Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Thesis
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science in
By
Na Jin, B. E.
Thesis Committee
William E. Wolfe, Advisor
Fabian Hadipriono Tan
Tarunjit Singh Butalia
Copyright by
Na Jin
2010
2
ABSTRACT
Pervious concrete has been used in the United State for over 30 years. Because of
its high porosity, the most common usages have been in the area of stormwater
management, but have been limited to use in pavements with low volume traffic because
of its low compressive strength compared to conventional concrete. Fly ash has been
shown in numerous post studies to increase the strength and durability of conventional
concrete. In this study, six batches of pervious concrete with different amounts of
aggregate, cement, and fly ash were prepared to find the mix that generated high
compressive strength and study the effect of fly ash on the compressive strength and
Materials used in this study were selected based on literature reviews and
recommendations from local sources. Unconfined compressive strength tests were carried
out on pervious concrete specimens with fly ash contents of 0%, 2%, 9%, 30%, 32% by
weight of the total cementitious materials. Falling head permeability tests were carried
The results indicated the pervious concrete containing 2% fly ash can achieve
compressive strength greater than 3,000 psi at void content of 12%, and a compressive
strength 2,300 psi with a permeability of 0.13 cm/s at a void content of 15%. The
pervious concrete with 32% fly ash had a compressive strength of 2,000 psi and the
permeability of 0.21 cm/s at a void content of 15.8%. The failure surfaces of specimens
ii
with 2% fly ash developed through the coarse aggregates, indicating the high strength of
cement bonds. The failure of specimens containing 32% fly ash was observed to be along
the coarse aggregates surfaces, indicating a lower strength of the paste. Although it was
expected for pervious concrete with 32% fly ash to reach a higher compressive strength at
lower void content, the failure mode indicated that it may not reach the value as high as
that of pervious concrete with 2% fly ash at the same void content.
iii
DEDICATION
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Wolfe, for his guidance, patience, kindness, and encouragement throughout this work. I
would also like to thank Dr. Fabian Hadipriono Tan for his suggestions and endless
support to me during my study. Without their help, the fulfillment of my master degree
I would also like to thank Dr. Tarunjit Singh Butalia for his suggestions and help
all of the professionals for their expertise, support, and kindness: Mr. Mark Pardi, is of
Ohio Concrete, gave me valuable suggestions and guidance on pervious concrete; Mr.
Dan Hunt, is of Buckeye Ready-Mix, carried out one example mix test on pervious
concrete and shared his valuable experience; Mr. Michael Adams, is of Euclid Chemical
Corp., provided with pervious concrete admixtures; Mr. Thomas J. Wissinger, is of the
Olen Corp., provided and delivered coarse aggregates even in bad weather; Mr. Dan Jahn,
is of Anderson Concrete, arranged a visit to the concrete company and provided with
v
VITA
2002 – 2004………...… Zhenjiang Architectural Design & Research Institute, P.R. China
Fields of Study
Major Field: Civil Engineering
vi
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………ii
DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………………iv
ACKNOWLDEGEMENTS……………………………………………………………….v
VITA……………………………………………………………………………………...vi
List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………..x
List of Tables……...………………………………………………………………...…..xiii
1.1 Background............................................................................................................1
1.2 Objectives..............................................................................................................2
1.3 Organization ..........................................................................................................3
vii
2.5 Factors Affect Compressive Strength and Permeability of Pervious Concrete.......24
2.5.1 Effect of Void Content ..................................................................................25
2.5.2 Effect of Aggregate .......................................................................................27
2.5.3 Effect of Aggregate/Cement Material Ratio...................................................28
2.5.4 Effect of Water/Cement Ratio .......................................................................28
2.5.5 Effect of fly ash.............................................................................................29
2.5.6 Effect of Compaction Energy ........................................................................29
2.5.7 Effect of Fibers .............................................................................................31
2.5.8 Effect of Other Factors ..................................................................................32
2.6 Standard Test Methods.........................................................................................33
2.7 Pervious Concrete Design ....................................................................................34
2.7.1 Pervious Concrete Mix Design ......................................................................34
2.7.2 Pervious Concrete Pavement Hydraulic Design .............................................36
2.7.3 Pervious Concrete Pavement Structural Design .............................................37
viii
4.6.2 Compressive Strength....................................................................................79
4.6.3 Permeability ..................................................................................................80
4.7 Summary of Test Procedure .................................................................................83
REFERENCES ..........................................................................................................113
ix
List of Figures
Figure 2.1. Model Resulting from the Nonlinear Fitting of the Saturated Hydraulic
Conductivity and Total Porosity Data to the Carman-Kozeny Equation .........................18
Figure 2.2. Plot of the Ergun Equation and Values Calculated Using the Falling Head
Experimental Data from Samples Calculated with Dp = 0.1, Dp = 0.3, and Dp =
0.6.(adapted from Montes and Haselbach ).....................................................................19
Figure 2.3. Relationship between Strength, Void Content and Permeability for Several
Trial Mixes of Portland Cement Pervious Concrete........................................................26
Figure 2.4. Nomograph to Determine Structural Number (Pavement Strength) .............38
Figure 3.1. Uses of Coal Combustion Products in 2008 (AACA adapted from U. S
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)) .....................................................................45
Figure 3.2. 1966-2007 CCP Beneficial Use vs. Production (AACA) ..............................46
Figure 3.3. Coal Combustion Products Generation and Use (Short Tons) (AACA adapted
from EPA) .....................................................................................................................47
Figure 3.4. Top Uses of Coal Fly Ash 2003 (AACA adapted from)................................49
Figure 3.5. Comparison between Ash Concrete Compressive Strength and Plain Cement
Concrete Compressive Strength. ....................................................................................52
Figure 3.6. Effect of Fly Ash on Permeability of Concrete (adapted from) .....................55
Figure 4.1. Grain Distribution Curve of Size Number 8 River Gravel (Olen Corp.)........61
Figure 4.2. Pervious Concrete Mix Calculation Program................................................68
Figure 4.3. 20 quart Blakeslee Mixer .............................................................................72
Figure 4.4. Specimen Mixed Using 20 Quart Blakeslee Mixer .......................................72
Figure 4.5. 3.4ft3 capacity Gilson 39555 (drum speed speed 22 ~ 25 RPM) ...................73
Figure 4.6. INSTRON-5585 Compressive Strength Testing Machine.............................80
Figure 4.7. Falling Head Permeability Test for Pervious Concrete Specimen .................82
Figure 4.8. Pervious Concrete Specimen for Permeability Test ......................................82
Figure 5.1. Relationship between Void Content (%) and Unit Weight (lb/ft 3).................87
Figure 5.2. Void Contents of Specimens Compacted by Different Methods ...................88
Figure 5.3. The Specimen Compacted by Proctor Hammer ............................................89
Figure 5.4. Pervious Concrete Mix #3~#6 Compressive Strength vs. Curing Period.......92
Figure 5.5. Relaiton between 28-day Compressive Strength and Void Content ..............93
Figure 5.6. Relationship between 28-day Compressive Strength and Unit Weight..........94
Figure 5.7. Stress-strain Curves Tested on Specimens with Different Void Content at 28-
day Curing Period, Mix #5.............................................................................................96
Figure 5.8. Stress-strain Curves Tested on Specimens with Different Void Content at 28-
day Curing Period, Mix #6.............................................................................................97
Figure 5.9. Stress-strain Curves Tested on Specimens with Void Content 18% at 7-day,
21-day, and 28-day Curing Periods, Mix #6 ...................................................................99
x
Figure 5.10. Failure Mode I of Pervious Concrete Samples..........................................100
Figure 5.11. Failure Mode II of Pervious Concrete Samples.........................................100
Figure 5.12. Failure of Specimen Compacted by Standard Proctor Hammer (Mix #6)..101
Figure 5.13. Failure Surface Comparison between Specimen from Mix #5 and Mix #6 102
Figure 5.14. Relationship between Void Content and Permeability of Pervious Concrete
Specimens ...................................................................................................................103
Figure 5.15. Comparison of Permeability Test Results with Previous Studies ..............106
Figure 6.1. Permeability and 28-day Compressive Strength vs. Void Content ..............109
Figure B.1. Properties of Coarse Aggregates................................................................126
Figure B.2. Properties of Cement (St. Marys) ..............................................................127
Figure B.3. Properties of High Range Water Reducer (Euclid Chemical Company) .....128
Figure B.4. Properties of Mid-Range Water Reducer (Euclid Chemical Company) ......130
Figure B.5. Properties of Mid-Range Water Reducer (Euclid Chemical Company) ......132
Figure B.6. Properties of Viscosity Modifying Admixture (Euclid Chemical Company)
....................................................................................................................................134
Figure B.7. Properties of Fiber (Euclid Chemical Company)........................................135
Figure C.1. 11-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend of
31% from Mix #3 ........................................................................................................147
Figure C.2. 21-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend of
31% from Mix #3 ........................................................................................................147
Figure C.3. 28-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend of
31% from Mix #3 ........................................................................................................148
Figure C.4. 7-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend of
27% from Mix #4 ........................................................................................................148
Figure C.5. 21-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend of
27% from Mix #4 ........................................................................................................149
Figure C.6. 28-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend of
27% from Mix #4 ........................................................................................................149
Figure C.7. 7-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend of
12% from Mix #5 ........................................................................................................150
Figure C.8. 21-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend of
12% from Mix #5 ........................................................................................................150
Figure C.9. 28-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend of
13% from Mix #5 ........................................................................................................151
Figure C.10. 7-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend of
17% from Mix #6 ........................................................................................................151
Figure C.11. 21-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend of
18% from Mix #6 ........................................................................................................152
Figure C.12. 28-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend of
18% from Mix #6 ........................................................................................................152
Figure C.13. 28-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend of
16% from Mix #5 ........................................................................................................153
Figure C.14. 28-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend of
15% from Mix #5 ........................................................................................................153
xi
Figure C.15. 28-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend of
12% from Mix #5 ........................................................................................................154
Figure C.16. 28-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend of
12% from Mix #5 ........................................................................................................154
Figure C.17. 28-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend of
14% from Mix #5 ........................................................................................................155
Figure C.18. 28-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend of
14% from Mix #5 ........................................................................................................155
Figure C.19. 28-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend of
13% from Mix #5 ........................................................................................................156
Figure C.20. 28-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend of
18% from Mix #6 ........................................................................................................156
Figure C.21. 28-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend of
20% from Mix #6 ........................................................................................................157
Figure C.22. 28-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend of
22% from Mix #6 ........................................................................................................157
Figure C.23. 28-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend of
24% from Mix #6 ........................................................................................................158
Figure C.24. 28-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend of
24% from Mix #6 ........................................................................................................158
xii
List of Tables
xiii
Table C.13. Unit Weight and Void Content of 4in x 8in Samples from Pervious Concrete
Mix #6.........................................................................................................................144
Table C.14. Unit Weight and Void Content of 3in x 6in Samples from Pervious Concrete
Mix #6.........................................................................................................................144
Table C.15. Compressive Strength of Specimens from Mix #1~#6 at 7, 21, and 28 Days
Curing Periods.............................................................................................................145
Table C.16. 28-day Compressive Strength of Specimens from Mix #1~#6 with Various
Void Content ...............................................................................................................146
Table C.17. Measured and Calculated Permeability of Pervious Concrete Specimens from
Literature Review ........................................................................................................159
Table C.18. Permeability Calculation Parameters in Falling Head Permeability Test ...161
Table C.19. Permeability Test Data for Specimen with Void Content of 19.5% from Mix
#5 ................................................................................................................................162
Table C.20. Permeability Test Data for Specimen with Void Content of 19.5% from Mix
#5 ................................................................................................................................162
Table C.21. Permeability Test Data for Specimen with Void Content of 17.0% from Mix
#5 ................................................................................................................................163
Table C.22. Permeability Test Data for Specimen with Void Content of 16.0% from Mix
#5 ................................................................................................................................163
Table C.23. Permeability Test Data for Specimen with Void Content of 14.9% from Mix
#5 ................................................................................................................................164
Table C.24. Permeability Test Data for Specimen with Void Content of 27.2% from Mix
#6 ................................................................................................................................164
Table C.25. Permeability Test Data for Specimen with Void Content of 25.0% from Mix
#6 ................................................................................................................................165
Table C.26. Permeability Test Data for Specimen with Void Content of 21.0% from Mix
#6 ................................................................................................................................165
Table C.27. Permeability Test Data for Specimen with Void Content of 21.5% from Mix
#6 ................................................................................................................................166
Table C.28. Permeability Test Data for Specimen with Void Content of 15.8% from Mix
#6 ................................................................................................................................166
Table C.29. Void Contents of Specimens Compacted at Different Compaction Methods
....................................................................................................................................167
xiv
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
“pervious concrete is a special type of concrete with a high porosity used for concrete
flatwork applications that allows water from precipitation and other sources to pass
through it, thereby reducing the runoff from a site and recharging ground water
coarse aggregate, water, admixtures, and little or no sand. In the past 30 years,
pervious concrete has been increasingly used in the United States, and is among the
Agency (EPA)2. By capturing stormwater and allowing it to seep into the ground,
runoff, and meeting U.S. EPA stormwater regulations. Other benefits of using
reduction of large volumes of surface pollution flowing into rivers; decrease of urban
heat island effect; eliminating traffic noise; and enhancing safety of driving during
raining. The use of pervious concrete in building site design can also aid in the
1
process of qualifying the building for Leadership in Energy and Environmental
properties of pervious concrete have been studied by many researchers 3,4,5,6 . The
strength are reduced due to this character, limiting the application of pervious
the cement with other materials, such as fly ash. Fly ash is one of the by-products of
coal combustion in power generation plants. Large amount of fly ash are discarded
each year, increasing costs for disposal. On the other hand, fly ash has been shown to
improve the overall performance of concrete, when substituted for a portion of the
cement7. Hence, when fly ash is used in pervious concrete, the occupation of landfill
space can be reduced and CO emissions generated during cement production can be
2
1.2 Objectives
engineering properties of pervious concrete with the use of fly ash. The physical
concrete. The parameters that affect the strength and the hydraulic conductivity of
2
pervious concrete will be analyzed. The potential use of pervious concrete containing
1.3 Organization
presents literature reviews of pervious concrete, including benefits and problems, mix
review of fly ash, introducing the application and effect of fly ash on concrete
properties. Chapter 4 introduces the laboratory mixing and laboratory tests, including
the selection of materials, mixing equipment, mix design, compaction method, and
test equipments. Chapter 5 elaborates on the test results, including void content,
concrete that contains large amounts of fly ash, and provides with recommendations
concrete components used in this research. Appendix C presents the laboratory test
results. Appendix D shows codes of a program developed for pervious concrete mix
design.
1
NRMCA “CIP 38 – pervious concrete” brochure of National Ready Mixed
Concrete Association (NRMCA), <http://nrmca.org/aboutconcrete/cips/38p.pdf>
(Feb. 01, 2010).
3
2
National Ready Mixed Concrete Association (NRMCA),
<http://www.perviouspavement.org/index.html> (May 24, 2010).
3
Offenberg, M. (2008). “Is pervious concrete ready for structural applications?”
Structure Magazine, February, p. 48.
4
Johnston, K. (2009). “Pervious concrete: past, present and future.” Green
Building, Concrete Contractor,
<http://www.perviouspavement.org/PDFs/Concrete%20Contractor%20Mag%20-
%20PERVIOUS.Feb-Mar-09.pdf> (April. 24, 2010).
5
Schaefer, V. R., Suleiman, M. T., Wang, K., Kevern, J. T., and Wiegand, P.
(2006). “An overview of pervious concrete applications in stormwater
management and pavement systems.” < http://www.rmc-
foundation.org/images/PCRC%20Files/Hydrological%20&%20Environmental%2
0Design/An%20Overview%20of%20Pervious%20Concrete%20Applications%20
in%20Stormwater%20Management%20and%20Pavement%20Systems.pdf> (Jun.
16, 2010).
6
Yang, J., and Jiang. G. (2003). “Experimental study on properties of pervious
concrete pavement materials.” Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 33, pp. 381-
386.
7
Headwaters Resources (2005). “Fly ash in pervious concrete.” Bulletin No. 29,
<http://www.flyash.com/data/upimages/press/TB.29%20Fly%20Ash%20in%20P
ervious%20Concrete.pdf > (May 21, 2010).
4
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW OF PORTLAND CEMENT PERVIOUS CONCRETE
2.1 Introduction
Offenberg3 stated that the first popular usage of pervious concrete was in post-
World War II England where it was used in two-story homes known as the Wimpey
Houses. During World War II, nearly two third of Britain’s houses had been
destroyed; and no new buildings had been constructed since 1939. Consequently, the
demand for housing was very high, causing a shortage of bricks. In this situation,
people were seeking alternate construction materials that were economical, reliable
and efficient. No-fine concrete was then used in some parts of the walls by Wimpey8
In the United States, pervious concrete has been used for almost 30 years
since it was first introduced in California4. In order to study the factors influencing
mix proportions of cement, water, coarse aggregate, sand, fly ash, and admixtures.
that affect the mechanical properties of pervious concrete are void content, aggregate
to cement ratio, fine aggregate amount, coarse aggregate size, coarse aggregate type,
Due to the absence of fine aggregate, pervious concrete has high porosity,
2.2.1 Benefits
Since the pervious concrete pavement is permeable, water can be captured and
flow through the pavement during rainfall. In the mean time, free air is stored in the
pavement and allows the communication between the subsurface and the air. These
Due to its high porosity, pervious concrete can capture stormwater and provide a path
for water to flow into the subsoil, helping to naturally adjust the ground water level.
Furthermore, instead of being carried into rivers and lakes by rain water, the residues
water management.
Pervious concrete is much cooler than asphalt and conventional concrete. First
of all, the light color reflects more ultraviolet rays from sun and absorbs less heat than
6
asphalt. Secondly, the voids in pervious concrete allow it to store less heat than
conventional concrete does. This character benefits the districts in hot weather
climates. For instances, the group of National Center of Excellence for Sustainable
utilization of pervious concrete for minimizing the urban heat-island effect14. Houston
Plan for Cooling the Region,” in which the benefits of reducing heat island effect in
high density urban areas by using pervious concrete has been introduced.
stated by Kim and Lee 16 , pervious concrete “is applied for sound barriers or
pavements to absorb traffic (tire) noise and reduce sound wave reflection”. To
investigate this property of absorption, Kim and Lee16 created a model to study the
acoustic absorption ability of pervious concrete, considering the gradation and shape
of aggregates and void content on pervious concrete pavement. The results calculated
by the modeling were compared with experimental and statistical results from
previous studies. All results illustrated that the maximum acoustic absorption ability
was increased with void content and was hardly affected by the shape of aggregate
when pervious concrete was compacted well. Secondly, pervious concrete enhances
7
2.2.1.4 LEED
The usage of pervious concrete in building site design can also aid in the
Green Building Rating System credits. LEED was developed by the U.S. Green
LEED for New Construction and Major Renovations version 2.2 has maximum total
of 69 points, in which concrete can earn up to 25 points. In addition, with the usage of
fly ash or other recycled materials in pervious concrete, up to 5 more credits could be
earned2.
2.2.2 Problems
existence of large amounts of air voids. The low strength limits the utilization of
pervious concrete to parking-lots, side walks, and other low-volume traffic roadways.
Obviously, high porosity and strength are two incompatible features of pervious
concrete. This disadvantage initiates the study on pervious concrete aim to improve
8
2.2.2.2 Freeze-thaw Durability
especially in the northern area of the United States, which are districts experiencing
cold weather. The pervious concrete is more vulnerable to be destroyed under freeze-
thaw weather. Research has been done to study the suitability of pervious concrete in
this type of climate. Regulations have been made to ensure the applicability of the
pervious concrete. For example ASTM C 666M-03 17 Standard Test Method for
Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing specifies the standard test
of freezing and thawing in the laboratory following procedure A, Rapid Freezing and
Thawing in Water, and procedure B, Rapid Freezing in Air and Thawing in Water.
2.2.2.3 Abrasion
Abrasion of pervious concrete may limit its utilization. Raveling may happen
if aggregate is not sufficiently coated with cement paste. Other factors such as low
Water/Cement (W/C) ratio, dry weather, especially the rough surface also make
aggregate vulnerable to the abrasion. Theoretically, the abrasion of surface may make
surface more uneven and worsen abrasion over time. However, Hein and Schindler18
studied field projects constructed on the Auburn University campus, and found that
after curing of pervious concrete, about only 10% of surface aggregates were
displaced. But remaining surface was smooth enough as for a sidewalk and had
9
2.2.2.4 Clogging Maintenance
concrete. The open voids are highly prone to be clogged during the utilization of
pervious concrete pavement over time. The U. S. EPA recommends that cleaning
currently used: vacuum sweeping and high pressure washing. Even though cleaning is
performed regularly, not all contaminants are removed and the performance of
pervious concrete may lessen over the years. Moreover, the residues may cause
contamination of the water that runs through the pervious concrete. Hence,
2.2.2.5 Cost
than that of the regular concrete2, some of the added cost is offset. The high initial
cost of pervious concrete is partly caused by the construction of the subgrade. A thick
layer of open gravel subgrade is usually installed under the pavement to provide the
storage and drainage of water. With such subgrade, pervious concrete normally can
perform very well even when built on clay soils. An example is presented by Dietz19,
who tested a subgrade of 10-in. thick layer of open graded gravel with undrained
system below. The subgrade showed good storage and drainage conditions. In general,
a thick layer of coarse aggregate “provides greater storage capacity and a longer time
10
allows water to exfiltrate to the native soils before underdarin flow would begin”19.
But the construction of subgrade increases the total cost of the pervious concrete
pavement. Another reason is the increased maintenance cost for pervious concrete
Small amount of fine aggregate may be added to obtain higher compressive strength.
water retarder, viscosity modifying admixtures, and fibers are usually used. In some
cases, fly ash is used as a substitute for Portland cement to enhance the environmental
size, and type of coarse aggregate have been found to affect the character of pervious
concrete6,9,10,11. In practice, river gravels that have size number of 8 (ASTM C 3320)
are widely used in construction. Other sizes of river gravels and limestone have been
11
2.3.2 Fine Aggregate
mechanical capabilities of pervious concrete. On the other hand, the permeability will
typically decrease when fine aggregate is added. Wang et al.10 studied pervious
tests illustrated that the compressive strength and freeze-thaw ability of pervious
permeability is satisfied10.
According to the ASTM C 3320, the fine aggregate shall consist of natural or,
having hard, strong, durable particles. The amount substances such as clay lumps coal
and lignite, shale, and other deleterious substance should be limited within a range
individually, and the total amount should be less than 2% by dry weight. Soundness
loss should be less than 10% by weight. The fine aggregate should be free from
organic impurities.
2.3.3 Cement
dependent on the amount and size of coarse aggregate and the water content. Various
12
amounts of cement are recommended by different agencies and will be introduced in
section 2.7.1.
Fly ash can be used in pervious concrete as a substitute for a portion of the
cement. Two types of fly ash which are Class C and Class F fly ash are both able to
used in pervious concrete. Currently, fly ash can replace 5-65% of the Portland
concrete. The advantage of using fly ash is obvious: fly ash is a by-product of coal
burning in power plants, its utilization saves the energy required to produce the
cement. In addition, fly ash improves the flowability and workability of concrete.
2.3.5 Water
mix. Enough water should be added so that cement hydration is thoroughly developed.
However, too much water will settle the paste at the base of the pavement and clog
the pores. Meanwhile, too much water increases the distance between particles,
causing higher porosity and lower strength. Wanielista and Chopra11 stated that “the
correct amount of water will maximize the strength without compromising the
regular concrete2,9,18. One of the reasons is too much water causes settlement of
cement at the bottom resulting in clogging. To decrease the water content, a HRWR
or MRWR is often used. The dosages of water reducer used in pervious concrete are
The National Ready Mixed Concrete Association reports that “because of the
admixtures are commonly used”2. Water retarder can extend setting time so that the
Compared to regular concrete, pervious concrete is very dry and hard to cast.
However with the usage of viscosity modifying admixtures, the workability can be
highly improved, and pervious concrete can be more manageable18. In a field project,
14
Hein and Schindler18 found that “The use of water reducing admixtures in
Since the usage of viscosity eliminated hard physical labor and improved the
pavements”.
which can flexibly respond to the forces generated by freeze-thaw cycles. These
micro air bubbles are different from the voids in pervious concrete, which are open
2.3.6.5 Fibers
required. Experiments by Schaefer et al.23 showed that adding latex fibers increases
strength of pervious concrete; Yang and Jiang6 used organic polymer fibers and found
that they enhanced the strength of pervious concrete greatly. However, they typically
15
2.4 Important Properties of Pervious Concrete
properties of pervious concrete. They are affected by many factors such as water
content, void content, aggregate gradations, W/C ratio, and A/C ratio. Research has
been carried out to study the effect of different factors. In this research W/C ratio
stands for Water/total Cementitious Material ratio for simplification. A/C ratio stands
2.4.1 Permeability
previous studies 24,25,26,27 two permeability tests, the falling head tests and constant
head tests were both used to measure the hydraulic conductivity of pervious concrete
samples taken from sites or made in labs. Some lab testing also simulated the
found that the typical permeability is larger than 0.1cm/sec or 140in/hour10, which is
falling head permeability tests were carried out on three sets of specimens with
diameter 3 inches, 4 inches, and 6 inches, respectively. The falling head permeability
tests also simulated the situation of winter surface, which was covered by sand-salt
mixture. The results showed that the hydraulic conductivity ranged from 0.68cm/s to
0.98cm/s. One significant and special contribution of this article was the study on the
16
decrease of permeability by simulating the winter surface. The results illustrated 15%
(0.001 to 10 cm/sec). Crouch et al. found the constant head permeability was a
function of three factors: effective air void content, effective void size, and drain
down, where “drain down is a result of too much paste for the applied compactive
effort or the paste being too fluid”, sealing the lower surface of pervious concrete
sample27.
concrete samples taken from three different field-placed slabs using a falling head
concrete, samples were collected with different W/C ratios and A/C ratios. Based on
previous studies7,24,25,26, the average porosity of the samples range from 15% to 30%
is typical for pervious concrete. The results indicated that the hydraulic conductivity
values from the equation, Montes and Haselbach25 studied the relationship between
porosity and hydraulic conductivity and found most fitted value of α=17.9 ± 2.3
Montes and Haselbach25). The effect of cementitious material and the non-spherical
17
Figure 2.1. Model Resulting from the Nonlinear Fitting of the Saturated Hydraulic
Conductivity and Total Porosity Data to the Carman-Kozeny Equation25
Montes and Haselbach25 used the Ergun equation to analyze the flow
condition inside the pervious concrete samples. The Ergun equation has the form: f’ =
number which indicates the particular fluid porous media flow situation. The results
of Ergun model calculation presented for pervious concrete samples with various
Haselbach25 (Figure 2.1). The trial results indicated that most of the samples were in
18
the laminar flow region. However, the flow regime may fall into the transition region
Figure 2.2. Plot of the Ergun Equation and Values Calculated Using the Falling Head
Experimental Data from Samples Calculated with Dp = 0.1, Dp = 0.3, and Dp =
0.6.(adapted from Montes and Haselbach 25)
Note: Dp=0.1, 0.3, and 0.6cm can be interpreted as particles with different average
diameters and sphericities so that Dp would be equal to 0.1, 0.3, or 0.6 cm.
show a high coefficient value between experiment and calculated results. However,
they also claimed the validation of the equation was for the pervious concrete samples
in that specific study, in which the size of aggregate was 3/8 inches ~ 5/8 inches, and
19
the porosity ranged from 15% to 32%. Although the application of equation is limited,
the study showed the flow regime in pervious concrete is in the laminar flow region,
in which Darcy’s law can be applied. This study is significant because it verified the
concrete permeability.
concrete that had been used for a while or had become partially clogged. Haselbach et
Considering the in-situ pervious concrete pavement, clogging is one of the important
permeability. In order to study the effect of clogging, Haselbach et al.24 started with
statistics and theoretical analysis. Then experiments were conducted to simulate the
rainfall and clogging situation, and the results were used to compare with predicted
values. The comparison showed good agreement between experimental results and
calculated values, verifying the validity of the prediction. The specialty of this
under the worst condition of clogging, which is usually ignored in most research.
required for pervious concrete. According to field and laboratory tests, pervious
20
concrete compressive strength regularly falls in a range of 400psi ~ 4,000psi (2.8MPa
~ 28MPa). But the common strength is from 600psi to 1,500psi (4MPa to 10MPa).
Laboratory studies have found compressive strength ranges from 600 psi to 3,600 psi
(4 MPa to 25 MPa)9,10,11.
strength of pervious concrete and stated that researchers agreed that factors affect
pervious concrete compressive strength included: A/C ratio, W/C ratio, coarse
concrete”.
is more than 91% saturated, which is generally true for concrete surfaces. When water
freezes, its volume will increase. The expansion of volume generates large pressures,
which act on concrete. When the pressure is in excess of the tensile strength of
Although some field projects indicated that pervious concrete performed well
have various weather conditions. Table 2.1 shows the classification of different
to entrain air. The microscopic entrained air bubbles that are evenly distributed in the
paste can help to relieve any pressure buildup. Generally for regular concrete, an air
condition. However, no specific content has been investigated for pervious concrete.
In fact, the standard for conventional concrete is unsuitable to quantify the amount of
22
a thick layer of 8 to 24 inches (200 to 600mm) of open graded stone base, saturation
Freezing and Thawing in Water of ASTM C 66617, requiring less than 5% mass loss
after 300 freeze-thaw cycles10. However, the fully saturated condition in procedure A
saturated pervious concrete performs well in freeze thaw region because the voids in
concrete can provide sufficient space for water to move. However, a fully saturated
condition may exist; and pervious concrete should be avoided in regions where this
paste matrix failure. Aggregate failure is seen by the deterioration or splitting of the
from the concrete. Cement paste failure is observed by the raveling of entire pieces of
Schaefer et al., “in general, mixes containing limestone (i.e. Mix 3/8-LS) failed by the
deterioration of the aggregate; however, mixes containing the smaller size No. 4 river
23
2.4.4 Modulus of Elasticity
pavements, which is one of the most important indices to evaluate the pervious-
concrete lifespan.
Crouch et al.9 tested the static moduli of four different pervious concrete
mixes with various aggregate sizes and gradations. The results showed that the static
elastic modulus was inversely proportional to the void content. And the optimum void
range which is from 23% to 31% happened in the mix with uniform gradation.
Crouch et al.9 found that the static elastic modulus decreased with increasing
aggregate and decreasing paste. No effect of aggregate sizes on static elastic modulus
Pervious Concrete
investigated and their relationships to void content were found. Higher void content
usually leads to higher permeability and lower compressive strength. Other factors
have also been found through experiments. These factors include aggregate, W/C
24
2.5.1 Effect of Void Content
properties of pervious concrete, and provided results to show the relationship between
strength, void content and permeability for several trial mixes of pervious concrete.
The experimental results showed that the permeability increased and compressive
Figure 2.3. As shown, when the void content increased from 15% to 32%, the 7-day
figure, the effect of void content on the measured permeability increased when the
void content increased from about 25% to 32%. Their tests showed that the increase
of permeability became more apparent when the void content was relatively large,
25
Figure 2.3. Relationship between Strength, Void Content and Permeability for
Several Trial Mixes of Portland Cement Pervious Concrete23
Crouch et al.27 also studied the correlation between void content and
permeability in both laboratory and field cored specimens. The results showed
agreement with those from Schaefer et al.23. The average values illustrated high
strength of bond between void content and permeability with correlation coefficient
from prior studies, Crouch et al.27 found that the permeability at low void content
showed high consistency with the previous experimental results30,31 than those at high
void content. This indicated compressive strength values might be more consistent at
Void content has been found as the primary factor that determines the
properties of pervious concrete. It was found to be determined from the concrete mix,
26
2.5.2 Effect of Aggregate
concrete comes from the coarse aggregate size, type, gradation, and the percentage of
fine aggregate.
Mulligan32 stated that since cement bond is limited in pervious concrete and
“the aggregate rely on the contact surfaces between one another, the aggregate with
higher stiffness such as granite or quartz would have higher compressive strength
Besides the effect of aggregate type, the size of aggregate is another important
factor for compressive strength and permeability of pervious concrete. Yang and
sizes. The results showed that the compressive strength was improved by decreasing
the aggregate size. Yang and Jiang analyzed that the reason that smaller aggregate
size generated higher compressive strength might because it enlarged the bond area
in the permeability.
Crouch et al.9 found that a more uniform gradation deduced to slightly higher
effective void content. Furthermore, the compressive strength was higher at the same
void content in mix that having uniform gradation. The effect of gradation on
compressive strength and permeability was also studied by Wang et al. 10. They
27
showed that a single aggregate size for the pervious concrete had higher permeability
However, the void content is deduced by 10%, decreasing the permeability. Although
The effect of A/C ratio is illustrated in the research done by Crouch et al.9.
The experimental results showed that increasing the aggregate amount in pervious
concrete results in higher effective void content and lower compressive strength.
Crouch et al.9 explained the reason of this phenomenon: “An increased aggregate
amount also results in a decreased past amount. Hence, there is less paste to fill up the
voids, resulting in higher void contents. Also, less paste is available for aggregate
between 0.22 and 0.45. In the brochure “CIP 38 – pervious concrete”1 published by
NRMCA, a range of 0.35 to 0.45 of W/C ratio is given as a typical ratio for pervious
concrete. However, Wang et al.10 mixed pervious concrete batches with W/C ratios
28
0.22 and 0.27, and suggested using the lower value, if workability could be
fully develop. Yang and Jiang6 pointed out that the cement bond should provide good
which way the mixture most effectively works. However, too much water may
Furthermore, excessive water will result in settlement of paste, sealing the bottom of
pervious concrete.
later-age strength of concrete. The effect of fly ash will be thoroughly discussed in
Chapter 3.
thaw durability and compaction failure mode of pervious concrete based on the
153 cycles and 196 cycles) compacted at higher energy. Suleiman et al. 23 also found
failed through the aggregate, while samples compacted at lower energy failed through
comparing the experimental results of specimens with the same mixture design while
compacted at six different compaction efforts. By investigating the effective air void
content and the permeability of both in field and laboratory pervious concrete
mixtures, Crouch et al. found that larger compaction effort resulted in less effective
were used and compared by Rizvi et al.13. The compaction method is determined
from the compaction equipment, compaction cycles, and compaction forces. Widely
used compaction equipment includes standard tamping rod, standard Proctor hammer
techniques as illustrated in Table 2.2 were used to cast identical 6in x 12in cylinders.
For each consolidation technique, samples were prepared for 7, 14 and 28 day
compressive strength testing, permeability, and air void testing. The results revealed
the optimum compaction technique was a standard Proctor hammer 10times/layer for
2 layers. Samples compacted by this method achieve both relatively high compressive
strength and high permeability. In addition, the cylinders compacted by this method
30
“also achieved the most consistent results with the least variance for compressive
strength and relatively low standard deviations for permeability and air void”13.
Drops 28Days
/Tamping Voids Compressive Permeability
Method Layers rod/layer (%) Strength (MPa) (cm/s)
Rod 3 25 18.5 18.3 0.719
Rod 3 15 21.2 21 1.03
Rod 3 5 21.8 15.7 1.027
Proctor
2 10 19.9 17.5 0.584
Hammer
Proctor
Hammer 2 20 17.2 20.7 1.041
Table 2.2. Compaction Method Conducted by Rizvi et al.13
Compared to the lab testing, the field compaction methods have been less
studied. However, Hein and Schindler18, when reviewing the projects on Auburn
roller and hand roller in field. By observing these field projects, he stated that
“vibrating roller appeared to seal the surface and collapse the pores, providing too
great a compactive effort. The hand roller guided by side forms seemed to provide the
smoothest finish.”
The positive effect of fibers has been shown in many studies. Yang and Jiang6
added polymer fibers into the pervious concrete and obtained increased compressive
31
strength. The increase of compressive strength might because the fiber enhanced the
binder6. In addition, the permeability was unaffected, which differed to the effects of
other factors and therefore enhanced the advantage of adding fibers in pervious
concrete.
Some factors such as specimen size and testing method have also been studied
in a few cases. Although these factors are not critical to determine pervious concrete
The size of specimen is not usually considered because they are generally
compacted to the standard size defined by national codes. For example, 4in x 8in
cylinders are normally used in the United States for compressive strength test; 6in x
12in cylinders were cast in the University of Waterloo in Canada, while rectangular
cylinders were used in China. To study the impact of diameter on cylinder samples,
McCain and Dewoolkar26 tested the compressive strength on three sets of specimens
with diameter of 3 inches, 4 inches, and 6 inches. For each set, three identical
specimens were tested. The compressive strength drawn from these experiments
ranged between 650psi (4.5MPa) and 1,100psi (7.6MPa). Even for specimens that
were the same size, the compressive strengths were different with 150 to 260psi. The
experimental results showed that the effect of specimen size was unpredictable.
However, the specimens with 4 inches diameters showed higher average compressive
strength compared to the 3 inches and 6 inches diameters specimens. However, the
32
effect of specimen size could not be distinguished from the effect of inconsistent
the specimens with sulfur capping compound has higher compressive strength than
Some tests methods that are required for regular concrete may be unnecessary
for pervious concrete. For example, since pervious concrete has low water content
hardened concrete density and porosity, and flexural strength of pervious concrete are
under development by ASTM C 09/49 34 . Only ASTM C 1688 with title of Fresh
concrete Density (Unit Weight) and Void Content has been published35. Obviously,
the progress of developing standard test methods for pervious concrete is only at
beginning. No standard ASTM test procedure has been suggested to measure the
entrained air content for pervious concrete. In fact, before the finalization of
testing/mixing methods for pervious concrete, people are using those designed for
conventional concrete, even those methods may not be appropriate in many situations.
33
2.7 Pervious Concrete Design
pavement structure and hydraulic design. The mix design of pervious concrete is
concerned with the properties of pervious concrete used in the pavement; while the
pervious concrete pavement design is the process of designing the whole system of
Pervious concrete mix design should generate batches that satisfy compressive
concrete Association, the Southern California Ready Mix concrete Association, and
the Euclid Chemical Company. The recommended mix designs are shown in Table
2.3, Table 2.4, and Table 2.5. The examples of mix design in laboratory experiments
and in field projects have been done and are listed in Appendix I.
34
Material Amount
(pcy)
Cementitious Materials 450 – 700 lbs
Aggregate 2000 – 2500 lbs
W/C by Mass 0.27 – 0.34
A/C by Mass 4 – 4.5 : 1
Table 2.3. Recommended Typical Mix Design by National Ready Mixed Concrete
Association36
35
As shown, there is no single accepted mix design for pervious concrete. Since
less water is used than typical for conventional concrete, pervious concrete appears
drier and more sensitive to the actual water content. Water reducer and water retarder
are used in most cases. In addition, the amount of water and other materials are varied
with the mixing condition and may need to be adjusted during mixing process. Hence,
the mixing of pervious concrete should be done by a crew who has been trained in a
certification program.
water can easily pass through the top layer, be temporarily stored in the subgrade
illustrated below:
Following this process, designer can calculate the desirable pavement open
space, which can produce the required drainage at a certain rainfall rate. The
the program contains trial thickness of pervious concrete and gravel base, porosity of
pervious concrete and gravel base, local rainfall information, and adjacent areas
which will drain onto pervious concrete. After analyzing the input parameters, the
software can generate a chart to model the flowing situation of rainfall with elapsed
time. Hence, a satisfactory thickness of the pavement and subgrade layers can be
includes four elements: total traffic, in-situ soil strength, environmental elements, and
actual layer design. The primary purpose of the structural design is to examine and
finalize the thickness of subgrade layer. The top layer of pavement is set to the
pervious concrete block, which is usually 6 inches or more. The thickness of pervious
normal11 because pervious concrete has lower compressive strength than regular
concrete.
Before beginning the structural design, the thickness of each layer has been
determined from the hydraulic design. Only the thickness of subgrade layer will be
checked in the structural design to determine whether or not the pavement is strong
design chart40 shown in Figure 2.4. Figure 2.4 gives an example of how to obtain a
SN: 1) from soil support value of 7 and total equivalent 18-kip single-axle load
the structure number scale; 2) connects the structure number of 2.3 and regional
factor of 4.0, and extends the line to the scale of weighted structure number, SN = 3.2
is obtained. If calculated SNcalc is greater than the SN, the thickness of subgrade is
38
The permeable subgrade might be composed of either 1 inch maximum-size
amounts of silt, clay, and poorly-graded soil38. However, the top 6 inches of the
moderate amount (10%) of silt or clay41. The design of subbase is primarily based on
its stormwater storage ability, and the modulus of subgrade reaction (k) is another
design criterion. NCDENR suggests a suitable range 150-175 lb/in3 for k value, which
tests (ASTM D 1196 and AASHTO T 222), or estimated from the elastic modulus of
8
Funding Universe, “George Wimpey plc.”
<http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/George-Wimpey-plc-
Company-History.html> (April 19, 2009).
9
Crouch, L. K., Pitt, J. and Hewitt, R. (2007). “Aggregate effects on pervious
Portland cement concrete static modulus of elasticity.” Journal of Materials in
Civil Engineering, ASCE.
10
Wang, K., Schaefer, V. R., Kevern, J. T., and Suleiman, M. T. (2006).
“Development of mix proportion for functional and durable pervious concrete.”
submitted to NRMCA concrete technology forum: focus on pervious concrete.
11
Wanielista, M., and Chopra, M. (2007). “Performance assessment of Portland
cement pervious pavement.” Final Report FDOT project BD521-02,
<http://www.dot.state.fl.us/research-
center/Completed_Proj/Summary_RD/FDOT_BD521_02_rpt4.pdf> (Dec. 25,
2009).
12
Suleiman, M. T., Kevern, J., Schaefer, V. R., and Wang, K., “Effect of
compaction energy on pervious concrete properties.” Iowa State University,
<http://www.rmc-
foundation.org/images/PCRC%20Files/Construction%20Techniques/Effect%20of
%20Compaction%20Energy%20on%20Pervious%20Concrete%20Properties.pdf
> (Feb. 04, 2010).
39
13
Rizvi, R., Tighe, S., Henderson, V., and Norris, J. (2009). “Laboratory sample
preparation techniques for Pervious Concrete.” TRB Annual Meeting. Report No.
09-1962, p. 16.
14
“Rocky Mountain Construction.” Brochure of Associated Construction
Publication, <www.acppubs.com> (Dec. 10, 2007).
15
Houston Advanced Research Center (HARC) (2004).
<http://files.harc.edu/Projects/CoolHouston/CoolHoustonPlan.pdf> (June, 2010).
16
Kim, H. K., and Lee, H. K. (2010) “Acoustic absorption modeling of porous
concrete considering the gradation and shape of aggregates and void content.”
Journal of Sound and Vibration, 329(7), 866-879,
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6WM3-
4XKXRPV-1-
15&_cdi=6923&_user=3366836&_pii=S0022460X09008086&_orig=search&_co
verDate=03%2F29%2F2010&_sk=996709992&view=c&wchp=dGLbVzb-
zSkzS&md5=8c8d1d4c1df436253154fa16f925993d&ie=/sdarticle.pdf> (Mar. 31,
2010).
17
ASTM C 666 (2009). “Standard test method for resistance of concrete to rapid
freezing and thawing.” ASTM international, DOI: 10.1520/C0666_C0666M-03,
<http://www.astm.org/Standards/C666.htm> (June 30, 2010).
18
Hein, M. F, and Schindler, A. K. (2007). “Learning pervious: concrete
collaboration on a university campus.” <http://www.rmc-
foundation.org/images/PCRC%20Files/Applications%20&%20Case%20Studies/
Learning%20Pervious%20-
%20Concrete%20Collaboration%20between%20Workers%20and%20Students%
20on%20a%20University%20Campus.pdf> (Feb. 9, 2010).
19
Dietz, M. E. (2007). “Low impact development practices: a review of current
research and recommendations for future directions.” Water Air Soil Pollutant, v.
186, p. 351-363.
20
ASTM C 33. (2008). “Standard specification for concrete aggregates.” ASTM
international, DOI: 10.1520/C0033_C0033M-08,
<http://www.astm.org/Standards/C33.htm> (June 30, 2010).
21
ASTM C 494. “Standard specification for chemical admixtures for
concrete.” ASTM international, DOI: 1520/C0494_C0494M-10,
<http://www.astm.org/Standards/C494.htm> (June 30, 2010).
40
22
ASTM C 260 (2006). “Standard specification for air-engineering admixtures
for concrete.” ASTM international, DOI: 10.1520/C0260-06,
<http://www.astm.org/Standards/C260.htm> (June 30, 2010).
23
Schaefer, V. R., Wang, K., Suleiman, M. T., and Kevern, J. T. (2006). “Mix
design development for pervious concrete in cold weather climates, final report.”
National Concrete Pavement Technology Center, Iowa State University.
24
Haselbach, L. M., Valavala, S., and Montes, F. (2006). “Permeability
predictions for sand-clogged Portland cement pervious concrete pavement
systems.” Journal of Environmental Management, v. 81, p. 42-49.
25
Montes, F., and Haselbach, L. M.(2006). “Measuring hydraulic conductivity in
pervious concrete.” Environmental Engineering Science, 23(6).
26
McCain, G. N., and Dewoolkar, M. M. (2009). “Strength and permeability
characteristics of porous concrete pavements.” TRB 88th Annual Meeting
Compendium of Papers (CD-ROM), Transportation Research Board 88TH
Annual Meeting.
27
Crouch, L. K., Smith, N., Walker, A. C., Dunn, T. R., and Sparkman, A. (2006).
“Determining pervious PCC permeability with a simple triaxial flexible-wall
constant head permeameter.” TRB 2006 Annual Meeting (CD-ROM),
<http://www.rmc-
foundation.org/images/PCRC%20Files/Specifications%20&%20Test%20Method
s/Determining%20Pervious%20PCC%20Permeability%20with%20a%20Simple
%20Triaxial%20Flexible-Wall%20Constant%20Head%20Permeameter.pdf>
(Dec. 25, 2009).
28
ASTM C 39 (2009). “Standard test method for compressive strength of
cylindrical concrete specimens.” ASTM international, DOI:
10.1520/C0039_C0039M-09A, <http://www.astm.org/Standards/C39.htm> (June
30, 2010).
29
North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources (2004).
“Freeze thaw resistance of pervious concrete.” brochure of National Ready Mixed
Concrete Association, <http://www.nrmca.org/greenconcrete/nrmca%20-
%20freeze%20thaw%20resistance%20of%20pervious%20concrete.pdf> (Feb. 08,
2010).
30
Wingerter, R., Paine, J. (1989). “Field performance investigation Portland
cement pervious pavement.” Florida Concrete and Products Association.
41
31
Meininger, R. C. (1998). “No-fines pervious concrete for paving.” Concrete
International, 10(8), 20-27.
32
Mulligan, A. M. (2005). “Attainable compressive strength of pervious concrete
paving system.” A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree of Master of Science, Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Central Florida, <http://www.rmc-
foundation.org/images/PCRC%20Files/Structural%20Design%20&%20Propertie
s/Attainable%20Compressive%20Strength%20of%20Pervious%20Concrete%20P
aving%20Systems.pdf> (June 14, 2010).
33
Kevern, J. T. (2006). “Mix design development for Portland cement pervious
concrete in cold weather climates.” A thesis submitted to the graduate faculty in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science, Iowa
State University.
34
Haselbach, L. (2009). “Standard test methods for pervious pavements.”
<http://www.psparchives.com/publications/our_work/stormwater/lid/2009_Local
_Assitance/005_Appendices/Standard_Test_Methods_for_Pervious_Pavement.pd
f> (June 16, 2010).
35
ASTM C 1688 (2009). “Fresh concrete density (unit weight) and void content.”
ASTM international, <http://www.astm.org/Standards/C1688.htm> (June 30,
2010).
36
North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources (NRMCA).
<http://www.perviouspavement.org/structural%20design.htm> (May 19, 2010).
37
Euclid Chemical Company (2009). “Pervious concrete.” Brochure of Euclid
Chemical Company,
<http://www.euclidchemical.com/fileshare/elit/B38_Pervious_Concrete_Brochure
_06_09.pdf> (June 14, 2010).
38
North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources (NCDENR)
(1997). <http://www.bae.ncsu.edu/cont_ed/bmp/readings/hydrdes.htm> (April 29,
2010).
39
Malcolm, H. R., Leming, M. L., and Nunez, R. A. (2006). North Carolina State
University, Raleigh, North Carolina, North Carolina Department of Environment
and Natural Resources NCRMCA.
40
North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources (NCDENR).
(1997),
42
<http://www.rmc-
foundation.org/images/PCRC%20Files/Structural%20Design%20&%20Propertie
s/Structual%20Design%201.pdf> (April 29, 2010).
41
ACI Committee 522. (2006). “Pervious concrete.” ACI 522R-06, American
Concrete Institute.
43
CHAPTER 3
LITERATURE REVIEW OF FLY ASH
Products (CCPs) “are the byproducts generated from burning coal in coal-fired power
plants. These byproducts include fly ash, bottom ash, boiler slag, and flue gas
desulfurization gypsum”42. The CCPs are used in many fields such as engineering
the United States, as shown in Figure 3.1. As shown, CCPs are mainly used in
44
Figure 3.1. Uses of Coal Combustion Products in 2008 (AACA adapted from U. S
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)43)
Combustion Products (ACAA) 44, the utilization of CCPs from 1966 to 2007 increased
from 20% to 40% as shown in Figure 3.2. The figure illustrates that the amount of
CCPs produced dropped in 2003 and has remained steady since 2007. According to
the EPA, the utilization rate of CCPs was 36.8% in 2008, and is aimed to increase to
45% in 201145.
45
Figure 3.2. 1966-2007 CCP Beneficial Use vs. Production (AACA44)
bottom ash is used as aggregate in concrete and in cold mixed asphalt, and is also
used as a structural fill for embankments and cement-stabilized bases for highway
production, structural fill, cement, concrete, and grout. Boiler slag is used for roofing
granules, blasting grit, asphalt concreted aggregate, structural fill, granular base
material for pavement construction, stabilized base aggregate. Fly ash can be used in
several areas: replacing Portland cement in concrete and grout; filling embankments;
and being added in aggregate for highway subgrades of road base 46 . Figure 3.3
presents the percentage of CCPs used in 2003 in the United States. As illustrated,
46
except for boiler slag, only 30% to 50% of each type of CCPs is used. Figure 3.3 also
indicates that although only around 40% of generated fly ash was used, the total
weight of utilized fly ash accounted more than half of the total utilized CCPs in 2004.
Figure 3.3. Coal Combustion Products Generation and Use (Short Tons) (AACA
adapted from EPA46)
Fly Ash is a fine residue powder byproduct from burning pulverized coal in
electric power generating plants. It is the finest and is the most broadly used material
of all the byproducts. It is called “fly” ash because it is transported from the
47
3.2.1 Properties of Fly Ash
The physical and chemical properties of fly ash have been studied and
analyzed by many researchers48. The study of its physical properties origins back to
1930s when the term of fly ash was generated49. According to EPA, fly ash consists
of fine, powdery particles that are predominantly spherical in shape, either solid or
characteristic with silt 50. Compared to its physical properties, its chemical properties
are more influenced by the type of burned coal and the techniques used for handling
and storage51.
Class C and Class F fly ash are classified according to the ASTM C 61852.
Class C contains more lime than is present in class F fly ash. Class C fly ash has both
pozzolanic and cementitious properties, and is mostly used in the situations where
high early strength is important such as prestressed applications. Class F fly ash is
considered an ideal pozzolanic material in mass concrete and high strength mixes,
As shown in Figure 3.4, the greatest utilization of fly ash in 2003 according to
the American Coal Ash Association was in concrete and grout products. The
beneficial results of adding fly ash to concrete include: (1) Increased concrete
durability and strength of concrete: the lime from cement hydration reacts with fly
48
ash, increasing the long-term strength of concrete. Compared to plain cement
concrete, fly ash concrete gains higher strength after 28 days; (2) Improved concrete
workability: fly ash produces more cementitious paste, increasing the lubrication
between aggregate and flowability of concrete; the spherical shape of fly ash and its
dispersive ability provide effects similar to those of water-reducing agents; the usage
of fly ash also reduces the amount of sand needed in the mix to produce workability.
Because sand has a greater specific surface area than larger aggregates and therefore
requires more paste, reducing the sand means the paste would efficiently coat the
Figure 3.4. Top Uses of Coal Fly Ash 2003 (AACA adapted from46)
49
The usage of ash in building application can be traced back to thousands of
years ago in ancient Rome, when people used volcanic ash in their construction to
strengthen the structure. Examples of the buildings are the Roman Pantheon and the
Coliseum. The fly ash has similar function as the volcanic ash, and this function has
been realized for decades. In 1930s, fly ash was first used as mineral filler in asphalt
mixes; in 1942, fly ash concrete was used to repair a tunnel spillway at the Hoover
Dam49. Fly ash has now been used as an ingredient in concrete for more than 60 years.
the use of fly ash in concrete pavement with the Notice N 5080.4, urging states to
allow partial substitution of fly ash for cement whenever feasible 55. The FHWA also
indicated that “the replacement of cement with fly ash of the order of 10% to 25% can
be made giving equal or better concrete strength and durability.” In January 1983, the
EPA published federal procurement guidelines for cement and concrete containing fly
ash, encouraging the utilization of fly ash55. Currently, fly ash is used to replace 5-
65% of the Portland cement 2. Because the manufacture of cement is highly energy
Using fly ash in place of natural materials can yield benefits to the
materials, reducing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. The LEED
assigns up to 5 credits to the combined usage of fly ash and recycled material56. Fly
50
ash also makes economic benefit because it is often less costly than the materials that
The positive effects of adding fly ash into concrete have been mentioned
before. Most of the effects were drawn from experiment and field projects. This
section will discuss the influence of fly ash on concrete in detail by referencing the
prior studies.
ISG Headwaters Resources Inc. published a brochure and stated that the
existence of fly ash could decrease the rapid heat and consequently reduce the risk of
thermal cracking 57 . Many applications indicate that rapid heat gain of cement
increases the chances of thermal cracking, leading to reduce concrete strength and
durability57. With replacement of fly ash, the chance of thermal cracking will be
decreased because only 15% to 35% as much heat as compared to cement at early
Fly Ash can increase the long-term compressive strength of concrete. Figure
3.5 compares the strength of fly ash concrete with plain cement concrete. In this
graph, the plain cement concrete strength increase is slower than fly ash concrete
strength increase. In both types of concrete, strength increase slows after the initial 7
51
day curing period. The plain cement concrete has higher strength than fly ash
concrete before 28 days curing period and lower compressive strength after then.
Figure 3.5. Comparison between Ash Concrete Compressive Strength and Plain
Cement Concrete Compressive Strength57.
The increased compressive strength of fly ash concrete compared with plain
cement concrete can be explained by examining the chemical reaction taking place in
the concrete. Typically, Portland cement and water react to produce durable binder
(Calcium Silicate Hydrate (CSH)) and a nondurable binder (free lime). In fly ash
concrete, the free lime continues to react with fly ash to produce more CSH.
will be produced with 1 pound of cement. This indicates that large amount of free
lime exists in plain cement concrete and available to react with fly ash to produce
more CSH. Hence, the utilization of fly ash can save lots of cement while maintaining
52
the compressive strength of concrete because they generate the same binder with
cement does. Fly ash can also reduce W/C ratio with typical 2% to 10% water
reduction because of its spherical shape of the individual particles57. The compressive
3.3.3 Durability
can promote the carbonation process and consequently improve the long-term
serviceability of concrete. The CO2 existing in the atmosphere can react with the
calcium hydroxide in concrete and reduce the alkalinity of the pore solution. This
Tangtermsirikul stated that fly ash can increase the rate of carbonation, and speed up
the reduction of alkalinity so that the alkalinity reduction is done in short period time.
According to the Headwater Resources bulletin No.959, Fly ash can help to
increase the freeze-thaw resistance ability of concrete. By reacting with free lime, the
fly ash generates more durable binder materials by reacting with free lime. This not
only increases the density of concrete, but also decreases the amount of calcium
hydroxide which is generated from free lime. Consequently, the minute voids and the
potential voids caused by the leaching of calcium hydroxide are decreased. Fly ash
spherical shape may reduce the bleed channel and void space, reducing the possibility
of water accumulating59.
53
Fly ash increases the durability of concrete. According to the Headwater
Resources bulletin No.2260, practical testing indicated that the DOT’s concrete for
bridge superstructures and decks containing 20% fly ash would likely provide a 75-
environment, the Utah and Nevada DOTs mandated 20% fly ash usage in all concrete
work60.
3.3.4 Permeability
water, corrosive chemicals and oxygen, thus protecting steel reinforcement from
corrosion. As discussed before, when more CSH is formed the bond between
aggregates is enhanced. At the same time the capillaries in concrete are blocked off
during this process, resulting in decreasing permeability. The characteristic that fly
ash decreases the permeability of concrete was studied by Elfert (adapted from
Permeability Rate chart shown as Figure 3.6 was released. It is clear from this work
that a 30% fly ash replacement of cement dramatically decreased the permeability of
concrete. The amount of decrease varied with the amount of cement in concrete mix.
The less cement that concrete had, the more the permeability was decreased.
54
Figure 3.6. Effect of Fly Ash on Permeability of Concrete (adapted from61)
Fly Ash can increase sulfate resistance and reduces alkali-silica reactivity, and
Class F fly ash is more productive than Class C fly ash on this effect 62 . The
mechanism of sulfate attack happens in two ways: (1) sulfate reacts with calcium
hydroxide (CaOH) and generates gypsum with the volume increased during the
process; (2) sulfate reacts with aluminates in concrete and generate expansive
compound. Both processes are combined with the expansion of concrete, which is the
source of concrete damage. When fly ash is used, it will tie up free lime, thus reduce
55
calcium hydroxide (CaOH). In turn, the chemical reaction in concrete can be reduced
Portland cement in pervious concrete can be replaced by fly ash. The usage of fly ash
can help to improve the workability of the low slump mix so as to benefit the placing
and mixing process. The fly ash used in pervious concrete should satisfy the
3.5 Summary
Overall, the usage of fly ash in plain cement concrete has been shown to
plain cement concrete. However, the study of fly ash effects on pervious concrete was
taken place by fly ash. The unit weight, compressive strength and permeability of
mixes with various fly ash content will be measured and compared to study the effect
42
U. S Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2010). “What are coal
combustion products?”
<http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/partnerships/c2p2/index.htm> (Mar. 01, 2009).
43
EPA. (2010). “CCP applications.”
<http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/partnerships/c2p2/use/index.htm> (Mar 01, 2009).
44
ACAA (2009). “1996-2007 CCP Beneficial Use v. Production.” American
Coal Ash Association, < http://www.acaa-usa.org/associations/8003/files/
Revised_1966_2007_CCP_Prod_v_Use_Chart.pdf >(July 6, 2009).
56
45
EPA “C2P2 results.”
<http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/partnerships/c2p2/results.htm> (June 30, 2010).
46
EPA. (2005). “Using coal ash in highway construction: a guide to benefits and
impacts.” Report no. EPA-530-K-05-002.
<http://www.epa.gov/osw/partnerships/c2p2/pubs/greenbk508.pdf > (June 30,
2010).
47
Coal Ash Research Committee. (2010). “What is coal ash?” University of North
Dakota, < http://www.undeerc.org/carrc/html/WhatisCoalAsh.html> (June 30,
2010).
48
Hassett, D. J., and Heebink, L. V. (2001). “JV task 13 – environmental
evaluation for utilization of ash in soil stabilization.” 2001-EERC-08-06, Final
report prepared for AAD Document Controal, National Energy Technology
Laboratory, U.S Department of Energy. Prepared by Energy & Environmental
Research Center, University of North Dakota
<http://www.undeerc.org/carrc/Assets/SoilStabilization.pdf> (June, 2010).
49
Coal Ash Research Committee. (2010). “Historical timeline.” University of
North Dakota,<http://www.undeerc.org/carrc/html/HistoricalTimeline.html> (June
30, 2010).
50
EPA. (2010). “Fly ash.”
<http://www.epa.gov/osw/conserve/rrr/imr/ccps/flyash.htm>
(June 30, 2010).
51
EPA (2008). “Identification of nonhazardous secondary materials that are solid
waste coal combustion residuals - coal fly ash, bottom ash, and boiler slag,
<http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/pdfs/ccpash.pdf> (Mar. 01, 2009).
52
ASTM C 618-08a. (2009). “Standard specification for coal fly ash and raw or
calcined natural pozzolan for use in concrete.” ASTM international, DOI: 10.
1520/C0618-08 <http://www.astm.org/Standards/C618.htm> (June 30, 2010).
53
Headwaters Resources. (2005). “Fly ash – types and benefits.” Bulletin No. 1, 1
page, <http://www.flyash.com/data/upimages/press/TB.1%20Fly%20Ash%20-
%20Types%20&%20Benefits.pdf> (June 30, 2010).
54
“Fly ash for concrete brochure,” ISG Resources, Headwaters Resources,
<http://www.flyash.com/resourcelibrary.asp?category=Fly+Ash+Basics&Submit
=search> (Dec. 31, 2009).
55
FHWA. (2010). “Fly ash facts for highway engineers.”
57
<http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/recycling/fapref.cfm> (June 30, 2010).
56
Headwaters Resources. (2005). “Fly ash and concrete in LEED® - NC version
2.2”, Bulletin No. 28, 1 page,
<http://www.flyash.com/data/upimages/press/LEED%20ver%202.2.pdf> (June
30, 2010).
57
Headwaters Resources. (2005). “Fly ash for concrete.”
<http://www.flyash.com/data/upimages/press/HWR_brochure_flyash.pdf> (June
30, 2010).
58
Khunthongkeaw, J., and Tangtermsirikul, S. (2005) “Model for simulating
carbonation of fly ash concrete” Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE,
17(5), 570-578.
59
Headwaters Resources. (2005). “Fly ash increase resistance to freezing and
thawing.” Bulletin No. 9, 1 page.
60
Headwaters Resources. (2005). “High volume fly ash for concrete paving.”
Bulletin No. 22, 1 page.
61
Headwaters Resources. (2005). “Fly ash decreases the permeability of
concrete.” Bulletin No. 6, 1 page.
62
Headwaters Resources. (2005). “Fly ash increases resistance to sulfate attack.”
Bulletin No. 7, 1 page.
63
Headwaters Resources. (2005). “Fly ash decreases the permeability of
concrete.” Bulletin No. 29, 1 page.
58
CHAPTER 4
LABORATORY MIX AND TEST
4.1 Introduction
Laboratory preparation and tests will be introduced in this section. First of all,
the type and amount of each material were selected. The selection of various material
and values of W/C ratio, A/C ratio was based on the literature reviews presented in
Chapter 2 and Chapter 3. Secondly, the unit weight, void content, compressive
Since the purpose of this research was to identify mixes with high
compressive strengths, optimum mix designs obtained by previous studies were taken
This section introduces the properties of materials used in this research. All
59
4.2.1.1 Coarse Aggregate
After reviewing the literature and investigating actual projects, #8 river gravel
was used in this research. This material was provided by the Olen Corp. One of the
reasons for choosing this gravel was its wide availability. As discussed in Chapter 2,
the size and gradation of coarse aggregate is one of the factors that affect the
properties of pervious concrete. Based on the study by Schaefer et al.23, the optimum
coarse aggregate type gradation was the single sized river gravel that passed through
3/8 inches and was retained in sieve size No. 4. However, this was less practical in
field projects. Normally, the material obtained from aggregate supplies was gradated
instead of in single size. Hence, #8 river gravel was chosen because it had closest
gradation to the optimum one. In addition, this type of coarse aggregate was also
widely used by Buckeye Ready-Mix LLC., and Anderson Concrete Corp, which both
produce pervious concrete for field projects. The physical properties were provided
by the Olen Corp. and are shown in Table 4.1. The grain size distribution is shown in
tabular form in Table 4.2 and depicted in Figure 4.1. The distribution of coarse
60
Soundness Loss 5.6
Specific Gravity 2.517
Specific Gravity SSD 2.585
Absorption 2.72
Unit Weight (pcf) 103.0
Clay Lumps & Friable Particles 0.0%
Light Weight Chert 0.0%
LA Abrasion 22.4
Table 4.1. Physical Properties of #8 River Gravel (Olen Corp.)
1/2 3/8
Sieve Identification inches inches #4 #8 #16 #50
Sieve Size (in) 0.5 0.375 0.187 0.0929 0.0465 0.0118
Percent Finer by
Weight 100 92 17 2 1 0.5
Table 4.2. Coarse Aggregate Distribution (Olen Corp.)
#8 River Gravel
100
Percentage Finer by Weight (%)
80
60
40
20
0
1 0.1 0.01
Sieve Size (in)
Figure 4.1. Grain Distribution Curve of Size Number 8 River Gravel (Olen Corp.)
61
4.2.1.2 Fine Aggregate
The sand used in this research was QUIKRETE® all purpose sand No. 1152,
4.2.1.3 Cement
Type I cement from St. Marys Inc. was used in this study. The
properties of cement were obtained from the company website and are shown in
Table 4.3. The properties met the requirements specified in ASTM standard C15065
62
Loss on Ignition 2.9%
SiO2 18.9%
Fe2O3 2.16%
Al2O3 4.8%
CaO 61.4%
Free CaO 1.3%
MgO 2.5%
SO3 3.81%
K2O 1.12%
Na2O 0.24%
TiO2 0.3%
Insoluble Residue 0.52%
Total Alkali as Na2O 0.98%
CO2 1.3%
Limestone 3.1%
CaCO3 in Limestone 97%
Table 4.3. Chemical Properties of St. Marys Type I Cement (St. Marys, Inc.)
The fly ash used in experiments was Class F Cardinal fly ash came from
American Electric Power Co. Inc. The specific gravity of fly ash was 2.1 (Modi,
63
Particle size (mm) 0.001-0.1
Compressibility (%) 1.8
Dry Density (lb/ft3) 40-90
Permeability 10-6-10-1
Shear strngth cohision (psi) 0-170
Angle of internal friction 24-45
Table 4.4. Physical Properties of fly ash66
4.2.1.5 Admixture
admixtures, and fibers were provided by the Anderson Concrete Corp. and the Euclid
6200 EXT and MRWR EUCON MRX were used to maintain the low W/C ratio and
pervious concrete more manageable and improved the adhesion between cement and
aggregate, maintaining the air void structure integrity. Eucon W. O. water retarder
helped to prolong the hydration of cement. The typical dosages are indicated in Table
4.5. The dosage of water-reducer was based on total weight of cementitious material.
64
Admixtures Name Typical dosage
Polypropylene Micro-Fiber Fiberstrand 100 1lb/yd3
High-Range Water Reduer PLASTOL 6200 EXT 3-12fl.oz/100lb
Water Retarder EUCON W.O 4-16fl.oz/100lb
Mid-Range Water Reducer EUCON MRX 3-12fl.oz/100lb
Viscocity Modifying Admixture Visctrol 1-20fl.oz/yd3
Table 4.5. Admixtures from Euclid Chemical Company37
studied in this research. The mix design followed the phase-volume design procedure,
as introduced in ACI 211.167,68 . The A/C ratio and W/C ratio were calculated by
weight. The volume of each material was obtained from the division of weight and
density. The design volume of each batch was dependent on the volume of materials
and design void content. The amount of coarse aggregate was initialized as
2,400lb/yd3 to 2,700lb/yd3. This was used to calculate cement amount and void
65
Class F
Coarse Fly HRWR/ Water Fiber
Mix Cement Aggregate Sand Ash MRWR Retarder Visctrol (oz/c
No. (lb/yd3) (lb/yd3) (lb/yd3) (lb/yd3) (oz/cwt) (oz/cwt) (oz/cwt) wt)
#1 430 1862 103 0 5* 2* 2* --
#2 325 2025 112 139 5* 2* 3* --
#3** 484 2520 0 46 6 12 1 --
#4 334 2184 114 143 8 8 10 1
#5 620 2563 135 12 8 8 10 1
#6 381 2428 122 180 8 8 10 1
Mix ID as listed in Table 4.7 was assigned to each batch of mix so that the
66
Mix No. Mix ID
#1 AC46-FA00-WC27-5SD
#2 AC46-FA30-WC22-5SD
#3 AC48-FA09-WC37-0SD
#4 AC48-FA30-WC32-5SD
#5 AC43-FA02-WC34-5SD
#6 AC45-FA32-WC34-5SD
Table 4.7. Mix No. Corresponding to Mix ID.
Example: AC48-FA32-WC32-5SD stands for the batch of mix with aggregate/cement
ratio 4.8; fly ash content 32%, water/cementitious material ratio is 0.32, and sand
content 5% by weight of total aggregates.
phase-volume design procedure, and is illustrated in Figure 4.2. The input data
include total cementitious materials, percentage of fly ash, A/C ratio, W/C ratio,
The calculated results are the amounts of various materials, void content, unit weight,
and maximum unit weight. The program can calculate the expected weight of freshly
cast specimens in different molds, and helps to inspect the mixing results. By
comparing the actual sample weight with the expected sample weight, one can tell if
the void content is higher or lower than the expected value. Since the mix volume
contains the volume of voids, a change in design total volume will change the void
content. Since the program set mix volume is an input, the desired void content is
obtained by adjusting the mix volume. Hence, this program can only give expected
values, which might be different with the actual results, which varied with
67
design and helps to evaluate approximate void content immediately after sample
being cast.
Based on the previous studies, the main index of mix design such as void
content, W/C ratio, A/C ratio, amount of fly ash used in this research followed the
68
4.2.2.1 Void Content
Typically void content between 15% and 20% was the optimum range for
specimens in this research were compacted with void content in this optimum range.
aggregate. This percentage was within the limit proposed by Wang et al.10, who
suggested that using a sand content less than 7% by weight improved the compressive
aggregate was finally decided after finalizing the A/C, W/C, cement amount and void
content.
4.2.2.3 Cement
conventional concrete, the surface area of the total aggregate is less than in
In addition, if a larger size aggregate is used, the amount of cement can also be
decreased because of the decrease of total aggregate surface area. Adjusting the
amount of cement made mix design more economic because of the efficient
utilization of cement. Moreover, the amount of cement was varied with the amount of
fly ash. Typically, the total cementitious material was designed to be between
69
450lb/yd3 to 700lb/yd3,36,37,38. In this research, the amount of total cementitious
study, the A/C ratio was calculated by weight. The optimum W/C and A/C ratio
should be determined for the mix so that cement past can cover all surface of
aggregate. The amount of paste should be in the range that provides not only enough
bond but also high void content, which can develop both high compressive strength
and permeability.
McIntosh (adapted from Kett68) explained the reason for this difficulty: “because the
water in the damp aggregate occurs partly on the surface of the particles and partly
absorbed into the pores where it is not readily available for affecting the properties of
are known in some detail, it is still not possible to assess accurately the amount of
water absorbed by the aggregate in a mix: the absorption varies with time and it
depends one the degree of saturation of the aggregate before mixing and on whether
the particles are surrounded by water, as in the absorption test, or by a cement paste,
concrete because the “low W/C of these mixtures makes them very sensitive to
70
moisture condition of aggregates before mixing”18. In the brochure published by
NRMCA32, a range of 0.35 to 0.45 of W/C ratio was given as a typical ratio for
pervious concrete. It also pointed out that since pervious concrete was very sensitive
to the water content, field adjustment of the freshly mixture was usually necessary.
The W/C ratio used in laboratory tests typically ranged from 0.22 to 0.356,9,10,12. By
reviewing the values stated above, a W/C ratio ranging from 0.32 to 0.37 was used in
this research because pervious concrete with W/C ratio in this range showed satisfied
Compared to W/C ratio, A/C ratio was easier to determine. The National
However, based on the laboratory research and actual project statistics, a range of
4.3~7.3:1 is normally used6,9,10,12. In this research, the A/C ratio was limited to a
Two concrete mixers are introduced in this section and the selection of mixer
depended on the purpose and the quality of mixing pervious concrete. The first, a 20
quart Blakeslee Mixer, is shown in Figure 4.3. This mixer has advantage of mixing
However, the mixer was not suitable for mixing consistent batches of pervious
concrete. The friction between blender and aggregates may decrease the strength of
71
Figure 4.3. 20 quart Blakeslee Mixer
Uncovered
gravel
Balls formed
by sand and
cement
72
A sample mixed by the Blakeslee Mixer is shown in Figure 4.4. As shown,
some gravel was not covered by cement, and small balls which were composed by
cement and sand were distributed through the sample. Although the usage of the
Blakeslee Mixer indicated worse quality than expected, one set of results were listed
The other mixer is a 3.4ft3 capacity Gilson 39555 (drum speed 22 ~ 25 RPM)
shown as Figure 4.5. According to the mixing process guidelines, the volume of
mixing material should fill in at least 1/3 of the volume of the container so that the
Figure 4.5. 3.4ft3 capacity Gilson 39555 (drum speed speed 22 ~ 25 RPM)
73
4.2.4 Specimen Mold
The freshly mixed pervious concrete was cast in 4in x 8in cylinders for
compressive strength tests and 3in x 6in cylinders for permeability tests.
The mixing procedure for the pervious concrete is not specified as it is for
concrete mixing procedures to get high quality of pervious concrete. After reviewing
articles10,68 and ASTM standards C 19269, the following mixing steps are used in this
research:
(1) Mix a small amount of cement (<5% by mass) with coarse aggregate for about
1min;
(2) Add sand, admixtures (disolved in water), and the remaining cement and water;
(3) Mix for 3min, rest for 3min, and finally mix for another 2min;
Before adding the materials, small amount of water and cement with the
design W/C ratio was put into the mixer and mix for 5 seconds. In this way, the inside
material lost during the mixing. The water content was adjusted by observing the
fluidity of the mix. The mix was accepted when the concrete could be formed into a
ball after being tightly squeezed by hand for 10 seconds, and the ball separated when
was thrown onto the mix, and the adhesive residues coated around 50% of the palm;
the concrete mix that achieved these two conditions indicated that the mix had
lower water content may cause worse quality and decrease the permeability or
compressive strength of pervious concrete. This method had been routinely used to
inspect the quality of pervious concrete mix (Hunt 70, personal communication).
Different compaction methods as listed in Table 4.8 were used to obtain best
methods were all used and their effects were compared. The samples compacted by
75
Mix ID Compaction Method ID
#1 AC46-FA00-WC27-5SD Rod-10/3
#2 AC46-FA30-WC22-5SD Rod-10/3
#3 AC48-FA09-WC37-0SD* Jig-25/3
#4 AC48-FA30-WC32-5SD Drop-10/3
Proct-5/3
Drop-5/3
#5 AC43-FA02-WC34-5SD
Drop-10/3
Drop-15/3
Proct-5/3
Drop-5/3
#6 AC45-FA32-WC34-5SD
Drop-10/3
Drop-15/3
Table 4.9. Pervious Concrete Mixes Compacted Using Different Methods Mix
Note: *Samples Obtained from Buckeye Ready-mix Corp.
samples were removed from their molds and cured in a water tank at 72.5 ± 3.5 oF
[23.0 ± 2.0 oC]. Two temperature bars and an electronic blower were immersed in
water tank to maintain the temperature and uniformed heat distribution. The molds
were removed after 7-day curing period (suggestion from Pardi71, personal contact).
In addition, 6 layers of polyethylene plastic sheets were used to cover the surface of
molds to prevent water from evaporating. The thickness of plastic coverage was
larger than 6mil (0.006in), which satisfies the requirement specified in ASTM C 31 /
C31M - 0972.
76
4.6 Laboratory Tests
Unit weight, void content, compressive strength test, and permeability test
were carried out in this study. All the tests followed ASTM standards28,73,74,75,76,77, 78,79.
The unit weight and void content were obtained following the ASTM C
1688/C 1688M35. The unit weight introduced in this study was freshly mixed
pervious concrete unit weight, which is obtained right after samples are cast. Equation
4-1 from ASTM C 1688/C 1688M - 0835 was used to calculate the unit weight.
77
The Void Content was calculated using Equation 4-2:
lb/ft3.
batch, ft3.
78
Material Specific Gravity
#8 River Gravel (SSD) 2.63
Sand 2.61
Cement type I 3.15
Class F Fly Ash 2.1
Fiberstrand 100 0.91
PLASTOL 6200 EXT 1.08
EUCON W.O 1.12
EUCON MRX 1.12
Visctrol 1.21
Table 4.10. Specific Gravities of Materials in Portland Cement Pervious Concrete
Mix
The theoretical density was constant for each batch of concrete mix and was
calculated in the pervious concrete mix calculation program (Figure 4.2). The total
absolute volume was the sum of each material volume, which was calculated by
multiplying the mass by the specific gravity. In this study Saturated Surface Dry
(SSD) specific gravity of coarse aggregate and specific gravities of sand, cement, and
(67,400lb).
79
Figure 4.6. INSTRON-5585 Compressive Strength Testing Machine
The specimens with curing period of 7, 21, and 28 days were tested for
compressive strength. For specimens with uneven surfaces, capping was used to
minimize the effect of stress concentration. In addition, two steel caps with rubber
cushion were placed on the top and the bottom of each specimen during the
4.6.3 Permeability
80
Figure 4.7 was developed to measure the hydraulic conductivity of pervious concrete.
The specimen as shown in Figure 4.8 was tightly covered by two layers of side-sealed
plastic sheet to prohibit the water from flowing through the side voids. Layers of
rubber membranes were placed around the top of specimen to enclose the space
between specimen and PVC pipe. Ideally, the specimen was stuck in the pipe at some
location, where the bottom of specimen was untouched with the PVC joint 1 so that
the hydraulic conductivity was not affected by the change of cross section of PVC
joint 1. The rubber membranes and plastic sheets effectively ensured the water
flowed vertically through the specimen. The falling head Equation 4-4 was used in
Where:
k = coefficient of permeability, in/sec.
a = cross sectional area of the standpipe, in2.
L = length of sample, in.
A = cross sectional area of specimen, in2.
t = time in seconds from ∆h0 to ∆h1.
∆h0 = initial water level, in.
∆h1 = final water level, in.
81
Inlet
Specimen Position
PVC joint 1
Outlet
PVC valve
Figure 4.7. Falling Head Permeability Test for Pervious Concrete Specimen
Rubber
Membranes
82
4.7 Summary of Test Procedure
The pervious concrete mix design and laboratory tests are introduced in this
chapter. The mixing materials used in this research were #8 river gravel, type I
cement, sand, HRWR, MRWR, water retarder, viscosity modifying admixture and
sand. To investigate the effect of substituting fly ash for cement on compressive
contain 30% more fly ash and 30% less cement than mixes #5 and #1. Sand is used in
each batch to increase the compressive strength of pervious concrete, and weighted
to calculate the design values of unit weight and maximum weight of pervious
concrete mix.
concrete was used in the mix. When mixing process was finished, pervious concrete
was casted to 4in x 8in cylindrical samples for compressive strength test, and 3in x
6in cylindrical samples for permeability tests. The unit weight and void content were
calculated from the mass, volume, and air free density of each pervious concrete
7, 21, and 28 curing periods were carried out following ASTM C 3931. Capping was
used on specimens in the compressive strength test to help the compressive stress be
evenly distributed. A modified falling head permeability test was carried out on
specimens with various void contents from mixes #5 and #6 so that the relationship
between void content and permeability, and the effect of fly ash on permeability of
70
Hunt, D. (2009). “Pervious concrete yield test.” Buckeye Ready Mix, personal
communication.
71
Pardi, M. (2010). National Mix Concrete, personal communication.
72
ASTM C31 / C31M. (2008). “Standard practice for making and curing concrete
test specimens in the field.” ASTM international, DOI: 10.520/C0031_C0031M-
09, <http://www.astm.org/Standards/C31.htm> (June 30, 2010).
73
ASTM C 29. (2009). “Standard test method for bulk density (“unit weight”)
and voids in aggregate.” ASTM international, DOI: 10.1520/C0029_C0029M-09,
<http://www.astm.org/Standards/C29.htm> (June 30, 2010).
74
ASTM C 94. (2009). “Standard specification for Ready-Mix Concrete.” ASTM
international, DOI: 10. 1520/C0094_C0094M-09A,
<http://www.astm.org/Standards/C94.htm> (June 30, 2010).
84
75
ASTM C 125. (2009). “Standard terminology relating to concrete and concrete
aggregates.” ASTM international, DOI: 10.1520/C0125-09A,
<http://www.astm.org/Standards/C125.htm> (June 30, 2010).
76
ASTM C 127. (2007). “Standard test method for density, relative density
(specific gravity) and absorption of coarse aggregate.” ASTM international, DOI:
10.1520/C0127-07, <http://www.astm.org/Standards/C127.htm> (June 30, 2010).
77
ASTM C 138. (2009). “Standard test method for density (unity weight) yield,
and air content (gravimetric) of concrete.” ASTM international, DOI:
10.1520/C0138_C0138M-09, <http://www.astm.org/Standards/C138.htm> (June
30, 2010).
78
ASTM C 617. (2009). “Standard practice for capping cylindrical concrete
specimens.” ASTM international, DOI: 10.1520/C0617-09A,
<http://www.astm.org/Standards/C617.htm> (June 30, 2010).
79
ASTM D 5084-03 (2003). “Standard test methods for measurement of
hydraulic conductivity of saturated porous materials using a flexible wall
permeameter.” ASTM international, DOI: 10.1520/D5084-03,
<http://www.astm.org/Standards/D5084.htm> (June 30, 2010).
85
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION ON TEST RESULTS
5.1 Introduction
Test results are presented and discussed in this chapter. The compressive
strength test results on mixes #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6 and permeability test results on
The relationship between void content and unit weight is shown in Figure 5.1.
For each batch of pervious concrete, the unit weight decreased with the increase of
Figure 5.1, the specimens from mix #1, #3, and #5 had higher predicted unit weight
than those from mix #2, #4, and #6 at the same void content. This can be explained by
various fly ash and cement content in the mixes. The fly ash in mix #2, #4, #6
substituted 30% amount of cement, while no or very little fly ash was used in mix #1,
#3, and #5. Since cement has higher specific gravity than fly ash, the weight of
specimens is correspondingly higher. Furthermore, at the same W/C ratio, mix #5 had
lower A/C ratio and higher unit weight than mix #6, indicating that low A/C ratio
86
3
Void Content (%) vs. Unit Weight (lb/ft )
150
140
Unit Weight (lb/ft 3)
#1 AC46-FA00-WC27-5SD
130 #2 AC46-FA30-WC22-5SD
#3 AC48-FA09-WC37-0SD
120 #4 AC48-FA30-WC32-5SD
#5 AC43-FA02-WC34-5SD
110 #6 AC45-FA32-WC34-5SD
100
10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45%
Void Content (%)
Figure 5.1. Relationship between Void Content (%) and Unit Weight (lb/ft3)
This section discusses the effect of various compaction methods. The average
void content of specimens compacted at different methods are illustrated in Figure 5.2.
87
Void Content vs. Compaction Method
45%
40%
35%
Void Content (%)
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
#1 AC46- #2 AC46- #4 AC48- #5 AC43- #6 AC45-
FA00-WC27- FA30-WC22- FA30-WC32- FA02-WC34- FA32-WC34-
5SD 5SD 5SD 5SD 5SD
Pervious Concrete Mix ID
higher void content. This void content was out of the typical range of 15%~25%
specified by NRMCA2, and was too high for pervious concrete to reach acceptable
compact the pervious concrete test samples. Comparatively, the Proctor hammer and
the dropping methods generated good compaction results with void content ranges
from 12% to 25%. In addition, void contents of specimens from mix #5 and #6
indicated that void content was decreasing with the increase of compaction energy
88
Compared to standard Proctor hammer compacting, the dropping method was
preferred because it caused less disturbance to the cement bond. Proctor hammer may
cause low strength of bonding interface between layers. As illustrated in Figure 5.3,
between different layers. And at failure, aggregates at the interface popped out,
Compact
layer
interface
89
5.4 Effect of W/C Ratio, A/C Ratio and Fly Ash on Void Content
As illustrated in Figure 5.2, specimens from mix #4, #5, and #6 had different
average void contents when using the same compaction method Drop-10/3.
Specimens from mix #5 had the lowest void content; while those from mix #4 had the
largest void content. This can be explained by different A/C ratio, W/C ratio and fly
ash content in these mixes. The mix #5 had lowest A/C ratio, lowest fly ash content
and higher W/C ratio, which could be expected to results in the lowest void content.
Mix #6 had A/C ratio that was greater than mix #5 and less than mix #4, fly ash
content that was less than mix #5 and similar to mix #4, and W/C ratio that was
higher than mix #4. These differences generated void content that was higher than in
#5 and lower than in #4 for specimens in #6. The results showed that lower A/C ratio,
lower fly ash content, and higher W/C ratio resulted in lower void contents.
Furthermore, the effects of A/C, W/C and fly ash content on void content were
This section discusses the effect of curing period, void content and mix design
specimens from two sets of mix batches mix #5 and mix #6 are discussed and
the pervious concrete that had large fly ash content which was 32% of the total
cementitious material.
90
5.5.1 Compressive Strength vs. Curing Period
specimens are shown in Figure 5.4. The specimens were from batches of mix #3, #4,
#5, #6, and had different void contents. The compressive strength of specimens from
each mix indicated similar trends. However, the strength increased slightly different
for specimens with different fly ash content. For the curing period of 7 and 21 days,
the compressive strength of specimens from mix #3 and #5 had higher rate of increase
than did those from mix #4 and #6. However, from 21-day curing period to 28-day
curing period, the compressive strength of specimens from mix #3 and #5 increased
more slowly than those from mixes #4 and #6, which had approximate 30% more
amount of fly ash than mix #3 and mix #5, respectively. This indicates that the
addition of fly ash improved the long-term strength of the pervious concrete mix. The
trendlines in Figure 5.4 are consistent with those illustrated in Figure 3.5.
91
Compressive Strength vs. Curing Period at Different Void Content
3200
800
#6 AC45-FA32-
400 WC34-5SD e=18%
0
0 7 14 21 28
Curing Period (Days)
Figure 5.4. Pervious Concrete Mix #3~#6 Compressive Strength vs. Curing Period
demonstrated in Figure 5.5. The compressive strength fell in a range between 800psi
and 3,200psi. The pervious concrete with 2% of fly ash reached the highest
compressive strength which was greater than 3,200psi; while the highest value that
the mix with 32% fly ash achieved was only 1700psi. The compressive strength of the
specimen with 2% fly ash exceeded the capacity of the load, from so the strength
reported is actually at lower bound number. However an earlier test on the same
modified indicated a compressive strength of 3,114 psi. So it was acceptable that the
92
Although six batches had different mix designs, the compressive strength tests
on all specimens indicated the same trend that the compressive strength decreased
with increase in void content, as indicated in Figure 5.5. One reason that the
specimens from mix #5 had the higher compressive strength was they had the lower
void contents. By observing the trend of compressive strength, it was possible for
specimens from mix #6, in which fly ash content counted for 32% of total
cementitious material, to reach the compressive strength over 2,000psi with void
content around 15%. The tests do not indicate the void content at which the
compressive strength would reach 3,000psi. Although the compressive strength could
reach to 3,000psi, the void content might be too small to satisfy the requirement of
permeability.
3500
28-day Compressive Strength (psi)
3000
2500
#1 AC46-FA00-WC27-5SD
2000 #2 AC46-FA30-WC22-5SD
#3 AC48-FA09-WC37-0SD
1500
#4 AC48-FA30-WC32-5SD
1000 #5 AC43-FA02-WC34-5SD
#6 AC45-FA32-WC34-5SD
500
0
10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45%
Void Content (%)
Figure 5.5. Relaiton between 28-day Compressive Strength and Void Content
93
5.5.3 Compressive Strength vs. Unit Weight
3500
28-day Compressive Strength (psi)
3000
2500
#3 AC48-FA09-WC37-0SD
2000
#4 AC48-FA30-WC32-5SD
1500 #5 AC43-FA02-WC34-5SD
#6 AC45-FA32-WC34-5SD
1000
500
0
100.0 120.0 140.0
Unit Weight (lb/ft3)
Figure 5.6. Relationship between 28-day Compressive Strength and Unit Weight
shown in Figure 5.6. Apparently, the compressive strength increased with the
this section. However, the strains shown in curves were not actual values of the
caps were used to decrease the effect of stress concentration, large strains were
developed due to the high elasticity of rubber during the process of compression,
94
especially at the initial status. In another word, the strains shown in stress-strain
curves were the total strains from both rubber and specimens. As illustrated in Figure
5.7 and Figure 5.8, the stress-strain curves showed dramatic increases after
experienced relatively large strains under low stresses. The large strains were
expected caused by the rubbers, which have lower elastic modulus than that of
pervious concrete. The strains caused by rubbers were expected to be the strain values
at the point, at which stress began to increase faster with smaller strains generated. As
shown in Figure 5.7 and Figure 5.8, the strains caused by rubbers were approximately
95
28-day Stress vs. Strain Curves, Mix #5
U=12% U=12% U=13% U=14%
3500
U=12% Su=3114psi
U=12% Su>3183psi
3000
U=13% Su=2705psi
2500
U=14% Su=1989psi
Stress (psi)
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0.0% 1.0% 2.0% 3.0% 4.0% 5.0% 6.0% 7.0%
Strain (%)
Figure 5.7. Stress-strain Curves Tested on Specimens with Different Void Content at
28-day Curing Period, Mix #5
96
28-day Stress vs. Strain Curves, Mix #6
U=18% U=20% U=24%
2000
U=18% Su=1714psi
U=20% Su=1432psi
1000
500
0
0.0% 1.0% 2.0% 3.0% 4.0% 5.0% 6.0% 7.0%
Strain (%)
Figure 5.8. Stress-strain Curves Tested on Specimens with Different Void Content at
28-day Curing Period, Mix #6
Figure 5.7 and Figure 5.8 demonstrate the different failure process of
specimens with 28-day cured period from mix #5 and mix #6, respectively. As shown,
for those results from the same batch of mix, brittle failures happened in specimens
with lower void contents; while the specimens that had greater void content behaved
in a plastic manner. The representative examples were specimen with U=12% from
mix #5, and the specimen with U=24% from mix #6. The specimen with U=12%
failed suddenly after it had reached to the strength; while the stress-strain curves of
the later one rebounded several times before and after reaching to the maximum stress.
This ductile failure mode might be explained by the rearrangement of particles during
97
compression. Since voids existed in pervious concrete specimens, the aggregates were
rearranged and filled some voids after initial peak. This helped specimens to sustain
higher loads after partial failure. Consequently, when load kept increasing, the
process occurred again. Therefore, these recycling processes formed serrated stress-
strain curves. However, for specimens with low initial void content, specimen had
already experienced very high compressive load at initial peak. Although some stress
may be released by cracks, the load was still out of the capacity of rearranged
structure of the specimen. Hence, failure happened in brittle mode when loads
Figure 5.9 illustrates the failure modes of specimens with 18% void content at
7-day, 21-day, and 28-day curing periods. The compressive strength of specimens
with 7-day curing period showed more apparent rebounds than those with longer
curing periods. The difference in failure modes may be caused by the difference in
the strength of the cement bond. At the early age, the strength of cement bond had not
been fully developed due to the uncompleted cement hydration process. Hence,
breaks were easier to occur at the interface between aggregate, followed by the
98
7-day, 21-day, and 28-day Stress vs. Strain Curves (U = 18%), Mix #6
2000
28-day Su = 1714psi
21-day Su = 1413psi
1500
7-day Su = 1323psi
Stress (psi)
1000
500
0
0.0% 1.0% 2.0% 3.0% 4.0% 5.0% 6.0% 7.0% 8.0%
Strain (%)
Figure 5.9. Stress-strain Curves Tested on Specimens with Void Content 18% at 7-
day, 21-day, and 28-day Curing Periods, Mix #6
99
Figure 5.10. Failure Mode I of Pervious Concrete Samples
Figure 5.10 and Figure 5.11 illustrate the typical failure modes for the
pervious concrete specimens. Failure mode I and II matched the ASTM C 3928 well-
100
defined fracture patterns of Type 1 (reasonably well-formed cones on both ends, less
than 1 in. of cracking through caps) and Type 2 (well-formed cone on one end,
vertical cracks running through cracks running through caps, no well-defined cone on
Figure 5.12. Failure of Specimen Compacted by Standard Proctor Hammer (Mix #6)
Figure 5.12 illustrates the unacceptable failure of specimen from mix #6. The
failure indicated the low strength of interface between compacted layers caused by
Proctor hammer.
101
Exposed
gravel
surface
Mix #5 Mix #6
Figure 5.13. Failure Surface Comparison between Specimen from Mix #5 and Mix #6
Figure 5.13 illustrates the difference of failure surfaces between the specimens
from mix #5 in which fly ash counted for 2% of total cementitous materials and the
one from mix #6 that had 32% of fly ash. As shown in mix #5, the failure surface
mainly passed through coarse aggregates instead of the interface between aggregate,
indicating the good bonding effect generated by cement. In contrast, the failure
surface of specimen from mix #6 showed more separation between aggregates, which
implied lower strength of bond than that in mix #5. This might be caused by two
reasons: firstly, the spherical shape of fly ash may cause poor bonding characteristics;
secondly, the cement content was not enough for fly ash to form more CSH bond.
102
5.6 Permeability
Permeability tests were conducted on specimens from mix #5 and mix #6. The
range of 14.8% to 25.6%. The values satisfied the general minimum requirement for
proportional with the void content of specimens as shown in Figure 5.14. This agreed
#5 AC43-FA02-WC34-5SD #6 AC45-FA32-WC34-5SD
0.60
0.50
Permeability (cm/s)
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0
Void Content (%)
103
Figure 5.14 shows consistent relationship between void content and
permeability of specimens from mix #5 and #6. This indicated that except for fly ash
content, the permeability may be determined from the void content, regardless of
other differences in mix designs except fly ash content. The main difference between
mix #5 and mix #6 was the fly ash and cement content. Mix #6 had 30% more fly ash
and 30% less cement than mix #5. The permeability tests result indicated that the fly
ash content did not significantly affect the permeability of pervious concrete. This
was different with the effect of fly ash on conventional concrete. As discussed in
Chapter 3, fly ash decreases the permeability of concrete because it blocks the
capillaries when reacting with free lime to form CSH. However, this effect might be
addition, the replacement of large portion of fly ash for cement may improve the
permeability of pervious concrete. Since large portion of cement has been replaced by
fly ash, not enough free lime could be developed during the process of the cement
hydration. Consequently, portions of fly ash can not react with free lime to form CSH
bond and block the capillaries in pervious concrete. The spherical shape of fly ash
may also contribute to the improvement of the permeability. This possibility was
demonstrated by the permeability test results on specimens with void content that
In order to further examine the permeability test, the results were compared
with those from pervious studies. As shown in Figure 5.15, the measured values were
in coordinating with the results from previous studies. Among these studies, Montes
104
Chapter 2. The calculated values are presented in Figure 5.15 and show relatively
good prediction of permeability for most specimens with void content in a range of
10% ~ 30%. Although the measured values of permeability in this research were
generally higher than the calculated results, they showed approximate agreement.
Hence, the formula presented by Montes and Haselbach25 can be used in this study.
limited to that specific research, in which the size of aggregate was 3/8 inches~5/8
inches and the porosity was in a range of 15%~32%, this study showed the formula
can also be used for the size of aggregate between 3/8 inches and ½ inches . Although
concrete, the testing method used in this research generated reasonable values that fell
in the range of previous testing results. Figure 5.15 indicates the validity of the test
method.
105
Void Content (% ) vs. Permeability (cm/s)
Literature Review Montes(2006) Ks = 18 *p3 / (1-p)2
#5 AC43-FA02-WC34-5SD #6 AC45-FA32-WC34-5SD
Power (Montes(2006) Ks = 18 *p3 / (1-p)2)
4.00
3.00
Permeability (cm/s)
2.00
1.00
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Void Content (%)
106
CHAPTER 6
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Summary
noise, and potential for earning LEED credits. Furthermore, fly ash is used to replace
study was oriented by the large portion replacement of cement by fly ash, including
the investigation of the effects of factors on the bearing capacity and hydraulic
Several mix designs were proposed, containing different W/C ratios, A/C
ratios, and fly ash content. The mix design that contained 2% fly ash was carried out
compressive strength was obtained, and the mix design was taken as the base for the
other batch of pervious concrete, in which 32% of cement by weight was replaced by
fly ash. Meanwhile, the W/C ratio and A/C ratio were remained constant or slightly
different. Moreover, specimens from two mix designs were compacted with the same
compaction energy. With all these restrictions, the test results from these two mix
107
batches were compared and the applicability of large portion of fly ash in pervious
Although the six batches of pervious concrete had different mix designs,
another reason that the compressive strength showed scattered values was because of
the limited knowledge and experience in pervious concrete mixing. The operation of
Crew should be trained with certified program to obtain the pervious concrete
acknowledge and minimize the failure of placement 80. In 2005, the NRMCA created
content are illustrated in Figure 6.1. The figure indicates that at permeability of
108
Figure 6.1. Permeability and 28-day Compressive Strength vs. Void Content
6.2 Conclusion
(1) The compressive strength increased with the decrease of void content. The
compressive strength of specimens with 2% fly ash (mix #5) and those with
32% of fly ash (mix #6) increased at different rates. For specimens from mix
#5, compressive strength reached to 2,300psi at the void content of 15%, and
over 3,000psi at void content of 12%; while for specimens from mix #6,
void content of 15%. This indicated that pervious concrete that had large
portion of fly ash (≥ 32%) should be limited to use in low volume traffic road.
109
In this specific study, the mix with 32% fly ash in total cementitious material
was restricted for pavement that sustained load larger than 2000psi.
(2) The laboratory test results showed that less A/C ratio and less fly ash content
(3) The existence of fly ash influenced the increase of compressive strength of
pervious concrete along curing period. Compared to the concrete mix with
2% fly ash, the mix in which 32% of cement was replaced by fly ash had
lower growth rate of compressive strength at the first 21-day curing period;
while had higher rate after that. This indicated that fly ash helped to increase
(4) The permeability decreased with the increase of void content. For specimens
specimen from mix #6 was 0.21cm/s at the void content of 15.8%, indicating
good permeability of pervious concrete that had large portion of fly ash.
(5) The unit weight of pervious concrete decreased with the increase of void
content; while remained constant or slightly changed when void content was
larger than 30%. At the same void content, higher W/C ratio and lower A/C
(6) The void content of pervious concrete decreases with the increment of
110
pervious concrete. The compaction technique of using Proctor hammer
pervious concrete, the compacted specimens may have actual void content that are
different from the design value. Compacted specimens used for compressive strength
test and permeability test may have different void contents. To obtain more precise
conclusions on void content, compressive strength, and permeability, more tests need
to be carried out. In addition, the mix with 32% fly ash had minimum permeability of
0.21cm/s at void content of 15.8%, which had more space to reach to the limit of
which the specimens could be compacted with void contents less than 15.8%.
The failure mode of specimens with 32% fly ash showed low strength of paste
bond due to large portion replacement of cement by fly ash. According to the
mechanism that fly ash reacts with free lime to form CSH, free lime is recommended
to use in pervious concrete with large portion of fly ash substitute for Portland cement.
111
Otherwise, extreme high cement content may be required to develop more free lime
80
National Ready Mixed Concrete Association (NRMCA),
<http://www.nrmca.com/certifications/pervious/> (April 24, 2010).
81
Aggregate & Ready Mix Association of Minnesota,
<http://www.armofmn.com/displaycommon.cfm?an=1&subarticlenbr=29> (April
24, 2010).
112
REFERENCES
1
NRMCA “CIP 38 – pervious concrete” brochure of National Ready Mixed
Concrete Association (NRMCA), <http://nrmca.org/aboutconcrete/cips/38p.pdf>
(Feb. 01, 2010).
2
National Ready Mixed Concrete Association (NRMCA),
<http://www.perviouspavement.org/index.html> (May 24, 2010).
113
10
Wang, K., Schaefer, V. R., Kevern, J. T., and Suleiman, M. T. (2006).
“Development of mix proportion for functional and durable pervious concrete.”
submitted to NRMCA concrete technology forum: focus on pervious concrete.
11
Wanielista, M., and Chopra, M. (2007). “Performance assessment of Portland
cement pervious pavement.” Final Report FDOT project BD521-02,
<http://www.dot.state.fl.us/research-
center/Completed_Proj/Summary_RD/FDOT_BD521_02_rpt4.pdf> (Dec. 25,
2009).
12
Suleiman, M. T., Kevern, J., Schaefer, V. R., and Wang, K., “Effect of
compaction energy on pervious concrete properties.” Iowa State University,
<http://www.rmc-
foundation.org/images/PCRC%20Files/Construction%20Techniques/Effect%20of
%20Compaction%20Energy%20on%20Pervious%20Concrete%20Properties.pdf
> (Feb. 04, 2010).
13
Rizvi, R., Tighe, S., Henderson, V., and Norris, J. (2009). “Laboratory sample
preparation techniques for Pervious Concrete.” TRB Annual Meeting. Report No.
09-1962, p. 16.
14
“Rocky Mountain Construction.” Brochure of Associated Construction
Publication, <www.acppubs.com> (Dec. 10, 2007).
15
Houston Advanced Research Center (HARC) (2004).
<http://files.harc.edu/Projects/CoolHouston/CoolHoustonPlan.pdf> (June, 2010).
16
Kim, H. K., and Lee, H. K. (2010) “Acoustic absorption modeling of porous
concrete considering the gradation and shape of aggregates and void content.”
Journal of Sound and Vibration, 329(7), 866-879,
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6WM3-
4XKXRPV-1-
15&_cdi=6923&_user=3366836&_pii=S0022460X09008086&_orig=search&_co
verDate=03%2F29%2F2010&_sk=996709992&view=c&wchp=dGLbVzb-
zSkzS&md5=8c8d1d4c1df436253154fa16f925993d&ie=/sdarticle.pdf> (Mar. 31,
2010).
17
ASTM C 666 (2009). “Standard test method for resistance of concrete to rapid
freezing and thawing.” ASTM international, DOI: 10.1520/C0666_C0666M-03,
<http://www.astm.org/Standards/C666.htm> (June 30, 2010).
18
Hein, M. F, and Schindler, A. K. (2007). “Learning pervious: concrete
collaboration on a university campus.” <http://www.rmc-
foundation.org/images/PCRC%20Files/Applications%20&%20Case%20Studies/
Learning%20Pervious%20-
114
%20Concrete%20Collaboration%20between%20Workers%20and%20Students%
20on%20a%20University%20Campus.pdf> (Feb. 9, 2010).
19
Dietz, M. E. (2007). “Low impact development practices: a review of current
research and recommendations for future directions.” Water Air Soil Pollutant, v.
186, p. 351-363.
20
ASTM C 33. (2008). “Standard specification for concrete aggregates.” ASTM
international, DOI: 10.1520/C0033_C0033M-08,
<http://www.astm.org/Standards/C33.htm> (June 30, 2010).
21
ASTM C 494. “Standard specification for chemical admixtures for
concrete.” ASTM international, DOI: 1520/C0494_C0494M-10,
<http://www.astm.org/Standards/C494.htm> (June 30, 2010).
22
ASTM C 260 (2006). “Standard specification for air-engineering admixtures
for concrete.” ASTM international, DOI: 10.1520/C0260-06,
<http://www.astm.org/Standards/C260.htm> (June 30, 2010).
23
Schaefer, V. R., Wang, K., Suleiman, M. T., and Kevern, J. T. (2006). “Mix
design development for pervious concrete in cold weather climates, final report.”
National Concrete Pavement Technology Center, Iowa State University.
24
Haselbach, L. M., Valavala, S., and Montes, F. (2006). “Permeability
predictions for sand-clogged Portland cement pervious concrete pavement
systems.” Journal of Environmental Management, v. 81, p. 42-49.
25
Montes, F., and Haselbach, L. M.(2006). “Measuring hydraulic conductivity in
pervious concrete.” Environmental Engineering Science, 23(6).
26
McCain, G. N., and Dewoolkar, M. M. (2009). “Strength and permeability
characteristics of porous concrete pavements.” TRB 88th Annual Meeting
Compendium of Papers (CD-ROM), Transportation Research Board 88TH
Annual Meeting.
27
Crouch, L. K., Smith, N., Walker, A. C., Dunn, T. R., and Sparkman, A. (2006).
“Determining pervious PCC permeability with a simple triaxial flexible-wall
constant head permeameter.” TRB 2006 Annual Meeting (CD-ROM),
<http://www.rmc-
foundation.org/images/PCRC%20Files/Specifications%20&%20Test%20Method
s/Determining%20Pervious%20PCC%20Permeability%20with%20a%20Simple
%20Triaxial%20Flexible-Wall%20Constant%20Head%20Permeameter.pdf>
(Dec. 25, 2009).
28
ASTM C 39 (2009). “Standard test method for compressive strength of
115
cylindrical concrete specimens.” ASTM international, DOI:
10.1520/C0039_C0039M-09A, <http://www.astm.org/Standards/C39.htm> (June
30, 2010).
29
North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources (2004).
“Freeze thaw resistance of pervious concrete.” brochure of National Ready Mixed
Concrete Association, <http://www.nrmca.org/greenconcrete/nrmca%20-
%20freeze%20thaw%20resistance%20of%20pervious%20concrete.pdf> (Feb. 08,
2010).
30
Wingerter, R., Paine, J. (1989). “Field performance investigation Portland
cement pervious pavement.” Florida Concrete and Products Association.
31
Meininger, R. C. (1998). “No-fines pervious concrete for paving.” Concrete
International, 10(8), 20-27.
32
Mulligan, A. M. (2005). “Attainable compressive strength of pervious concrete
paving system.” A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree of Master of Science, Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Central Florida, <http://www.rmc-
foundation.org/images/PCRC%20Files/Structural%20Design%20&%20Propertie
s/Attainable%20Compressive%20Strength%20of%20Pervious%20Concrete%20P
aving%20Systems.pdf> (June 14, 2010).
33
Kevern, J. T. (2006). “Mix design development for Portland cement pervious
concrete in cold weather climates.” A thesis submitted to the graduate faculty in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science, Iowa
State University.
34
Haselbach, L. (2009). “Standard test methods for pervious pavements.”
<http://www.psparchives.com/publications/our_work/stormwater/lid/2009_Local
_Assitance/005_Appendices/Standard_Test_Methods_for_Pervious_Pavement.pd
f> (June 16, 2010).
35
ASTM C 1688 (2009). “Fresh concrete density (unit weight) and void content.”
ASTM international, <http://www.astm.org/Standards/C1688.htm> (June 30,
2010).
36
North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources (NRMCA).
<http://www.perviouspavement.org/structural%20design.htm> (May 19, 2010).
37
Euclid Chemical Company (2009). “Pervious concrete.” Brochure of Euclid
Chemical Company,
<http://www.euclidchemical.com/fileshare/elit/B38_Pervious_Concrete_Brochure
_06_09.pdf> (June 14, 2010).
116
38
North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources (NCDENR)
(1997). <http://www.bae.ncsu.edu/cont_ed/bmp/readings/hydrdes.htm> (April 29,
2010).
39
Malcolm, H. R., Leming, M. L., and Nunez, R. A. (2006). North Carolina State
University, Raleigh, North Carolina, North Carolina Department of Environment
and Natural Resources NCRMCA.
40
North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources (NCDENR).
(1997),
<http://www.rmc-
foundation.org/images/PCRC%20Files/Structural%20Design%20&%20Propertie
s/Structual%20Design%201.pdf> (April 29, 2010).
41
ACI Committee 522. (2006). “Pervious concrete.” ACI 522R-06, American
Concrete Institute.
42
U. S Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2010). “What are coal
combustion products?”
<http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/partnerships/c2p2/index.htm> (Mar. 01, 2009).
43
EPA. (2010). “CCP applications.”
<http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/partnerships/c2p2/use/index.htm> (Mar 01, 2009).
44
ACAA (2009). “1996-2007 CCP Beneficial Use v. Production.” American
Coal Ash Association, < http://www.acaa-usa.org/associations/8003/files/
Revised_1966_2007_CCP_Prod_v_Use_Chart.pdf >(July 6, 2009).
45
EPA “C2P2 results.”
<http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/partnerships/c2p2/results.htm> (June 30, 2010).
46
EPA. (2005). “Using coal ash in highway construction: a guide to benefits and
impacts.” Report no. EPA-530-K-05-002.
<http://www.epa.gov/osw/partnerships/c2p2/pubs/greenbk508.pdf > (June 30,
2010).
47
Coal Ash Research Committee. (2010). “What is coal ash?” University of North
Dakota, < http://www.undeerc.org/carrc/html/WhatisCoalAsh.html> (June 30,
2010).
48
Hassett, D. J., and Heebink, L. V. (2001). “JV task 13 – environmental
evaluation for utilization of ash in soil stabilization.” 2001-EERC-08-06, Final
report prepared for AAD Document Controal, National Energy Technology
Laboratory, U.S Department of Energy. Prepared by Energy & Environmental
117
Research Center, University of North Dakota
<http://www.undeerc.org/carrc/Assets/SoilStabilization.pdf> (June, 2010).
49
Coal Ash Research Committee. (2010). “Historical timeline.” University of
North Dakota,<http://www.undeerc.org/carrc/html/HistoricalTimeline.html> (June
30, 2010).
50
EPA. (2010). “Fly ash.”
<http://www.epa.gov/osw/conserve/rrr/imr/ccps/flyash.htm>
(June 30, 2010).
51
EPA (2008). “Identification of nonhazardous secondary materials that are solid
waste coal combustion residuals - coal fly ash, bottom ash, and boiler slag,
<http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/pdfs/ccpash.pdf> (Mar. 01, 2009).
52
ASTM C 618-08a. (2009). “Standard specification for coal fly ash and raw or
calcined natural pozzolan for use in concrete.” ASTM international, DOI: 10.
1520/C0618-08 <http://www.astm.org/Standards/C618.htm> (June 30, 2010).
53
Headwaters Resources. (2005). “Fly ash – types and benefits.” Bulletin No. 1, 1
page, <http://www.flyash.com/data/upimages/press/TB.1%20Fly%20Ash%20-
%20Types%20&%20Benefits.pdf> (June 30, 2010).
54
“Fly ash for concrete brochure,” ISG Resources, Headwaters Resources,
<http://www.flyash.com/resourcelibrary.asp?category=Fly+Ash+Basics&Submit
=search> (Dec. 31, 2009).
55
FHWA. (2010). “Fly ash facts for highway engineers.”
<http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/recycling/fapref.cfm> (June 30, 2010).
56
Headwaters Resources. (2005). “Fly ash and concrete in LEED® - NC version
2.2”, Bulletin No. 28, 1 page,
<http://www.flyash.com/data/upimages/press/LEED%20ver%202.2.pdf> (June
30, 2010).
57
Headwaters Resources. (2005). “Fly ash for concrete.”
<http://www.flyash.com/data/upimages/press/HWR_brochure_flyash.pdf> (June
30, 2010).
58
Khunthongkeaw, J., and Tangtermsirikul, S. (2005) “Model for simulating
carbonation of fly ash concrete” Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE,
17(5), 570-578.
59
Headwaters Resources. (2005). “Fly ash increase resistance to freezing and
thawing.” Bulletin No. 9, 1 page.
118
60
Headwaters Resources. (2005). “High volume fly ash for concrete paving.”
Bulletin No. 22, 1 page.
61
Headwaters Resources. (2005). “Fly ash decreases the permeability of
concrete.” Bulletin No. 6, 1 page.
62
Headwaters Resources. (2005). “Fly ash increases resistance to sulfate attack.”
Bulletin No. 7, 1 page.
63
Headwaters Resources. (2005). “Fly ash decreases the permeability of
concrete.” Bulletin No. 29, 1 page.
64
QUIKRETE. (2010). “Sand and gravels material safety data sheet.”
QUIKRETE, http://www.quikrete.com/PDFs/MSDS-B1-SandAndGravel.pdf>
(June, 2010).
65
ASTM C 150. (2009). “Standard specification for Portland cement.” ASTM
international, DOI: 10.1520/C0150_C0150M-09,
<http://www.astm.org/Standards/C150.htm> (June 30, 2010).
66
Walker, H. W., Taerakul, P., Butalia, T. S., Wolfe, W. E., and Dick, W. A.
(2001). “Minimizaiton and use of Coal Combustion By-products (CCBs):
concepts and applications, adapted from “Handbook of pollution control and
waste minimization.” New Mexico State University, Marcel Dekker, Inc.,
Ghassemi ed., p. 426.
67
ACI Committee 211. (2002). “Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for
Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete”, ACI 211.1-91, reapproved 2002.
68
Kett, I. (1999). “Engineered concrete mix design and test methods.” CRC Press,
1st edition, p. 5-10.
69
ASTM C 192. (2007). “Standard practice for making and curing concrete test
specimens in the laboratory.” ASTM international, DOI:
10.1520/C0192_C0192M-07, <http://www.astm.org/Standards/C192.htm> (June
30, 2010).
70
Hunt, D. (2009). “Pervious concrete yield test.” Buckeye Ready Mix, personal
communication.
71
Pardi, M. (2010). National Mix Concrete, personal communication.
72
ASTM C31 / C31M. (2008). “Standard practice for making and curing concrete
test specimens in the field.” ASTM international, DOI: 10.520/C0031_C0031M-
09, <http://www.astm.org/Standards/C31.htm> (June 30, 2010).
119
73
ASTM C 29. (2009). “Standard test method for bulk density (“unit weight”)
and voids in aggregate.” ASTM international, DOI: 10.1520/C0029_C0029M-09,
<http://www.astm.org/Standards/C29.htm> (June 30, 2010).
74
ASTM C 94. (2009). “Standard specification for Ready-Mix Concrete.” ASTM
international, DOI: 10. 1520/C0094_C0094M-09A,
<http://www.astm.org/Standards/C94.htm> (June 30, 2010).
75
ASTM C 125. (2009). “Standard terminology relating to concrete and concrete
aggregates.” ASTM international, DOI: 10.1520/C0125-09A,
<http://www.astm.org/Standards/C125.htm> (June 30, 2010).
76
ASTM C 127. (2007). “Standard test method for density, relative density
(specific gravity) and absorption of coarse aggregate.” ASTM international, DOI:
10.1520/C0127-07, <http://www.astm.org/Standards/C127.htm> (June 30, 2010).
77
ASTM C 138. (2009). “Standard test method for density (unity weight) yield,
and air content (gravimetric) of concrete.” ASTM international, DOI:
10.1520/C0138_C0138M-09, <http://www.astm.org/Standards/C138.htm> (June
30, 2010).
78
ASTM C 617. (2009). “Standard practice for capping cylindrical concrete
specimens.” ASTM international, DOI: 10.1520/C0617-09A,
<http://www.astm.org/Standards/C617.htm> (June 30, 2010).
79
ASTM D 5084-03 (2003). “Standard test methods for measurement of
hydraulic conductivity of saturated porous materials using a flexible wall
permeameter.” ASTM international, DOI: 10.1520/D5084-03,
<http://www.astm.org/Standards/D5084.htm> (June 30, 2010).
80
National Ready Mixed Concrete Association (NRMCA),
<http://www.nrmca.com/certifications/pervious/> (April 24, 2010).
81
Aggregate & Ready Mix Association of Minnesota,
<http://www.armofmn.com/displaycommon.cfm?an=1&subarticlenbr=29> (April
24, 2010).
120
APPENDIX A
121
28-day
Compressiv
Class C Water Unit Void e Permea
Mix Cement Fly Ash (lb/yd3 Aggregat Weight Content Strength(ps bility
Author ID (lb/yd3) (lb/yd3) ) e (lb/yd3) W/C A/C (lb/ft3) (%) i) (in/sec)
Crouch, A 450 131 177 2,599 0.3 4.47 - 12~33 1800~7500 -
L. K., B 450 131 177 2,599 0.3 4.5 - 23~37 1450~4600 -
et al. C 375 109 147 2,731 0.3 5.6 - 27~39 1000~3500 -
(2007) D 375 109 147 2,731 0.3 5.6 - 26~37 870~2900 -
Wang, 1 600 - 162 2700 0.27 4.5 116.9 28.8 - -
K. et al. 2 600 - 162 2700 0.27 4.5 117.5 25.3 2506 0.1
122
(2006) 3 600 - 162 2700 0.27 4.5 104.1 33.6 1722 0.57
1A 571 - 154 2500 0.27 4.4 130.9 20.5 - 0.19
1B 520 - 114 2500 0.22 4.8 - - - -
2A 571 - 154 2500 0.27 4.4 127.7 18.3 3661 0.04
2B 520 - 116 2500 0.27 4.8 - - - -
2C 520 - 114 2500 0.22 4.8 126.8 19 2969 0.07
2D 542 - 114 2500 0.22 4.6 120.3 26 1307 -
2E 485 - 114 2500 0.22 5.2 232.2 14.1 2735 0.02
2F 600 - 162 2700 0.27 4.5 120.4 18.9 3106 0.11
2G 600 - 162 2700 0.27 4.5 119.4 22.1 3106 0.27
2H 571 - 154 2500 0.27 4.4 122.5 19 3849 0.12
3A 571 - 154 2500 0.27 4.4 119.8 23 - 0.09
3B 571 - 126 2500 0.22 4.4 - - - -
Continued
Table A.1: Examples of Laboratory Tests on Pervious Concrete.
122
Table A.1. continued
T1 - - - - 0.33 - 114.8 - 1030 3.07
T2 - - - - 0.35 - 121.5 - 1420 3.27
T3 - - - - 0.35 - 115.6 - 2000 3.5
T4 - - - - 0.28 - 131.1 - 2900 0.74
Yang
T5 - - - - 0.22 - 128 - 5150 1.14
and
T6 - - - - 0.2 - 117.4 - 3872 7.87
Jiang,
et al. T7(+S
(2003) F) - - - - 0.2 - 134.5 - 8200 0.67
T8(+
VAE) - - - - 0.28 - 144.5 - 8800 0.12
T9(+P
AF) - - - - 0.35 - 138 - 7550 0.9
Fortes 1BT 510 - 148 - 0.29 - 164 - 1700 0.01
123
123
Fine 28-day
Project Class C Coarse Coarse Aggreg Fine Compressive
Informa Water Cement Fly Ash Aggrega Aggregat ate aggregate Strength
tion (lb/yd3) (lb/yd3) (lb/yd3) te e (lb/yd3) (lb/yd3) (%) A/C W/C (psi)
Hein and No. 7
Schindle 183 600 - gravel 2391 170 7% 4.27 0.31 -
r (2006), No. 78
Auburn 200 451 113 stone 2605 313 11% 6.47 0.44 -
Universi No. 7
ty 183 600 - gravel 2391 170 7% 4.27 0.31 -
124
No. 78
150 508 56 stone 2410 146 6% 5.03 0.30 -
Euclid 3/8''
Chemica round
l gravel or
Compan limeston
y 160 600 - e 2600 0 0% 4.33 0.27 1970
1997 172 400 - - 2700 - - - 0.43 1000
1991 167 300 - - 2570 - - - 0.56 1000
1993 167 300 - - 2570 - - - 0.56 1000
1994 167 300 - - 2570 - - - 0.56 1000
Table A.2. Examples of Field Projects of Pervious Concrete.
124
APPENDIX B
125
Figure B.1. Properties of Coarse Aggregates
126
Figure B.2. Properties of Cement (St. Marys)
127
Continued
Figure B.3. Properties of High Range Water Reducer (Euclid Chemical Company)
128
Figure B.3. continued
129
Continued
Figure B.4. Properties of Mid-Range Water Reducer (Euclid Chemical Company)
130
Figure B.4. continued
131
Continued
Figure B.5. Properties of Mid-Range Water Reducer (Euclid Chemical Company)
Error! Reference source not found.. continued
132
133
Figure B.6. Properties of Viscosity Modifying Admixture (Euclid Chemical Company)
134
Continued
Figure B.7. Properties of Fiber (Euclid Chemical Company)
135
Figure B.7. continued
136
APPENDIX C
137
Mix #1: AC46-FA00-WC27-5SD
Mixture Component Weight Density/SG Volume
Cement, lb 7.01 3.15 0.04
Coarse Aggregate, SSD, lb 30.34 2.63 0.18
Fine Aggregate, SSD, lb 1.67 2.61 0.01
Water, lb 1.88 1.00 0.03
Poly fibers, 1#/cy
HRWR, oz/cwt. 4.43
Water Reducer, oz/cwt. 1.86
Viscosity oz/cwt. 2.06
Void 41%
W/C Ratio 0.27
Total weight, lbs 49.26
Total volume, ft3 0.44
3
Solids Volume, ft 0.26
3
Design Unit weight, lb/ft 111.95
Maximum Theoretical density,
lb/ft3 188.77
Table C.1. Mix Design of Pervious Concrete Mix #1
138
Mix #2: AC46-FA30-WC22-5SD
Mixture Component Weight Density/SG Volume
Cement, lb 15.05 3.15 0.08
Class F fly ash 6.45 2.10 0.05
Coarse Aggregate, SSD, lb 93.75 2.63 0.57
Fine Aggregate, SSD, lb 5.18 2.61 0.03
Water, lb 4.73 1.00 0.08
Poly fibers, 1#/cy
HRWR, oz/cwt. 5.00
Water Reducer, oz/cwt. 2.00
Viscosity oz/cwt. 3.00
Void 42%
W/C Ratio 0.22
Total weight, lbs 135.16
Total volume, ft3 1.25
Solids Volume, ft3 0.73
3
Design Unit weight, lb/ft 108.13
3
Maximum Theoretical density, lb/ft 185.44
Table C.3. Mix Design of Pervious Concrete Mix #2
139
Mix #3: AC48-FA09-WC37-0SD
Mixture Component Weight Density/SG Volume
Cement, lb 29.40 3.15 0.15
Class F fly ash 2.80 2.10 0.02
Coarse Aggregate, SSD, lb 152.99 2.63 0.93
Fine Aggregate, SSD, lb 0.00 2.61 0.00
Water, lb 11.79 1.00 0.19
Poly fibers, 1#/cy
Eucon WO, oz/cwt. 6.00
Eucon MRX, oz/cwt. 12.00
Visctrol oz/cwt. 1.00
Void 26%
W/C Ratio 0.37
Total weight, lbs 215.98
Total volume, ft3 1.74
Solids Volume, ft3 1.29
3
Design Unit weight, lb/ft 124.27
Maximum Theoretical density,
lb/ft3 167.15
Table C.5. Mix Design of Pervious Concrete Mix #3
140
Mix #4: AC48-FA30-WC32-5SD
Mixture Component Weight Density/SG Volume
Cement, lb 4.20 3.15 0.02
Fly Ash, lb 1.80 2.10 0.01
Coarse Aggregate, SSD, lb 27.50 2.63 0.17
Fine Aggregate, SSD, lb 1.44 2.61 0.01
Water, lb 1.92 1.00 0.03
Fiberstrand 100 (g) 5.72 0.91 0.0002
PLASTOL 6200 EXT (g) 13.44 1.08 0.0004
EUCON W.O, (g) 13.44 1.12 0.0004
EUCON MRX, (g) 13.44 1.12 0.0004
Visctrol oz/cwt. (g) 16.80 1.21 0.0005
Void 27%
W/C Ratio 0.32
Total weight, lbs 37.00
3
Total volume, ft 0.34
3
Solids Volume, ft 0.24
3
Design Unit weight, lb/ft 110.44
Maximum Theoretical density, lb/ft 3 151.42
Table C.7. Mix Design of Pervious Concrete Mix #4
141
Mix #5: AC43-FA02-WC34-5SD
Mixture Component Weight Density/SG Volume
Cement, lb 26.40 3.15 0.13
Fly Ash, lb 0.50 2.10 0.00
Coarse Aggregate, SSD, lb 109.14 2.63 0.67
Fine Aggregate, SSD, lb 5.74 2.61 0.04
Water, lb 9.00 1.00 0.14
Fiberstrand 100 (g) 20.18 0.91 0.0008
PLASTOL 6200 EXT (g) 55.90 1.08 0.0019
EUCON W.O, (g) 56.30 1.12 0.0018
EUCON MRX, (g) 55.50 1.12 0.0018
Visctrol oz/cwt. (g) 69.40 1.21 0.0021
Void 14%
W/C Ratio 0.34
Total weight, lbs 151.35
Total volume, ft3 1.15
3
Solids Volume, ft 0.99
3
Design Unit weight, lb/ft 131.61
3
Maximum Theoretical density, lb/ft 152.74
Table C.9. Mix Design of Pervious Concrete Mix #5
Unit
Weight Volume weight Void Compaction
4in x 8in (lb) (ft3) (lb/ft3) content Method
Sample (1) 7.48 0.058 128.6 15.8%
Sample (2) 7.64 0.058 131.4 14.0%
Sample (3) 7.46 0.058 128.3 16.0%
Drop-5/3
Sample (4) 7.52 0.058 129.3 15.3%
Sample (5) 7.55 0.058 129.8 15.0%
Sample (6) 7.45 0.058 128.1 16.1%
Sample (7) 7.45 0.058 128.1 16.1%
Sample (8) 7.85 0.058 135.0 11.6% Drop-10/3
Sample (9) 7.80 0.058 134.1 12.2% Drop-15/3
Sample (10) 7.61 0.058 130.8 14.3%
Proct-5/3
Sample (11) 7.61 0.058 130.8 14.3%
Sample (12) 7.75 0.058 133.2 12.8% Proct-10/3
Table C.10. Unit Weight and Void Content of 4in x 8in Samples from Pervious
Concrete Mix #5
142
Unit
Weight Volume weight Void Compaction
3in x 6in (lb) (ft3) (lb/ft3) content Method
Sample (1) 3.09 0.025 125.9 17.6%
Sample (2) 3.02 0.025 123.0 19.4%
Proct-5/3
Sample (3) 3.11 0.025 126.7 17.0%
Sample (4) 3.15 0.025 128.3 16.0%
Sample (5) 3.19 0.025 130.0 14.9% Proct-10/3
Table C.11. Unit Weight and Void Content of 3in x 6in Samples from Pervious
Concrete Mix #5
143
Weight Volume Unit weight Void Compaction
3 3
4in x 8in (lb) (ft ) (lb/ft ) content Method
Sample (1) 7.24 0.058 124.5 17.0%
Sample (2) 7.15 0.058 122.9 18.1%
Proct-5/3
Sample (3) 7.24 0.058 124.5 17.0%
Sample (4) 7.05 0.058 121.2 19.2%
Sample (5) 7.09 0.058 121.9 18.7%
Sample (6) 7.19 0.058 123.6 17.6% Drop-15/3
Sample (7) 7.43 0.058 127.7 14.8%
Sample (8) 6.97 0.058 119.8 20.1%
Sample (9) 7.01 0.058 120.5 19.7% Drop-10/3
Sample (10) 6.95 0.058 119.5 20.3%
Sample (11) 6.81 0.058 117.1 21.9%
Sample (12) 6.79 0.058 116.7 22.2%
Drop-5/3
Sample (13) 6.61 0.058 113.7 24.2%
Sample (14) 6.61 0.058 113.7 24.2%
Table C.13. Unit Weight and Void Content of 4in x 8in Samples from Pervious
Concrete Mix #6
144
Curing Compressive
Void Period Strength
Mix ID Content (days) (psi)
7 260.7
#1 AC46-FA00-WC27-5SD 41% 21 585.1
28 554.3
9 99.5
#2 AC46-FA30-WC22-5SD 42% 21 160.0
28 190.2
11 686.8
#3 AC48-FA09-WC37-0SD 31% 21 827.5
28 899.9
7 505.4
#4 AC48-FA30-WC32-5SD 27% 21 591.8
28 791.1
7 1947.7
#5 AC43-FA02-WC34-5SD 14% 21 2504.9
28 2705.0
7 1323.4
#6 AC45-FA32-WC34-5SD 18% 21 1413.0
28 1713.9
Table C.15. Compressive Strength of Specimens from Mix #1~#6 at 7, 21, and 28
Days Curing Periods
145
Unit 28-day
Weight Void Compressive
Mix ID (lb/ft3) Content Strength (psi)
#1 AC46-FA00-WC27-5SD 111.5 41% 554
#2 AC46-FA30-WC22-5SD 106.7 42% 190
#3 AC48-FA09-WC37-0SD 114.7 31% 900
#4 AC48-FA30-WC32-5SD 109.5 27% 791
128.3 16% 2221
129.3 15% 2258
135.0 12% 3183
#5 AC43-FA02-WC34-5SD 134.1 12% 3114
130.8 14% 2206
130.8 14% 1989
133.2 13% 2705
123.6 18% 1714
119.8 20% 1432
#6 AC45-FA32-WC34-5SD 117.1 22% 1125
113.7 24% 821
113.7 24% 1296
Table C.16. 28-day Compressive Strength of Specimens from Mix #1~#6 with
Various Void Content
146
Mix #3: U=31%: 11-day curing period
800
700
600
500
Stress (psi)
400
Stress(psi)
300
200
100
0
0.0% 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 2.0% 2.5% 3.0% 3.5%
Strain (%)
Figure C.1. 11-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend
of 31% from Mix #3
800
700
600
Stress (psi)
500
400 Stress(psi)
300
200
100
0
0.0% 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 2.0% 2.5% 3.0% 3.5% 4.0% 4.5%
Strain (%)
Figure C.2. 21-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend
of 31% from Mix #3
147
Mix #3: U=31%: 28-day curing period
1000
900
800
700
600
Stress (psi)
500
Stress(psi)
400
300
200
100
0
0.0% 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 2.0% 2.5%
Strain (%)
Figure C.3. 28-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend
of 31% from Mix #3
500.
400.
Stress (psi)
300.
Stress
200.
100.
0.
0.00% 0.50% 1.00% 1.50% 2.00% 2.50% 3.00% 3.50%
Strain (%)
Figure C.4. 7-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend
of 27% from Mix #4
148
Mix #4: U= 27% 21-day curing period
700
600
500
Stress (psi)
400
Stress
300
200
100
0
0.0% 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 2.0% 2.5% 3.0% 3.5% 4.0%
Strain (%)
Figure C.5. 21-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend
of 27% from Mix #4
900
800
700
600
Stress (psi)
500
400 Stress
300
200
100
0
0.0% 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 2.0% 2.5% 3.0%
Strain (%)
Figure C.6. 28-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend
of 27% from Mix #4
149
Mix #5: U= 12%: 7-days curing period
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
Stress (psi)
1000 Stress
800
600
400
200
0
0.0% 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 2.0% 2.5% 3.0% 3.5% 4.0%
Strain (%)
Figure C.7. 7-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend
of 12% from Mix #5
3000
2500
2000
Stress (psi)
1000
500
0
0.0% 1.0% 2.0% 3.0% 4.0% 5.0% 6.0% 7.0%
Strain (%)
Figure C.8. 21-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend
of 12% from Mix #5
150
Mix #5: U= 13%: 28-days curing period
3000
2500
2000
Stress (psi)
1500
Stress 28days(psi)
1000
500
0
0.0% 1.0% 2.0% 3.0% 4.0% 5.0% 6.0%
Strain (%)
Figure C.9. 28-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend
of 13% from Mix #5
1400
1200
1000
Stress
Stress (psi)
800
600
400
200
0
0.0% 1.0% 2.0% 3.0% 4.0% 5.0% 6.0% 7.0% 8.0%
Strain (%)
Figure C.10. 7-day Compressive Stress-strain Curve of Specimen with Void Contend
of 17% from Mix #6
151
Mix #6: U=18% 21-day curing period
1600
1400
1200
1000
Stress (psi)
800 Stress
21days(psi)
600
400
200
0
0.0% 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 2.0% 2.5% 3.0% 3.5% 4.0%
Strain (%)
2000
1500
Stress (psi)
1000
Stress
28days(psi)
500
0
0.0% 1.0% 2.0% 3.0% 4.0% 5.0% 6.0% 7.0%
Strain (%)
152
28-day Stress vs. Strain Curve (U = 16%), Mix #5
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0.0% 2.0% 4.0% 6.0%
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0.0% 2.0% 4.0% 6.0% 8.0%
Strain (%)
153
28-day Stress vs. Strain Curve (U = 12%), Mix #5
3500
3500
Compressive Stress (psi)
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0.0% 1.0% 2.0% 3.0% 4.0%
Strain (%)
154
28-day Stress vs. Strain Curve (U = 14%), Mix #5
2500
1500
1000
500
0
0.0% 2.0% 4.0% 6.0%
Strain (%)
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0.0% 2.0% 4.0% 6.0% 8.0%
Strain (%)
155
28-day Stress vs. Strain Curve (U = 13%), Mix #5
3000
1500
1000
500
0
0.0% 2.0% 4.0% 6.0%
Strain (%)
2000
1500
Stress (psi)
1000
500
0
0.0% 1.0% 2.0% 3.0% 4.0% 5.0% 6.0% 7.0%
Strain (%)
156
28-day Stress vs. Strain Curve (U = 20%), Mix #6
2000
1500
Stress (psi)
1000
500
0
0.0% 1.0% 2.0% 3.0% 4.0%
Strain (%)
1500
Stress (psi)
1000
500
0
0.0% 1.0% 2.0% 3.0% 4.0% 5.0%
Strain (%)
157
28-day Stress vs. Strain Curve (U = 24%), Mix #6
1500
1000
Stress (psi)
500
0
0.0% 1.0% 2.0% 3.0% 4.0% 5.0%
Strain (%)
1500
1000
Stress (psi)
500
0
0.0% 1.0% 2.0% 3.0% 4.0% 5.0% 6.0%
Strain (%)
158
Measured Calculated
Water Permeability (Montes
Void Permeability (2006): ks = 18 *p3 /
Author Contend (cm/sec) (1-p)2)
14.1 0.04 0.05
18.3 0.10 0.11
18.9 0.27 0.13
19 0.18 0.13
Wang, K., 19 0.30 0.13
Schaelfer, V. R., 20.2 0.24 0.15
Kevern, J. T., and 20.5 0.49 0.16
Suleiman, M. T 22.1 0.68 0.20
23 0.23 0.23
25.3 0.254 0.31
25.7 0.47 0.33
33.6 1.45 0.77
11 0.03 0.02
Kajio et al. 2003
15 0.18 0.06
15 0.20 0.06
Tennis et al. 2004
25 0.53 0.30
15.8 0.014 0.07
16.1 0.025 0.08
17.7 0.132 0.10
18.5 0.237 0.12
15.6 0.18 0.07
24.4 0.272 0.28
Montes, F., and 17.7 0.145 0.10
Haselbach, 22.4 0.154 0.21
L.(2006) 24.9 0.404 0.30
25.5 0.457 0.32
29.9 0.783 0.53
26.8 0.869 0.37
29.5 0.941 0.51
32 1.317 0.66
30.1 1.19 0.54
Continued
Table C.17. Measured and Calculated Permeability of Pervious Concrete
Specimens from Literature Review
159
Table C.17 continued
27.8 0.46 0.42
Crouch, L. K., et 25.2 0.14 0.31
al. 24.4 0.07 0.28
27.3 0.3 0.40
19 0.18 0.13
23.2 0.66 0.24
23 0.23 0.23
Suleiman, M. T
33.2 1.50 0.74
25.7 0.48 0.33
28.8 0.64 0.47
34.8 1.20 0.86
36.1 3.32 0.97
35.5 6.03 0.92
32.3 0.43 0.68
39.8 3.10 1.35
31.9 0.73 0.65
33.3 1.15 0.75
33.4 1.88 0.75
28.9 0.13 0.47
34.1 1.80 0.81
25.5 0.15 0.32
Crouch, L. K., 27.6 0.17 0.41
Smith, N., Walker,
26.3 0.44 0.35
A. C., Dunn, T. R.,
and Sparkman, A. 24.6 0.04 0.29
(2006) 30.2 0.01 0.55
22.8 0.08 0.23
25.4 0.07 0.32
19.3 0.01 0.13
31.1 0.06 0.60
18.3 0.01 0.11
24.3 0.07 0.27
29.9 0.07 0.53
13.2 0.00 0.04
18.1 2.12 0.11
21.2 0.01 0.18
27.4 0.03 0.40
160
Falling head test
Height of top surface of water level: 1220 mm
Height of bottom surface of water level: 410 mm
Difference height of water level: 810 mm
161
Mix No. #5 Testing date 3/13/2010
Smaple No. 2 Void content 19.4%
Time (s) Q (ml) ∆h1 (mm) k (in/hour) k(cm/s)
4.48 330 738 451.2 0.32
3.26 255 754 473.9 0.33
5.29 370 729 431.0 0.30
5.52 380 727 424.8 0.30
6.15 420 718 423.9 0.30
6.78 460 709 423.7 0.30
4.54 330 738 445.2 0.31
5.36 370 729 425.3 0.30
6.2 420 718 420.5 0.30
5.91 400 722 418.9 0.30
0.30
ks = 0.20
Table C.19. Permeability Test Data for Specimen with Void Content of 19.5% from
Mix #5
162
Mix No. #5 Testing date 3/13/2010
Smaple No. 3 Void content 17.0%
Time (s) Q (ml) ∆h1 (mm) k (in/hour) k(cm/s)
6.74 295 745 266.7 0.19
9.33 405 721 268.9 0.19
6.11 270 751 268.3 0.19
5.34 240 757 271.7 0.19
6.5 290 746 271.7 0.19
7.93 340 735 263.0 0.19
6.92 310 742 273.6 0.19
6.89 310 742 274.8 0.19
8.6 380 727 272.7 0.19
6.1 275 750 273.9 0.19
0.19
ks = 0.13
Table C.21. Permeability Test Data for Specimen with Void Content of 17.0% from
Mix #5
163
Mix No. #5 Casting date 2/26/2010
Void
Smaple No. 5 content 14.9%
Time (s) Q (ml) ∆h1 (mm) k (in/hour) k(cm/s)
8.71 250 755 173.8 0.12
8.22 265 752 188.5 0.14
6.46 210 764 190.1 0.14
8.93 280 749 183.3 0.13
14.48 430 716 173.6 0.13
11.34 350 733 180.5 0.13
12.24 380 727 181.5 0.14
4.16 130 781 182.7 0.13
4.98 180 771 211.4 0.15
10.5 310 742 172.6 0.13
9.45 338 736 209.1 0.15
0.13
ks = 0.08
Table C.23. Permeability Test Data for Specimen with Void Content of 14.9% from
Mix #5
164
Mix No. #6 Testing date 4/19/2010
Smaple No. 2 Void content 25.0%
Time (s) Q (ml) ∆h1 (mm) k (in/hour) k(cm/s)
3.28 320 740 596.7 0.42
3.17 375 728 729.4 0.51
3.21 325 739 619.7 0.44
3.27 380 727 717.1 0.51
4.69 510 698 684.3 0.48
4.2 450 711 668.1 0.47
5.61 580 683 657.7 0.46
4.17 425 717 633.1 0.45
3.98 360 731 556.5 0.39
4.63 395 723 527.6 0.37
3.62 330 738 558.4 0.39
0.45
ks = 0.50
Table C.25. Permeability Test Data for Specimen with Void Content of 25.0% from
Mix #6
Testing
Mix No. #6 date 4/19/2010
Void
Smaple No. 3 content 21.0%
Time (s) Q (ml) ∆h1 (mm) k (in/hour) k(cm/s)
2.35 225 761 577.6 0.41
3.01 240 757 482.1 0.34
2.78 220 762 477.1 0.34
3.23 255 754 478.4 0.34
4.79 365 730 469.2 0.33
3.83 300 744 477.7 0.34
3.46 270 751 473.8 0.33
3.08 240 757 471.1 0.33
4.45 332 737 457.1 0.32
4.04 310 742 468.6 0.33
0.34
ks = 0.27
Table C.26. Permeability Test Data for Specimen with Void Content of 21.0% from
Mix #6
165
Mix No. #6 Testing date 4/19/2010
Smaple No. 4 Void content 21.5%
Time (s) Q (ml) ∆h1 (mm) k (in/hour) k(cm/s)
3.41 270 751 480.8 0.34
3.05 255 754 506.6 0.36
3.16 320 740 619.4 0.44
4.05 325 739 491.2 0.35
3.21 205 765 384.2 0.27
3.69 310 742 513.1 0.36
3.72 330 738 543.4 0.38
3.22 260 753 489.6 0.35
3.08 200 766 390.4 0.28
3.45 286 747 504.5 0.36
0.35
ks = 0.29
Table C.27. Permeability Test Data for Specimen with Void Content of 21.5% from
Mix #6
166
Void content vs. compaction methods on all samples
Average
Compaction Void
Method Mix ID Void Content Content
#1 AC46-FA00-WC27-5SD 41% 41%
Rod-10/3
#2 AC46-FA30-WC22-5SD 42% 42%
#5 AC43-FA02-WC34-5SD 14% 14%
17%
18%
Proct-5/3
#6 AC45-FA32-WC34-5SD 17% 18%
19%
19%
14%
16%
15%
#5 AC43-FA02-WC34-5SD 15%
15%
Drop-5/3
16%
16%
22%
#6 AC45-FA32-WC34-5SD 22%
22%
#4 AC48-FA30-WC32-5SD 27% 27%
#5 AC43-FA02-WC34-5SD 12% 12%
Drop-10/3 20%
#6 AC45-FA32-WC34-5SD 20% 20%
20%
#5 AC43-FA02-WC34-5SD 12% 12%
Drop-15/3 18%
#6 AC45-FA32-WC34-5SD 16%
15%
167
APPENDIX D
using System;
using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.ComponentModel;
using System.Data;
using System.Drawing;
using System.Linq;
using System.Text;
using System.Windows.Forms;
namespace concrete_mix_design
{
public partial class Form1 : Form
{
public Form1()
{
InitializeComponent();
}
double Cement, FA, TA, CA,Sand, Water, HRWR, WR, Viscosity, FApercent;
double Cement_f, FA_f, CA_f, Sand_f, Water_f;
double CAVol, SandVol, FAVol, CementVol, WaterVol, ARVol, SolVol, SolW;
CASG = Convert.ToDouble(textBox_CASG.Text);
168
SandSG = Convert.ToDouble(textBox_SandSG.Text);
FASG = Convert.ToDouble(textBox_FASG.Text);
CementSG = Convert.ToDouble(textBox_CementSG.Text);
Volume = Convert.ToDouble(textBox_Volume.Text);
TA = Cementitious * A_C;
Sand = TA * 0.05;
CA = TA * 0.95;
//Water = W_C * Cementitious - CA * Moisture / 100;
Water = W_C * Cementitious;
//CA = CA + CA * Moisture / 100;
AR = ARVol*100/Volume;
UnitW = SolW;
UnitW_Max = SolW / SolVol;
AR = Math.Round(AR, 1);
label_VR.Text = output + AR;
169
CA_f = CA;
Sand_f = Sand;
Cement_f = Cement;
FA_f = FA;
Water_f = Water;
170
}
}
}
}
171