Control 1, second material:

Disturbance rejection and noise attenuation:

Fig.1: Closed-loop control system.

Disturbance rejection:
For the system shown in Fig.1 with H(s) =1. R(s) =N(s)=0, we get that the
tracking error E(s) is: E(s) = (- G(s)/1+L(s))Td(s), L(s)= loop gain= Gc(s) G(s),
Note that for a fixed G(s) a given Td(s), as the loop gain L(s) increases, the
effect of the disturbance on the tracking error decreases. In practice, the
disturbance signals are often low frequency, so we need large loop gain at
low frequencies to reduce the sensitivity of the system for the disturbance
signals.
Noise attenuation:
For the system shown in Fig.1 with H(s) =1. R(s) = Td(s)=0, we get that the
tracking error E(s) is: E(s) = (L(s)/1+L(s))Td(s), L(s)= loop gain= Gc(s) G(s),
Note that for a fixed G(s) and a given N(s), as the loop gain decreases, the
effect of N(s) on the tracking error decreases. In practice, the measurement
noise signals are often high frequency, so we need small loop gain at high
frequency to reduce the sensitivity of the system for the noise signals.

Process Loop gain Frequency Sensitivity

L(s)= Gc(s) G(s)
Disturbance rejection large low small
Noise attenuation small high small
Steady state error:
Open-loop system: Closed-loop system:

Eo(s) = R(s) (1-G(s)); Ec(s) = R(s)/(1+ Gc(s) G(s));

For a unit step input: For a unit step input:
eo.ss= (1- G(0)), ec,ss= 1/(1+ Gc(0) G(0)),
G(0) = DC gain. Gc(0) G(0) = L(0) = DC loop gain.

Note even that the open-loop system can possess a zero steady state error
when we calibrate G(0) to be G(0) =1, but the open-loop system is very
sensitive for parameter changes so that the steady state error will no longer
equal to zero whereas the closed-loop system continuously reduces the
steady state error resulting from the parameter changes.
The cost of the feedback system:
1. Increasing # of components (sensor; expensive, noise & inaccuracies) and complexity in
the system.
2. Loss of gain.
3. Instability.

Table 1: Test signal inputs.

Test signal r(t) R(s)
Step r(t) = A, t > 0 R(s) = A/s
= 0, t < 0
Ramp r(t) = At, t > 0 R(s) = A/s2
= 0, t < 0
Parabolic r(t) = At2, t > 0 R(s) = 2A/s3
= 0, t < 0
sinusoidal r(t) = A sin(ωt) R(s) = ω/(s2+ω2)
r(t)= A cos(ωt) R(s) = s/(s2+ω2)

Standard zero, first, and second order systems:

Table 1: Standard zero, first, and second order systems.

System order
Zero order system
First order system
Second order system
Form of the transfer function T(S)
T(s) = K= constant
T(s) = K/ (τs+1) , τ = time constant.
T(s) = K/(s 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 s + 𝜔𝑛2 );
ζ = damping ratio,
ωn = natural frequency of the system
Response of step input in time
domain,
Let r(t) = A, R(s) = A/s, t > 0.
y(t) = KA, t > 0.
y(t) = KA (1- e-t/τ)
y(t) = [KA/𝜔𝑛2 ] (1 − β1 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡 sin(βt + ∅)),
β = √1 − 𝜁 2 , ∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝜁 , 𝜁 < 1

Typical response of second order system for unit step input:

Fig.2: Typical step response of underdamped second order system.

The transient response of the system shown in Fig.1 may be described in terms of two factors:
 The swiftness of the response, as described by the rise time and the peak time.
 The closeness of the response to the desired response, as represented by the overshoot
and the settling time.

From Fig.2 we can note that for underdamped system as damping ratio ζ increased:
 The overshoot decreased.
 Fore a given ωn, the rise time increased, the peak time increased, and the settling time
decreased.

Important definitions:
The following definitions are specified for an underdamped second order system (e.g.: spring-
mass-damper system) with a unit step input:
2.16𝜁+0.6
1. Rise time: if 0.3 ≤ 𝜁 ≤ 0.8 ⇒ 𝑇𝑟1 = [for first order system 𝑇𝑟1 = 2.2𝜏 ]
𝜔𝑛
1
2. Time constant: 𝜏 = 𝜁𝜔𝑛
𝜋
3. Peak time: 𝑇𝑃 =
𝜔𝑛 √1−𝜁 2
4
4. Settling time: 𝑇𝑠 = 4𝜏 = 𝜁𝜔
𝑛
2
5. Peak response: 𝑀𝑃𝑡 = 1 + 𝑒 −𝜁𝜋⁄√1−𝜁
𝑀 −𝑦 2
6. Percent overshoot: 𝑃. 𝑂 = 𝑃𝑡 𝑠𝑠 × 100, 𝑃. 𝑂 = 100𝑒 −𝜁𝜋⁄√1−𝜁
𝑦𝑠𝑠

The effect of a third pole and a zero on the second-order system response:
1
If a third order system with a closed-loop transfer function:𝑇(𝑠) = 2 2 )(𝛾𝑠+1) then the
(𝑠 +2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠+𝜔𝑛
response of this system can be approximated by the dominant roots of the second order system as
long as the real part of the dominant roots is less than one tenth of the real part of the third root,
1
that is |𝛾| ≥ 10| 𝜁𝜔𝑛 |.
If the transfer function of a second or third order system contains a zero such that:
𝜔2𝑛 (𝑠+𝑎) 𝜔2𝑛 (𝑠+𝑎)
𝑎 𝑎
𝑇(𝑠) = (𝑠2 +2𝜁𝜔 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑇(𝑠) = (𝑠2 +2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠+𝜔𝑛 2 )(𝛾𝑠+1) , then the effect of the additional zero can
𝑛 𝑠+𝜔𝑛 )
be eliminated if 𝑎 ≥ 5 𝜁𝜔𝑛
Generally, the effect of the third pole is that it reduce the overshoot and increase the settling time.
Table 2: List of error constants values and steady state errors for different
input signals and different system type.
System Error constant value Steady state error
type
Step input Ramp input Parabolic input
R(s)= (A/s) R(s)= (A/s2) R(s)= (A/s3)
1 1 1
𝑘p 𝑘v 𝑘a 𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
1+𝑘P 𝑘V 𝑘A

0, zero G(0) 0 0 𝐴 ∞ ∞
1+𝑘p
1, first ∞ G(0) 0 0 𝐴 ∞
𝑘v
2, second ∞ ∞ G(0) 0 0 𝐴
𝑘a

Stability of the system:

For a system of transfer function T(s) = w(s)/q(s), q(s) called the characteristic equation.
If the all roots of the characteristic equation q(s) locate in the left-half part of s-plane, the system
said to be stable.
If q(s) has at least one root in the right-half part of s-plane (positive real part) or has repeated jω
roots, then the system said to be unstable.
If q(s) has simple roots on the imaginary axis with all other roots in the left-half part of s-plane,
then the system said to be marginally stable.
The Routh-Hurwitz criterion states that the number of roots of q(s) with positive real parts is
equal to the number of changes in sign of the first column of the Routh array.

X
Wahib Ahmed