Basic Open Hole Tools

Mark W. Alberty
BP Exploration
Houston, Texas, l..l.S.A.
PURPOSE AND TYPES
Open hole logging devices are used to characterize
subsurface formations. Common formation attributes that
may be characterized include
l. Storage capacity of the formation, which normally
includes porosity and fluid saturations
2. Fluid properties, which include density, gas to oil ratio,
API gravity, water resistivity and salinity, temperature,
and pressure
3. Geological setting, which may include structural or
stratigraphic dip, facies characteristics, and reservoir
heterngeneities
The basic open hole wireline logging devices can be
divided into four general groups, as shown in Table 1. The
correlation and lithology devices are used primarily to correlate
between wells and to discriminate reservoir from
nonreservoir rocks. The resistivity devices are used to
determine formation resistivity at varying distances from the
wellbore, which is used for correlation and the determination
of water saturation. The lithology and porosity devices are used
to determine both lithology and porosity. A variety of
auxiliary tools are used to make special logging
measurements. (For more on tool specifications, see the
chapter on “Basic Tool Table" in Part 4.)
CORRELATION AND LITHOLOGY
Correlation devices are used to identify common
formations between wells and to distinguish potential
reservoir rocks from nonreservoir rocks. These devices make
use of three different physical phenomena: spontaneous
potential, gamma rays, and photoelectric effect. Table 2
shows the resolution and applications of the correlation
devices.
Spontaneous Potential
Spontaneous potential (SP) 1S a natural voltage or electrical
potential that arises due to differences in the ionic activities
(relative saltiness) of the drilling mud and the formation
waters. This potential can be used to correlate formations
between wells, to indicate permeability, and to estimate
formation water resistivity. No SP occurs when oil-based
mud is used in the borehole. Hydrocarbons and shaliness in
the formation suppress the SP. The magnitude of the SP
decreases as the resistivity of the mud filtrate and forrnation
waters approach a common resistivity. The direction of SP
deflection reverses as the ratio of the resistivity of the mud
filtrate (Rm) lo that of the formation water (Rw) reaches 1.0 or
more. If there is no contrast in the mud filtrate and formation
water salinities, there is no measurable SP. A typical
presentation of SP is shown on the left of the log in Figure 1.
Gamma Ray
Gamma rays tools measure the natural radioactivity of the
formation. This radioactivity is emitted primarily from
potassium in the structure of clay minerals, radioactive salts
in the formation waters, radioactive salts bound to the
charged surfaces of clay minerals, potassium associated with
feldspars, and radioactive minerals associated with igneous
rocks and rock fragments. The gamma ray response is used
for correlation of formations between wells and for estimating
volume shale and / or volume clay minerals.
An advanced version of the gamma ray tool, called the
spectral gamma my, breaks down or segments the detected
gamma rays by their different energies using spectral analysis
techniques. These segments correspond to the radioactive
families of potassium, uranium, and thorium. Uranium
frequently occurs as a precipitated salt deposited in a
formation from waters having flown through that formation.
When this occurs, the uranium counts disguise radioactivity
due to mineralogy. The use of the spectral tool allows the
removal of gamma ray counts caused by uranium, typically
pennitting more accurate use of the remaining gamma rays
for determining lithology, volume shale, or volume clay. In
some local areas, ratios of potassium to thoriurn have been
successfully used to determine some clay types. However,
this clay typing has not proven particularly universal and
should be attempted with much caution.
Typical presentations of gamma ray measurements are
shown in the logs in both Figures 1 and 2. (For information
on the cased hole gamma ray tool, see the chapter on "Basic
Cased Hole Tools” in Part 4.)
Table 1. Basic Open Hole Tools
we Devioes
Correlation and lithology
Spontaneous potentlal
Gamma ray
Photoelectric effect
Induction
Laterolog
Microreslstlvity
Density
Compensated Neutron
Sonic
Photoelectric effect
Caliper
Formation Tester
Dipmeter
Borehole Televiewer
Resistivity
Porosity and Lithology
Auxiliary

Basic Open Hole Tools 145

Table 2. Resolution and Applications ot Correlation and Lithulogy Measurements

Vertical Radius of

Tool Resolution investigation Applications

Limitations

Spontaneous potential (SP) 6-10 ft N/A Well-to-well correlation,

estimate Fiw. and

Does not work in 0il~based mud and

Rm, and Fiw must contrast

indicate permeability

Gamma ray 2 tt 12 in. Well-to-well correlation and

Sensitive to hole size changes

estimate Vsh

Spectral gamma ray 3 ti 16 in. Well-to~well correlation and

Sensitive to hole size changes

estimate Vsh

Photoelectrical eltect (Pe) 2 in. 2 in. Identify lithology and

well-to-well correlation

Photoelectric Effect

The photoelectric effect, or Pe, measures a formation’s

ability to absorb gamma rays. The absorptive abilities of

formations vary with lithology. The photoelectric absorption

is recorded as a supplementary measurement to the formation

density measurement, using common detectors and

radioactive sources. Since this measurement is part of the

density measurement, the tool is a pad contact tool and is

subject to borehole wall rugosity. The measurement is not

valid in rnuds weighted with barite. The recording can be

used both for correlation of formations between wells and for

determining lithology. A typical presentation of Pe is shown

in the log in Figure 2.

RESISTIVITY

Resistivity tools are primarily used for correlation and to

determine the volume of the pore space saturated with water.

Resistivity tools can be divided into three characteristic types:

induction, laterolog, and microresistivity tools. The three

types each have their individual applications, advantages,

and limitations, which are summarized in Table 3.

lnduction

Induction tools use electromagnetic coils to establish

magnetic fields that excite current flow in the formation,

which in tum excites secondary magnetic fields and current

flow in receiver coils in the tool. This principle of exciting

magnetic fields allows induction tools to measure resistivity

without the requirement of a direct electrical connection to the

formation. This feature permits the tool to be used in

nonconductive muds. Different transmitter and receiver

arrays allow focusing of the measurement for different

vertical resolution and depths of investigation. A typical

presentation of a dual induction log is shown in Figure 1.

Laterologs

The laterolog device measures the voltage and current

magnitudes associated with a series of current electrodes

mounted on the surface of the logging sonde. These

measurements require direct electrical contact with the

Does not work in barite mud,

is a pad device, and uses a

radioactive source

formation, which is normally provided by the drilling mud.

This characteristic does not allow this measurement to be

made in oil-based muds. The focusing of the laterolog

measurement is accomplished through the placement of the

electrodes. Generally, latcrologs exhibit very good vertical

resolution. Because the measured currents must pass through

the drilling mud and the flushed zone to enter the unaltered

formation, laterolog measurements are usually unfavorably

influenced by nonconductive mud and mud filtrate. The

presentation of the dual laterolog is very similar to the

presentation of the dual induction shown in Figure 1.

The deep laterolog measurement current is returned to the

earth’s surface to ensure deep investigation and to minimize

the influence of resistive beds. However, the surface return

can give rise to anomalously high resistivity readings for tens

of feet below massive, extensive, highly resistive beds. This

phenomenon is known as the Groningcn eject.

Microresistivity

Micturesistivity devices are used to estimate the resistivity

of the flushod zone immediately adjacent to the borehole. The

devices are of the pad contact typo to ensure that the

investigation is very shallow and to minimize the influence of

changing hole sizes and tool position within the borehole.

This shallow investigation can result in mudcake being a

significant influence. Hole size and mudcake corrections are

commonly required. Like laterologs, these devices require a

direct electrical contact with the formation. For this reason,

microresistivity devices cannot be used in oil-based muds.

Formation resistivity is typically profiled with three

resistivity measurements of different depths of investigation

to characterize the influence of the invading mud filtrate upon

apparent formation resistivity. This characterization permits

the influence of the flushed zone to be separated from the

reading of the deep device for a more accurate determination

of the true formation resistivity (Rt).

POROSITY

Each of the porosity t0ols—density, compensated neutron,

sonic, and photoelectrical effect—can be used to estimate

porosity when lithology and fluid properties are known.

Table 3. Resolution and Applications of Resistivity Devices

Basic Open Hole Tools 147

Vertical Radius of

Tool Resolution Investigation Agnlications

Limitationsb

Dual induction

Deep

Medium

Shallow“

Phasor induction

Deep

Medium

Shallow“

High resolution induction

Deep

Medium

Shallowa

7ft

5ft

2.5ft

3ft

3ft
2.5ft

2.5 ft

2.5 ft

2.5 ft

50 in.

28 in.

16in.

65 in.

40 in.

16 in.

95 in.

60 in.

15 in.

Estimate R1, Rm. and Q

in relatively fresh

and oil mud systems

Estimate Rt, Rm, and D,

in relatively fresh

and oil mud systems;

reduced shoulder effects

Estimate Fir, Hm, and D,

in relatively fresh

and oil mud systems;

Not recommended;

Res > 200 Q—m or

Rm,/Flw < 2.5

Not recommended;

Res > 250 Q—m or

Flm,JFlw < 2.5

Not recommended;

Res > 250 Q—m or

Dual laterolog

Deep 2 ft 45 in.

Shallow 2 ft 16 in.

Microresistivity (See below)

Micro SFL 2-3 in. 1-4 in.

Microlaterolog 2 in. 4 in.

Microlog 2-4 in. i~2 in.

HMJRW < 2.5

reduced shoulder effects

Not recommended;

Flm,JHw > 2.5:

Does not work in

oil-based mud

No oil-based muds

Estimate Flt, Hm, and D,

in relatively salty mud

Permeability and moved

hydrocarbon indicator;

estimate Rm

Permeability and moved

hydrocarbon indicator;

estimate Rm

Permeability and moved

hydrocarbon indicator;

estimate Hm

No oil-based muds

No oil-based muds

‘Shallow measurements do not work in oil-based muds.

"The ohmmeter (£1-m) is a mil ol measurement oi resistance.

(Methods for estimating porosity from these devices

individually are described in the chapter on "Standard

Interpretation" in Part 4.) When both porosity and lithology

are unknown, two or more of the devices can be used together

to determine both porosity and lithology. (The most common

methods for determining both porosity and lithology are

described in the chapter on "Lith0logy from Logs" in Part 4.)

Table 4 shows the resolution and applications of porosity

devices. I
Density

The density tool measures the apparent density of the

formation using a radioactive source that bombards the

formation with high energy gamma rays and then measures

the number of lower energy gamma rays returning to the

detectors. The detectors and source are mounted in a pad that

is forced against the borehole wall. The measurement

attempts lo correct automatically for the effects of mudcake

and minor hole rugosiql. The measurement is sensitive to

significant borehole wall rugosity and pad standoff, which

cause the tool to read too low of a density. A typical

presentation of the density (as well as several other

parameters) is shown in the log in Figure 2.

Compensated Neutron

Compensated neutron devices measure the hydrogen

index of the formation using a radioactive neutron source that

bombards the formation with fast-moving neutrons.

Neutrons collide with atoms of the formation, transferring

their energy through these collisions. The most efficient

transfer of energy occurs with hydrogen atoms because the

mass of hydrogen is approximately the same as the mass of a

neutron. Two detectors count the number of deenergized

(thermal) neutrons retuming from the formation. The ratio of

the detector count rats is primarily related to the hydrogen

index or the apparent water-filled porosity.

The source and detectors are mounted in a mandrel that,

ideally, is pressed against the borehole to minimize the

influence of the high apparent porosity of the borehole. This

measurement is very sensitive to tool standoff, hole size,

temperature, and salinity. Environmental corrections are

highly recommended before attempting to interpret results .

Gas has a very low hydrogen index compared to water, which

causes the tool to report abnormally low porosities in gas-

bearing fomtations. When used in conjunction with density

measurements, gas-bearing intervals are often easy to

identify. A typical presentation of a compensated neutron

measurement is shovrm in the log in Figure 2.

Table 4. Resolution and Application oi Porosity and Llthology Devices

Vertical Fladius oi

Tool Flesolution investigation

Applications Limitations

Compensated density 18 in. 8 in.

Compensated neutron 2 ft 10 in.

Sonic 2 it Typically

6 in.
FWS (monopole) 4 it Typically

6 in.

Dipole sonic 4 it Typically

12 in.

Photoelectrical effect (Pe) 2 in. 2 in.

Pad contact device

Needs environmental

corrections; sensitive

to standoff from wall

Sensitive to

compressibility

Estimate porosity

Estimate porosity and

identify presence of gas

Measure compressional

velocity and

estimate porosity

Measure compressional

and shear velocities and

estimate porosity

Measure shear velocity

Cannot measure shear

velocity when shear

velocity > mud velocity

Does not work in

barite mud and

pad contact tool

Identity lithology and

correlation

Sonic

Sonic devices measure the velocity of various acoustic

waves, most notably compressional, shear, and Stoneley

waves. The velocity of the waves is a function of the elastic

properties and the density of the formation. Logs normally

present the inverse of velocity, called the intewal transit time or

delta t (At). A number of empirical relationships have been

developed to relate compressional velocity to porosity (which

are explained in the chapter on "Standard lnterpretation” in

Part 4).

Two versions of the compressional sonic device are

available: the compensated sonic and the tull waveform sonic

(FWS). The full waveform sonic contains an array of receivers

that are used to determine both compressional and shear

velocities. Sonics are available in a variety of transmitter-to

receiver spacings from 3 to 12 ft or more. The longer spacings

are capable of investigating deeper into the formation. Both

the conventional sonic and the full waveform sonic devices

are used to measure compressional velocity. A typical

presentation of compressional sonic measurements is shown

in the log in Figure l.

Shear velocities are used to determine mechanical

properties of the formations and to determine Poisson's ratio

for use in interpreting seismic data. Shear velocities can be

determined from the FWS (monopole), the dipole sonic, or the

quadrupole sonic. The monopole sonic is not able to measure

shear velocities when the shear velocity of the formation is

slower than the compressional velocity of the mud. Mud

interval transit times are typically in the 190 t1S€C/ ft range.

When this condition is not met, no shear energy is retracted

toward the receivers, making shear velocity measurements

impossible. The dipole overcomes this limitation by directly

exciting shear flexural energy in the formation regardless of

the mud velocities.

Photoelectric Effect

The photoelectric effect is used for lithology determination,

and its measurement is identical to that described in the

correlation subsection. Knowledge of lithology significantly

improves the accuracy of interpretation of all the porosity

measurements.
AUXILIARY TOOLS

A wide variety of auxiliary wireline tools exist for solving

special problems. The more commonly encountered devices

are summarized in Table 5. (For more information on other

auxiliary tools, see the chapters on ”Wireline Formation

Testers," "Dipmeters,” and “Borehole Imaging Devices" in

Part 4.]

Calipers

Calipers come in a wide variety of types, the most

common being onearm, two-arm, three-arm, four-arm, and

six-arm. One-arm calipers use the mandrel of the logging

device as one side of the caliper and an arm extending out

from the body of the sonde as the other. This technique is

commonly used in density measurements. This configuration

typically measures the long axis of an elliptical borehole. The

measurement is unable to characterize accurately hole size

changes less than the tool length on the "tool" side of the

measurement.

The two-arm device has two caliper arms extending in

opposite directions from the tool mandrel. This configuration

typically measures the long axis of an elliptical borehole. This

device is able to characterize small changes in hole size on

both sides of the borehole. In deviated boreholes, the arm on

the low side of the borehole will often collapse under the

weight of the logging tool.

The three-arm device is normally a spring-loaded caliper

with all three arms ganged to operate in unison. This causes

the mandrel of the logging device to center in the borehole;

thus, it is typically used with sonic tools for centralization.

This device reports the shortest of the three measurements

and frequently collapses under tool weight in deviated

boreholes.

Table 5. Resolution and Applications of Auxiliary Devices

Basic Open Hule Tools 149

Vertical

Tool Resolution

Radius of

Investigation

Applications

Calipers N/A

Formation testers 0,5 in.

Dipmeters 0.4 in.

Formation microscanner 0.2 in.

Teieviewer 0.5 in.

N/A Determine borehole diameter

N/A Measure lormation pressures and

recover formation fluid samples

1 in. Structural dip, stratigraphic

dips, and hole geometry

1 in. Structural dip, stratigraphic

dips, formation images, and

hole geometry

0 in. Structural dip, stratigraphic

dips, lormation images, and

hole geometry

The four-arm device is typically used on a dipmeter. The

H105‘ EOl'flII\D1'\ cunfiguralicn hflS UPPOSHE HIHIS {O

work together so that the tool mandrel is centralized in the

borehole. One set of arms typically reports the long axis of an

elliptical borehole, while the other set reports the short axis.

Diprneters usually have operator-adjustable pad pressure,

which increases arm pressure to lift the mandrel of the tool in

deviated boreholes. If insufficient pad pressure is applied, the

calipers will underreport hole size in deviated boreholes. If

excessive pad pressure is applied, the tool will display

irregular tool motion as the tool stops and goes with cable

tension.
Basic Tool Table

Mark W. Alberty

BP Exploration

Houston, Texas, Ll.S.A

Logging tools are generally designed for operation under

limited borehole conditions. A minimum hole size is the

consequence of maximum tool diameter and pad curvatures,

while maximum hole size is established by signal strength

and caliper arm lengths. Mud types can affect signal

transmission. Hole position affects signal strength and mud

or borehole effects. Table 1 provides general operating

limitations for the standard logging tools. Service companies

have specially designed or modified tools that may allow

extension of operation ranges. Consult your local

representative if hole conditions are not as recommended in

Table 1.

Computerized surface systems and cable communication

systems have made tool combinations virtually unlimited.

Tabla 1. Basic Tool Table‘

However, the combining of different tools into a single

logging run may be limited by more than the physical ability

to hook them together. Some devices are designed to operate

excentered, some centered, and some stood off from the

borehole wall. Tool positioning is important in ensuring valid

environmental corrections. Table 1 includes optimum hole

positions for each device. Caution should be used in

combining a tool designed to be excentered, such as the

neutron, with one designed to be centered, such as the sonic.

The environmental effects upon the measurement may be

uncorrectable. Also note that the maximum and minimum

hole sizes are general recommendations only. Some logging

devices are modified for larger and smaller holes. This should

be discussed with your local logging company representative.

Minimum Maximum

Hole Hole Mud Time"

Preferred Hole Recommended

Positions Logging Speed

Tool Size (in.) Size (in.) F S B

Excentered Stand-Off (in.) Centered (ft/hr)

SP —

Gamma ray

Spectral GR

Induction
Laterolog

Microresistivity

Density

Photoelectrical

Neutron

Sonic

FWS (monopole)

Dipole

Dipmeter

Formation tester

FMS

Teieviewer

Pulsed neutron

l\7CDO\O\O'1<DO7050'!O70‘!O7050§G70)

20

20

20

20

16

16

16

16

20
20

14

22

l6

22

14

12

tr

-\‘l

-\‘l

\r

\l

ti

\l

\i

\"

\"

\l

<_ ¢_ 4.

.»_ .»_ <_ <_ <_ <'_ <_ e_ <_ <_ <_ ¢_ <_ >< <_ <_ <_
4<4<4<<<<44<<>(%<4

\/ \i \/ NA

1‘ - - <1 aoo

v‘ NR - <9oo

- 1.5 — <e0oo

- x <aaoo

- - <as0o

~/ o-2.0 <1 aoo

J 0-2.0 <1 soo

11' x <1 aoo

- - <:-1600

x <1 aoo

— <140D

x <3oo0

NA NA

x <1 aoo

x <12o0

~1 - - <1 aoo

<<><<§<<<<<<><><<<<><

><><>><><><

<<§<<<<><><><<<

3‘Symbc|s: v’ - good conditions, X = ursdtable conditions, - = marginally acceptable

conditions, NR = not recommended, NA = not applicable, M = with special muditimtions.
mud types: F etreshwater (bu salt], s = h'gh salt, 5 = barite. K= high potassium salt, o = oil-
based.

150