Running Head: BILINGUAL CHILDREN AND WORKING MEMORY 1

Bilingual Children and Working Memory

Hannah Rose Widman

SFL 352

Brigham Young University

BILINGUAL CHILDREN AND WORKING MEMORY 2

Bilingual Children and Working Memory

Working memory is a crucial aspect of the executive function of the brain. Working

memory predicts academic success and cognitive abilities (Morales et Al, 2013). Previous

research has noted that there is a distinct connection between bilingualism and executive

function (Bialystok, 2011), but most of the research has focused on inhibition and shifting and

has not directly focused on working memory in relation to task performance and modifications

due to bilingualism (Costa et al, 2009). This paper looks to examine how working memory might

be affected by bilingualism.

Literature Review

Theoretical Background. Ideas about working memory have adapted and changed over

time. Researchers agree that working memory is not just about memory. Working memory

involves control and regulation of cognitive actions (Wen, 2016, p. 20). According to one study,

working memory has been thought of as the focus of attention within an activated long term

memory (Morales et Al, 2013, p. 188). Scholars agree that working memory has a distinct tie to

language acquisition (Hansen et Al, 2016, p. 53). In recent research, this connection has shifted

attention towards second language acquisition, specifically bilingualism. There are fundamental

differences between L1 acquisition and L2 acquisition. Researchers hypothesize that working

memory may play a greater if not equal role in second language acquisition compared to L1

acquisition.

Considerable evidence suggests that bilinguals activate all of their languages in parallel

during speech production (Costa et Al, 2006; Jared & Kroll, 2001; Conway et al., 2002) This

activation of language systems in the bilingual mind creates a lexical conflict. Bialystok, a

prominent L2 development researcher, argues that to resolve this conflict different cognitive
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mechanisms are used to maintain activation of the second language and suppress interference

from the first language (Bialystok, 2011, p. 463) The use of cognitive functions to resolve

linguistic conflict has been tied to bilingual’s performance on different cognitive tasks (Engle de

Abreu, 2011, p. 530). From past studies, bilingual children have performed better than

monolingual children on tasks related to executive function (Wen, 2016; Armon-Lotem, 2017;

Grundy & Timmer, 2017). This is referred to as the bilingual effect. The bilingual effect has

been referred to as the task performance discrepancy among bilinguals and monolinguals on a

range of cognitive measures. Whereas bilinguals are generally found to underperform on

standardized vocabulary assessments, they have been shown to outperform their monolingual

peers on a variety of executive control tasks (Bialystok et Al, 2004, p. 292).

Working memory is one of the cognitive mechanisms that has been linked to bilingual

performance and cognitive control. Research findings note that scores on assessments of working

memory are strongly related to L1 and L2 learning (Costa et al., 2009; Bonifacci et al., 2011;

Bialystok, 2011; Garcia et al., 2018). This has led to the hypothesis that working memory might

have evolved as a language learning device among humans (Baddeley et al., 1998). Working

memory is usually tested through simple span tasks, or tasks that require participants to hold

information over a short period of time. Now, it is accepted that working memory is composed of

both mechanisms related to short term storage and domain general mechanisms of cognitive

control (Engle, 2010, p. 19). Domain general mechanisms regulate and coordinate maintenance

operations and prevent working memory overload by suppressing task-irrelevant information

(Espy & Bull, 2005 p. 671). Developmental research shows that children with a lower working

memory span are less able to perform inhibition tasks (Espy & Bull, 2005). Cognitive control has
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been explained as the link between intelligence and working memory among children (Conway

et al, 2002).

Gaps and Limitations. There has been little research of working memory in relation to

bilingual children. Some studies show that bilingual children exhibit a higher working memory

(Bialystok et al., 2004). Different advantages related to bilingualism have been reported

especially related to creativity and problem solving (Costa et al, 2009) However other studies

have reported negative effects related to bilingualism and others note there is no difference in

cognitive abilities between monolinguals and bilinguals (Bajo et al., 2008; Namazi &

Thordardottir, 2010).

Rationale. Based on a study conducted by Bialystok in 2004, some evidence presented

that working memory could be affected by bilingualism in the same way as it affects shifting and

inhibition. In this study, researchers presented monolingual and bilingual children and adults

with the game Simon. Participants followed a sequence of colors and pressed corresponding

buttons, testing their working memory. Researchers expected that the bilingual and monolingual

groups would perform the same but that was not the case. Participants in the monolingual group

took longer to perform the memory task than the bilingual participants. Researchers also found

that the older monolingual group took even longer to perform the task, suggesting that

bilingualism could prevent the slowing of working memory abilities.

Bilingual experience might affect working memory performance. Because of the effect of

working memory on cognitive control, bilinguals may exhibit more efficient working memory

abilities that monolinguals because of the bilingual environment. A bilingual environment could

provide different cognitive training that inhibits one language system while the other is being

used.
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Hypothesis. I hypothesize that due to cognitive inhibitory skills acquired in second

language learning, bilingual children will have a more developed working memory than

compared to monolingual children.

Method

Participants. There will be 100 participants composed of two language groups with the

mean age of 9 years old. Fifty of the participants will speak English and have limited or no

exposure to a second language. Fifty of the participants will speak both English and a second

language, Spanish, as their native language. The participants will be from the same general area.

All participants will be tested on the same instructional protocols, using the same equipment

although the test will be completed in different languages.

Procedure. Language Questionnaire. First, participants will fill out a language

questionnaire to determine their fluency in their L1 and L2. Bilingual students will fill out a

questionnaire both in their native language, Spanish, and English. Monolingual participants will

fill out a questionnaire only in English. This questionnaire will allow the responses to indicate

how much each language is used among the bilingual participants and to what extent the

bilingual is functionally bilingual.

Memory with number. Based on the work completed by Bonifacci et al. in 2011,

participants will complete two memory tasks. First participants will perform a memory task

related to recalling a number. Participants will be shown a blank screen for one second. Then, the

screen will show a number. Another blank screen will be shown. Then, a second screen with a

number will be shown. Participants will mark if the number on the first screen was the same as

the number on the second screen by clicking a yes or a no button at the bottom of the page. All
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numbers will be placed centrally on the screen, in the same font, and the same font size. This

trial will be randomized and completed for a total of fifty times per participant.

Memory with language. This task is based on three different studies (Bialystok et al.,

2004; Espy & Bull, 2005, Bonifacci et al., 2011). There are two tasks associated with memory

and language participants will complete. Monolingual children will be presented with a blank

screen for one second. Then, another screen will appear with a word and a definition written in

English. The student must read the word and the definition and click a “next” button at the

bottom of the screen. They will see a blank screen for one second, and then a second word and

definition in English will appear. The student will read the word and definition and click next

when completed. The student will then be asked randomly to choose the appropriate definition

for either the first or the second word seen. This task will be completed by monolingual

participants for a total of twenty five times.

Bilingual children will complete the same task in both English and Spanish for a total of

twenty five times in English and twenty five times in Spanish.

Measures. Results for the memory with number task will be recorded based upon the

time it takes the participant to complete the task. It is predicted that those participants with a

higher working memory will take less time to complete the task.

Results for the memory with language task will be recorded on the accuracy participants

have in selecting the correct definition, and the time it takes for the participants to complete the

task.

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