify causes and find solutions, and acting decisively to implement solutions to resolve
important problems or crises.
Clarifying Roles and Objectives: Assigning tasks, providing direction in how to do the work, and
communicating a clear understanding of job responsibilities, task objectives, deadlines, and
performance expectations.
Informing: Disseminating relevant information to people who need it to do their work, providing
written materials and documents, and answering requests for technical information.
Monitoring: Gathering information about work activities and external conditions affecting the work,
checking on the progress and quality of the work, evaluating the performance of individuals and the
organizational unit, analyzing trends, and forecasting external events.
Motivating and Inspiring: Using influence techniques that appeal to emotion or logic to generate
enthusiasm for the work, commitment to task objectives, and compliance with requests for
cooperation, assistance, support, or resources; and setting an example of appropriate behavior.
Consulting: Checking with people before making changes that affect them, encouraging sug-
gestions for improvement, inviting participation in decision making, and incorporating the ideas and
suggestions of others in decisions.
Delegating: Allowing subordinates to have substantial responsibility and discretion in carrying out
work activities, handling problems, and making important decisions.
Supporting: Acting friendly and considerate, being patient and helpful, showing sympathy and
support when someone is upset or anxious, listening to complaints and problems, and looking out for
someone's interests.
Developing and Mentoring: Providing coaching and helpful career advice, and doing things to
facilitate a person's skill acquisition, professional development, and career advancement.
Managing Conflict and Team Building: Facilitating the constructive resolution of conflict, and
encouraging cooperation, teamwork, and identification with the work unit.
Networking: Socializing informally, developing contacts with people who are a source of information
and support, and maintaining contacts through periodic interaction, including visits, telephone calls,
Cross-Cultural Leadership 3
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correspondence, and attendance at meetings and social events.

Recognizing: Providing praise and recognition for effective performance, significant achievements,
and special contributions; and expressing appreciation for someone's contributions and special
efforts.
Rewarding: Providing or recommending tangible rewards such as a pay increase or promotion for
effective performance, significant achievements, and demonstrated competence.

An Integrating Framework for Classifying Behavior

Some recent research suggests that a three-dimensional taxonomy provides the
most useful and parsimonious way to group specific behaviors into general
categories (Ekvall & Arvonen,1991; Yuk1,1999a). The taxonomy is an extension of
the two-factor approach that dominated much of the early theory and research on
effective leadership behavior. However, as in Blake and Mouton's managerial grid,
the underlying model emphasizes the relation between behavior and leader
concerns, not just the content of the behavior. The difference in the two types of
models is illustrated in Figure 3-4. Concern for task efficiency, human relations, and
adaptive change are conceptualized as three independent dimensions rather than three
mutually exclusive categories of specific behaviors. A specific leadership behavior will
involve a mix of the following three concerns or objectives:

1. Task Oriented. This type of behavior is primarily concerned with accomplishing

the task, utilizing personnel and resources efficiently, and maintaining orderly, reliable
operations.

2. Relations Oriented. This type of behavior is primarily concerned with improving

relationships and helping people, increasing cooperation and teamwork, increasing
subordinate job satisfaction, and building identification with the organization.

3. Change Oriented. This type of behavior is primarily concerned with improving

strategic decisions; adapting to change in the environment; increasing flexibility and
innovation; making major changes in processes, products, or services; and gaining
commitment to the changes.

The three types of behavior interact to jointly determine work unit performance.
Their relative importance depends on the nature of the task and the work unit envi -
ronment. Effective leaders determine which specific task-, relations-, and change
oriented behaviors are appropriate and mutually compatible fo r the given situation.
Table 1.1 shows specific types of behaviors that can be classified as higher on one
objective than the others. Some specific behaviors reflect a high concern for more than
one objective, but trade-offs among the objectives make it difficult to find examples of
specific behaviors that are high on all three dimensions simultaneously.

Table: 1.1 Examples of Task-, Relations-, and Change-Oriented Behaviours

Task-oriented behaviors:
 Organize work activities to improve efficiency.
 Plan short-term operations.
 Assign work to groups or individuals.
 Clarify role expectations and task objectives.
 Explain rules, policies, and standard operating procedures.

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 Direct and coordinate the activities of the unit.

 Monitor operations and performance.
 Resolve immediate problems that would disrupt the work.
 Emphasize the importance of efficiency, productivity, and quality.
 Set high standards for unit performance.
Relations-oriented behaviors:
 Provide support and encouragement.
 Express confidence that people can attain challenging objectives.
 Socialize with people to build relationships.
 Recognize contributions and accomplishments.
 Provide coaching and mentoring.
 Consult with people on decisions affecting them.
 Keep people informed about actions affecting them.
 Help resolve conflicts.
 Use symbols, ceremonies, rituals, and stories to build team identity.
 Lead by example and model exemplary behavior.
Change-oriented behaviors:
 Interpret events to explain the urgent need for change.
 Study competitors and outsiders to get ideas for improvements.
 Envision exciting new possibilities for the organization.
 Encourage people to view problems or opportunities in a different way.
 Develop innovative new strategies linked to core competencies.
 Encourage and facilitate innovation and entrepreneurship by others.
 Encourage and facilitate learning by individuals and teams.
 Experiment with new approaches.
 Build a coalition of key people to get change approved.
 Form task forces to guide implementation of change.
 Make symbolic changes that are consistent with a new vision or strategy.
 Empower people to implement new strategies.
 Announce and celebrate progress in implementing change.

Over time, the optimal pattern of leader behavior is likely to change as conditions
change. For example, the leader must use more task-oriented behaviors when it
is essential to maintain low cost and reliable quality. However, when it is
necessary to make a major change in the unit’s processes or products, the
emphasis must shift to change-oriented behaviors. Effective leaders are likely to
make extensive use of relations-oriented behaviors during both time periods, but
the mix of specific relations behaviors may change. In general, effective leaders
must be flexible and adaptive in their behavior as conditions change.

The next two sections will describe some specific types of leadership behavior that
are primarily task oriented or relations oriented. Change -oriented behaviors are
described later. Just as it is important for leaders to find a way to balance task and
relations concerns, it is also important to balance these concerns against change-oriented
concerns.

SPECIFIC TASK BEHAVIORS

This section of the chapter describes three specific types of task-oriented behaviors that
are especially relevant for effective leadership. The behaviors include: (1) planning, (2)
clarifying, and (3) monitoring. The behaviors are explained and research on each type of
behavior is briefly reviewed.
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Planning Work Activities

Planning means deciding what to do, how to do it, who will do it, and when it will be done. The
purpose of planning is to ensure efficient organization of the work unit, coordination of
activities, and effective utilization of resources. Planning is a broadly defined behavior that
includes making decisions about objectives, priorities, strategies, organization of the work,
assignment of responsibilities, scheduling of activities, and allocation of resources among
different activities according to their relative importance. Special names are sometimes used
for subvarieties of planning. For example, “operational planning” is the scheduling of routine
work and determination of task assignments for the next day or week. “Action planning” is
the development of detailed action steps and schedules for implementing a new policy or
carrying out a project (see guidelines in Table 1.2). “Contingency planning” is the
development of procedures for avoiding or coping with potential problems or disasters.
Finally, planning also includes determining how to allocate time to different responsibilities
and activities (“time management”).

Planning is largely a cognitive activity involving processing of information, analyzing, and

deciding. Planning seldom occurs in a single behavior episode; rather it tends to be a
prolonged process that occurs over a period of weeks or months. Most planning
involves formulation of informal and implicit agendas, rather than formal, written
documents and agreements. Since planning is a cognitive activity that seldom
occurs as a single discrete episode, it is difficult to observe (Snyder & Glueck, 1980).
Nevertheless, there are some observable aspects such as writing plans, preparing written
budgets, developing written schedules, and meeting with others to formulate objectives and
strategies. Planning is most observable when a manager takes action to implement plans by
communicating them to others and making specific task assignments.
Table: 1.2 Guidelines for Action Planning

 Identify necessary action steps.

 Identify the optimal sequence of action steps.
 Estimate the time needed to carry out each action step.
 Determine starting times and deadlines for each action step.
 Estimate the cost of each action step.
 Determine who will be accountable for each action step.
 Develop procedures for monitoring progress.

The importance of planning and organizing has long been recognized in the man -
agement literature (Carroll & Gillen,1987; Drucker,1974; Fayol,1949; Quinn, 1980;
Urwick,1952). Evidence of a relationship between planning and managerial effective -
ness is provided by a variety of different types of studies (e.g., Boyatzis,1982; Carroll &
Gillen,1987; Kim & Yuk1,1995; Kotter,1982; Morse & Wagner, 1978; Shipper & Wilson,
1992; Yukl et a1.,1990).

Clarifying Roles and Objectives

Clarifying is the communication of plans, policies, and role expectations. Major
subcategories of clarifying include: (1) defining job responsibilities and requirements,
(2) setting performance goals, and (3) assigning specific tasks. Guidelines for each type
of clarifying are shown in Table 1.3. The purpose of this clarifying behavior is to guide
and coordinate work activity and make sure people know what to do and how to do it. It is
essential for each subordinate to understand what duties, functions, and activities are
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required in the job and what results are expected. Even a subordinate who is highly
competent and motivated may fail to achieve a high level of performance if confused
about responsibilities and priorities. Such confusion results in misdirected effort and
neglect of important responsibilities in favor of less important ones. The more complex
and multifaceted a job is, the more difficult it is to determine what needs to be done.

Clarifying behavior is likely to be more important when there is substantial role

ambiguity or role conflict for members of the work unit. Less clarifying is necessary if
the organization has elaborate rules and regulations dictating how the work should be
one (and subordinates are familiar with them), or if subordinates are highly trained
professionals who have the expertise to do their jobs without much direction from
superiors. Clarifying is a core component of initiating structure. The research on broadly
defined measures of task-oriented behavior was mostly inconclusive. However, research
on specific aspects of clarifying behavior has found stronger results.

Table: 1.3 Guidelines for Clarifying Roles and Objectives

Defining job responsibilities
 Explain the importantjob responsibilities.
 Clarify the person's scope of authority.
 Explain how the job relates to the mission of the unit.
 Explain important policies, rules, and requirements.

Assigning work:
 Clearly explain the assignment.
 Explain the reasons for an assignment.
 Clarify priorities and deadlines.
 Check for comprehension.

Setting performance goals:

 Set goals for relevant aspects of performance.
 Set goals that are clear and specific.
 Set goals that are challenging but realistic.
 Set a target date for attainment of each goal.

A number of different types of studies have found a positive relationship between clari-
fying and managerial effectiveness (Alexander, 1985; Bauer & Green, 1998; Kim &
Yuk1,1995; Van Fleet & Yuk1,1986b; Wilson, O'Hare, & Shipper, 1990; Yukl et al.,
1990). There is strong evidence from many studies (including some field experiments)
that setting specific, challenging goals results in higher performance (see Locke &
Latham,1990).

Monitoring Operations
Monitoring involves gathering information about the operations of the manager's
organizational unit, including the progress of the work, the performance of individual
subordinates, the quality of products or services, and the success of projects or programs.
Monitoring behavior can take many forms, including observation of work operations,
reading written reports, watching computer screen displays of performance data, inspecting
the quality of samples of the work, and holding progress review meetings with an individual
or group. Some guidelines for monitoring work by subordinates are provided in Table 1.4.

Cross-Cultural Leadership 7
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Monitoring provides much of the information needed for planning and problem solving,
which is why it is so important for managerial effectiveness (Meredith & Mantel, 1985).
Information gathered from monitoring is used to identify problems and opportunities, as
well as to formulate and modify objectives, strategies, plans, policies, and procedures.
Monitoring provides the information needed to evaluate subordinate performance,
recognize achievements, identify performance deficiencies, assess training needs, provide
assistance, and allocate rewards such as a pay increase or promotion. When monitoring is
insufficient, a manager will be unable to detect problems before they become serious
(problems such as declining quality, low productivity, cost overruns, behind-schedule
projects, employee dissatisfaction, and conflicts among employees).

The appropriate degree of monitoring will depend on the competence of the subordinate
and the nature of the work. More frequent monitoring is desirable when subordinates are
inexperienced and insecure, when mistakes have very detrimental consequences,
when the tasks of subordinates are highly interdependent and require close
coordination, and when disruptions in the workflow are likely, due to equipment
breakdowns, accidents, materials shortages, personnel shortages, and so forth. Monitoring of
performance is most difficult when the work involves unstructured, unique tasks for which
results can be determined only after a long time interval. For example, it is more difficult
to evaluate the performance of a research scientist or human resource manager than the
performance of a sales representative or production manager.

Table: 1.4 Guidelines for Monitoring

 Identify and measure key performance indicators.
 Monitor key process variables as well as outcomes.
 Measure progress against plans and budgets.
 Develop independent sources of information about performance.
 Observe operations directly when it is feasible.
 Ask specific questions about the work.
 Encourage reporting of problems and mistakes.
 Conduct periodic progress review meetings.

As noted above, monitoring indirectly affects a manager's performance by facilitating the

effective use of other behaviors. There is also some evidence that monitor affects
performance directly. In a laboratory experiment, Larson and Callahan found that
performance increased on a task that was monitored closely but not or task for which there
was little monitoring. The effect on performance was greater when monitoring was followed
by praise or criticism, but it occurred even when there were associated consequences for the
workers. The amount of research on the effects of me honing by leaders is still limited. Some
evidence for a relationship between monitoring and managerial effectiveness is provided by
observational and survey studies (e.g., JE ster,1987; Komaki,1986; Komaki, Desselles, &
Bowman, 1989; Kim & Yuk1,1995; Yukl et a1.,1990), but the results have not been strong or
consistent.

SPECIFIC RELATIONS BEHAVIORS

This section of the chapter describes three specific types of relations-orient behaviors
that are especially relevant for effective leadership. The behaviors include: (1)
supporting, (2) developing, and (3) recognizing.

Supporting
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Supporting includes a wide variety of behaviors that show consideration,

acceptance, and concern for the needs and feelings of other people. Supporting is the
coy component of consideration, as defined by Fleishman (1953) and Stogdill (1974), and is
also the core component of supportive leadership, as defined by Bowers and Seashore
(1966) and House and Mitchell (1974). Table 1.5 shows guidelines for supporting.

Table: 1.5 Guidelines for Supporting

 Show acceptance and positive regard.
 Be polite and considerate, not arrogant and rude.
 Treat each subordinate as an individual.
 Remember important details about the person.
 Be patient and helpful when giving instructions or explanations.
 Provide sympathy and support when the person is anxious or upset.
 Express confidence in the person when there is a difficult task.
 Provide assistance with the work when it is needed.
 Be willing to help with personal problems.

Supportive leadership helps build and maintain effective interpersonal relation ships. A
manager who is considerate and friendly toward people is more likely to with their
friendship and loyalty. The emotional ties that are formed make it easier to gain
cooperation and support from people on whom the manager must rely to get the won done.
It is more satisfying to work with someone who is friendly, cooperative, and supportive than
with someone who is cold and impersonal, or worse, hostile and uncooperative. Some
forms of supporting behavior reduce the amount of stress in the job, an other forms help a
person cope with stress. Higher job satisfaction and stress tolerance are likely to result in
less absenteeism, less turnover, less alcoholism, and less drug abuse (Brief, Schuler, &
Van Sell, 1981; Ganster, Fusilier, & Mayes,1986; Kessler, Price, & Wortman,1985).

The effects of supportive leadership have been studied extensively with a variety of
research methods. The studies show that subordinates of supportive leaders are usually
more satisfied with their leader and with their job. The findings regarding the effects of
supporting behavior on subordinate performance are less consistent, especially when
controlling for the effects of other person-oriented behaviors such as developing and
recognizing. Although no firm conclusions can be drawn, supportive leadership probably
has a weak positive effect on subordinate performance. Unfortunately, few studies have
measured the mediating processes that could explain the reasons for this effect or when
it is most likely to occur. Supportive leadership may increase a subordinate's self-
confidence, stress resistance, acceptance of the leader, trust of the leader, and willingness
to do extra things for the leader.

Developing
Developing includes several managerial practices that are used to increase a person's
skills and facilitate job adjustment and career advancement. Component behaviours
include coaching, mentoring, and career counseling. Guidelines for coaching are
shown in Table 3-9, and guidelines for mentoring are shown in Table 1.6.

Developing is usually done with a subordinate, but it may also be done with a peer, a
colleague, or even with a new, inexperienced boss. Responsibility for developing sub-
ordinates can be shared with other members of the work unit who are competent and
experienced. For example, some leaders assign an experienced subordinate to serve as a
mentor and coach for a new employee.
Cross-Cultural Leadership 9
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Developing offers a variety of potential benefits for the manager, the subordinate, and the
organization. One benefit is to foster mutually cooperative relationships. Potential benefits
for subordinates include better job adjustment, more skill learning, greater self-confidence,
and faster career advancement. The leader can gain a sense of satisfaction from helping
others grow and develop. Potential benefits for the organization include higher employee
commitment, higher performance, and better preparation of people to fill positions of
greater responsibility in the organization as openings occur.

Table: 1.6 Guidelines for Coaching

 Help the person analyze his or her performance by asking questions or suggesting aspects to
examine more closely.
 Provide constructive feedback about effective and ineffective behaviours exhibited by the person.
 Suggest specific things that could help to improve the person's performance.
 Demonstrate a better way to do a complex task or procedure.
 Express confidence that the person can learn a difficult task or procedure.
 Show the person how to solve a problem rather than just providing the answer.
 Provide opportunities to practice difficult procedures before they

There has been extensive research on the effects of training in organizations (see
reviews by Goldstein,1992), and this literature suggests that skill development usually
increases the satisfaction and performance. Managers play an important role in t he
development of subordinates. Empirical research on the effects of coaching and
mentoring (see Table 1.7) by managers is still very limited. A few survey studies have
examined the correlation between developing behavior and an independent criterion
of leadership effectiveness, but the results were not consistent across samples
(Javidan,1992; Kim Yuk1,1995; Wilson et a1.,1990; Yukl et a1.,1990). Descriptive
research involving effective managers suggests that they take a more active role in
developing the skills are confidence of subordinates (Bradford & Cohen, 1984;
McCauley, 1986).

Recognizing
Recognizing involves giving praise and showing appreciation to others for effe ctive
performance, significant achievements, and important contributions to the organization.
Although it is most common to think of recognition as being given by manager to
subordinates, this managerial practice can also be used with peers, super ors, and
people outside the work unit. The primary purpose of recognizing, especial when
used with subordinates, is to strengthen desirable behavior and task comment.
Some guidelines for recognizing are presented in Table 1.8.

Three major forms of recognizing are praise, awards, and recognition ceremonies.
Praise consists of oral comments, expressions, or gestures that acknowledge a person
accomplishments and contributions. It is the easiest form of recognition to use. Most
praise is given privately, but it can be used in a public ritual or ceremony as well. Awards
include things such as a certificate of achievement, a letter of commendation, a plaque,
a trophy, a medal, or a ribbon. Awards can be announced in many different ways,
including an article in the company newsletter, a notice posted on the bulletin board, a
picture of the person (e.g., “employee of the month”) hung in a prominent place, in
a short speech made over a public address system, in regular meetings, and at special
ceremonies or rituals. Giving formal awards is a symbolic act that communicates a
manager's values and priorities to people in the organization. Thus, it is important for
Cross-Cultural Leadership 10
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awards to be based on meaningful criteria rather than favoritism or arbitrary judgments.

An award that is highly visible allows others to share in the process of commending
the recipient and showing appreciation for his or her contributions to the success of the
organization. The basis for making the award is more important than the form of the
award. Some managers are very creative about using awards, and they look for new and
unusual awards to use with “planned spontaneity.” Examples include donuts, home --
baked bread, flowers, and a bottle of champagne, a new chair, and a picture of the
employee shaking hands with the CEO.

Table: 1.7 Guidelines for Mentoring

 Show concern for each individual's development.
 Help the person identify skill deficiencies
 Help the person find ways to acquire necessary skills.
 Encourage attendance at relevant training courses.
 Provide opportunities for skill development on the job.
 Provide helpful career advice.
 Promote the person's reputation.
 Serve as a role model.

Table: 1.8 Guidelines for Recognizing

 Recognize a variety of contributions and achievements.
 Actively search for contributions to recognize.
 Recognize specific contributions and achievements.
 Recognize improvements in performance.
 Recognize commendable efforts that failed.
 Provide recognition that is sincere.
 Provide recognition that is timely.
 Use a form of recognition appropriate for the person and situation.

A recognition ceremony ensures that an individual’s achievements are acknowl -

edged not only by the manager but also by other members of the organization. Recog -
nition ceremonies can be used to celebrate the achievements of a team or work unit
as well as those of an individual. Special rituals or ceremonies to honor particular
employees or teams can have strong symbolic value when attended by top
management, because they demonstrate their concern for the aspects of behavior
or performance being recognized. A rather unique recognition ceremony is used
by Milliken and Company (Peters & Austin, 1985).

Once each quarter a “Corporate Sharing Rally” is held to allow work teams to brag about their
achievements and contributions. Each of the “fabulous bragging sessions” has a particular
theme such as improved productivity, better product quality, or reduced costs. Attendance is
voluntary, but hundreds of employees show up to hear teams make short five-minute
presentations describing how they have made improvements relevant to the theme. Every
participant receives a framed certificate, and the best presentations (determined by peer
evaluation) get special awards. In addition to celebrating accomplishments and emphasizing
key values (represented by the themes), these ceremonies increase the diffusion of innovative
ideas within the company.

Praise is often given along with tangible rewards, and it is difficult to separate their
effects on subordinate effort and satisfaction in much of the research literat ure. Most
Cross-Cultural Leadership 11
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studies that measure contingent reward behavior with leader behavior questionnaires
find a positive correlation with subordinate satisfaction, but results for performance
are not consistent (e.g., Kim & Yuk1,1995; Lowe, Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996;
Podsakoff & Todor,1985; Podsakoff, Todor, Grover, & Huber, 1984;Yukl et a1.,1990). A
meta-analysis of laboratory and field studies on praise as a form of feedback found
little support for its effectiveness; praise was more likely to have a negative effect on
performance than a positive effect (Kiuger & DeNisi, 1996). In contrast,
descriptive studies in organizations (Kouzes & Posner,1987; Peters & Austin, 1985)
suggest that effective leaders provide extensive recognition to subordinates for their
achievements and contributions. A rare field experiment by Wikoff et al. (1983) found
that praise by the supervisor increased subordinate performance. In summary, the
results of empirical research on the effects of praise are inconsistent, but they
suggest that it can be beneficial when used in a skillful way under favourable
conditions.

Cross-Cultural Leadership 12