Unit 2 Electric Field (Electrostatic Field)

In this unit, we will be studying the fundamentals of

the electric (or electrostatic) field, such as
 Coulomb’s law
 Gauss’s theorem
 electrostatic potential and energy.
Maxwell’s first and second equations will be
formulated.

1
Electric charge**
 The atom is a basic unit of matter.
 It consists of a nucleus surrounded by negatively charged
electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of
positively charged protons and neutrons.

2
 An atom containing an equal number of protons and
electrons is electrically neutral; otherwise it has a
positive or negative charge.
Positive charge comes from having more
protons than electrons;
Negative charge comes from having more
electrons than protons.

3
 Example of charge accumulation
Charge could be accumulated by rubbing fur on various
substances, such as amber. This property derives from
the triboelectric effect (摩擦电效應):

4
 The electric charges will produce electric
field.

 A conductor is a material which contains

movable electric charges.

 The moving electric charges in a

conductor, are electric current.

 Electric current will produce magnetic field.

5
 How do you know there is electric field nearby us?

 Ifyou have a permanent magnet, how do you know

there is magnetic field nearby it?

6
 The outline we study electric field
(1) From force:

Ψ   D  dS
 F


 E
q  D  E 
 
F
  
S

 SD  dS   Q    D  V
  

(2) From mechanical work:

WAB  q  E  dl  VAB   E  dl  VA   E  dl
B   B   Reference point  
A A A

 E   gradV   E  dl  0   E  0
   
l

V
  2V  

7
Universal law of gravitation**
The gravitational force between two masses m1 and m2 is
given by the relationship:

where G: the universal gravitation constant.

 It is an example of an inverse square law force.
 The force is always attractive and acts along the line
joining the centers of the two masses.
 The forces on the two masses are equal in size but opposite
in direction.

8
9
2.1 Coulomb’s law

Coulomb’s law states that the force F acting on two charges

Q and q separated by a distance r is
Qq
F (2.1)
r2
where  is a proportional constant.

Q q

-F F
r

Fig. 2.1 Illustrating Coulomb’s law

Charge Q is measured in coulombs (C).

10
 1

In SI Units (International System of Units), 4 0 .
0 = permittivity of free space
= 8.85410-12 Farad/m  1/3610-9 F/m. (F: Farad)
Qq
F
Hence we have: 4 0 r 2 (N) (2.2)

Same-sign charged particles repel one another, while

different-sign charged particles attract.

Two positive charges repel each other. One positive charge and one negative charge
attract each other.

11
 The forces acting among electric charges are additive.

The force computation follows:

Principle of linear superposition

12
2.2 Electric field strength E

Electric field strength E is defined as the force per

unit charge, i.e.
F
E  li m
q 0 q (2.3)
The charge q is assumed to be very small so that it
does not affect the field E .

Fig. 2.2 Illustrating the definition of electric field strength

13
 Unit of E: volts per meter (V/m)
 If E is produced by charge Q, then at point P (see
Fig. 2.2):
F  1 Qq  Q

E  li m  li m  a 
2  r
a
q 0 q q0  q 4 0 r  4 0 r 2 r

Q
E
4 0 r 2
ar
(2.4)
 Ifthere are several (say m) charges, then the field at
P is a vector summation of the fields produced by
each of the charges:
E  E1  E2  ...  Em  
m
Qn
(2.5)
a
n 1 4 0 rn
2 n

14
In eqn. (2.5), a is a unit vector in the direction along
n

the vector r (from the charge n to the point P).

n

Example:

Electric field strength due to 2 charges

15
Some simple examples of the electric fields produced by
point charges:

16
Charge density
 Volume charge density
Charge may be distributed over a volume of
space.

We denote volume charge density by V, having the units of

coulombs per cubic meter (C/m3).
If charge density by V is uniform in the volume:
Q
V  Q  V  Volume (uniform distribution)
Volume
If charge density by V is not uniform in the volume:
q dq
V  lim
v0 v
 Q   V dv (not uniform distribution)
dv v
17
 Surface charge density
Charge may be distributed across a surface.

We denote surface charge density by S, having the units of

coulombs per square meter (C/m2).
Q
S  Q   S  Surface area (uniform distribution)
Surface area
q dq
 S  lim
s 0 s
 Q    S ds (not uniform distribution)
ds s

18
 Line charge density
Charge may be distributed along a line.

We denote line charge density by L, having the units of

coulombs per meter (C/m).
Q
L  Q   L  Line length (uniform distribution)
Line length
q dq
 L  lim
l 0 l
 Q    L dl (not uniform distribution)
dl L

19
2.3 Field due to a line charge
In Fig. 2.3, the line OA of finite length lies on the z-axis,
charged with L coulombs per meter (C/m).

Fig. 2.3 Electric field due to a line charge (cylindrical coordinate)

The electric field dE at P produced by the element dl (the
distance from O to dl is l) is

20
  L dl
dE  a
(its direction is along r)
4 0 r 2 r
(2.6)
Consider the radial component dE :
a
r
We will take  as variable. sin 
 L dl sin  z
dE  dE sin  
(2.7)
2
 a 
2 A

4 0  
dEz dE

 sin   a - 

a
P dE


But l  b  tan 
dl r

 cos  
b

 dl  ad  sin  
l 1

  sin 2   cos 2  
 
1
 a    d
O
 d a
 sin 
2
 sin 
2

21
 da
 L a 2 sin   sin  d
dE  sin   L

 a 
2
4 0 a (2.8)
4 0  
 sin  
The resultant electric field E at P can now be calculated by
integration:
 L sin  L
E   cos  1  cos  2 
2
d 
 4 0 a 4 0 a (2.9)
For the infinite line charge, 1  0, 2  ,
1

22
 L
E  E a  a
2 0 a (2.10)
Note that Ez = 0 and E = 0 and the field has cylindrical
symmetry.

23
2.4 Field due to a surface charge

Consider a uniformly charged surface with surface charge

density S coulombs per square meter (C/m2), as shown in
Fig. 2.4.
Surface

dQ = S dS
dS
ar

P
dE
r

Fig. 2.4 Electric field due to a surface charge

24
The total charge:
Q   dS
surface
s

The field dE due to an elemental area dS on the surface is

 S dS
dE  a
4 0 r 2 r
(2.11)
The resultant field E is obtained by integrating dE over
the entire surface:
 S ar
E dS
S 4 0 r 2
(2.12)

25
Example 2-1

Find the electric field due to an infinitely large surface

charged with S C/m2.

Fig. 2.5 Electric field due to an infinite charged plane

Solution:
26
 Consider an infinite charged
surface in the y-z plane.
 Assume both sides are uniformly
charged.
 We wish to evaluate the resultant
field at the point P(a,0,0).
 Refer to the infinite strip of width
dy, the line charge L = Sdy (C/m)
 Using the result of Section 2.3, the electric field at P (in
the radial direction of the strip), is
 S dy
dE  a
2 0  (2.13)

27
 a
y
We will take  as variable. tan  ;
  sin 2   cos 2   1 a
dy  a 
 d    a d   
 sin 2
  sin 2
 ; sin 
Therefore the x-component of d E is
 1 
 S   a 2 d  sin 
 S dy sin   sin   s
dE x  dE sin   ax  ax  (  d ) a x
2 0   a  2 0
2 0  
 sin  
(2.14)
28
 S S
 1   2 ax
2
Ex  (d )ax 
2 0  2 0 (2.15)
Since the plane is infinitely wide, 1 ; 20;
1

S
Ex 
2 0
ax
(2.16)
Or, more generally
S
En  an
2 0 (2.17)
where an is a unit vector in the outward normal direction
29
from the plane.
Note: En is independent of the distance of P from the plane.

 Field due to a volume change v (C/m3)

Q   V d (Vol)
Volume

dQ  V d (Vol )
vol

V d (Vol ) dQ =V d(Vol)

dE  ar
4 0 r 2
d(Vol)

V d (Vol )

or dV
1 ar
E ar
4 0 vol r 2 P
dE r

30
2.5 Electric flux  and electric flux density D

 Electric flux density D

We have studied that in free space:

Q
E
4 0 r 2
ar
0 : permittivity (介電常數) of free space
Electric field strength in materials:
Q
E
4r
a
2 r  : permittivity of material
where
   r 0 r : relative permittivity
In air: r = 1.005
In snow: r = 3.3
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 In alcohol: r = 25
In water (distilled): r = 80
In water (sea): r = 80
Electric field strength E depends on the material
property of electric field.

Now we introduce a new quantity:

D E
D: the electric flux density.

If D is produced by a point charge Q, then:

Q
D a
4r 2 r

Here D only depends on the sources.

32
 Electricflux  (psi)
The relationship between  and D is similar to:
I  and J
Consider electric flux density D on asurface S.
 Case 1: electric flux density D is uniform on the
surface S and its direction is the same with the surface
S.


D


S



  DS D
S
The electric flux density D is the electric flux per unit
area.
33
 Case 2: electric flux density is uniform on the surface
D


S and its direction is not the same with the surface S .


D


Dt

Dn


S


  Dn S  ( D cos  ) S  D  S
 

Case 3: electric flux density is not uniform on the

D


surface S and its direction is not the same with the
surface S .

Imagine that we have an electric flux  flowing

through S. To find the flux, we need to take the dot
34
product of with the unit surface normal to S at each
D


point, which will give us a scalar field, which we

integrate over the surface.
   Dnk S k   lim   Dnk S k    D  dS
N  N   

S 0  k 1  S
N 
k 1

  D  dS
 
S

S k

Dk

Dnk


Dtk


35
 Consider a point charge, in free space.

At the spherical surface r,

Q
E ar
4 0 r 2

Q
D  0 E 
4r
a
2 r (2.18)
   D  dS   S
Q Q Q
a r  dS  
(2.19)
dS 4r Q
   2
S 4r 2 4r 2 4r 2

Electric flux  is said to exist between positive and

S

negative charges. In SI units, one flux leaves +1 coulomb of

36
charge and terminates on -1 coulomb of charge, and  is
numerically equal to Q.

Electric flux  is measured in coulombs (C).


Because D  S , electric flux density D is measured in
coulombs per square meter (C/m2).

37
2.6 Gauss’s theorem

Gauss’s theorem states that the total electric flux passing

through a closed surface (any shape) (Gaussian surface) is
numerically equal to the electric charge enclosed.

D an

Q
dS + + +
+ + +
+ +

closed surface S

Fig. 2.6 Illustrating Gauss’ theorem

Refer to Fig. 2.6. The directed elemental area is

38
 S  (S )an (2.20)
The flux through the surface S is
Ψ  D (S ) cos  D  S (2.21)
Total flux through the closed surface is
Ψ   dΨ   D  dS   0  E  dS  Q (2.22)
S S S

Prove:
(1) If there is only one point charge Q in the closed surface:
 D  dS  S r 2 r
Q  Q 1  Q
a  dS  a  dS  4  Q
S 4r 2 4 4
r
S

(From mathematics:
S r 2 ar  dS  4
1 
if Q is inside the closed surface:

39
 S r 2 ar  dS  0
1 
if Q is outside the closed surface: )

(2) If there are N point charge Q1, Q2,…, QN, in the closed
surface:
 D  dS  D
S S
1  dS   D 2  dS    D N  dS  Q1  Q2    QN
S S

Example:
Consider two charged spherical surfaces of radii r1 and r2, as
shown in Fig. 2.7, in free space.

40
 D surface

r
r1 +
+ +
+Q
+ r2
-Q

Fig. 2.7 Electric flux density between two concentric spheres

At the spherical surface r (r1 < r < r2),
  D  dS   DdS  D  dS  D 4r 2  Q
 
S S S

Q
D
4r 2
D Q
E 
 0 4 0 r 2

41
2.7 Maxwell’s first equation

Gauss’s theorem SD dS  Q (2.22)

is Maxwell’s first equation in integral form.

The electric charge Q in (2.22) can also be found by

considering the volume charge density distribution V(x,y,z),
i.e.
Q   V d (vol )
vol

From (2.22), we can write:

 D dS  Q  
S vol
V d (vol ) (2.23)
42
Applying divergence theorem* to (2.22),
Ψ   D  dS     D d (vol ) (2.24)
S vol

Comparing (2.23) and (2.24)*,

 D  dS  
S vol
  D d (vol )   V d (vol )
vol (2.25)
Hence*,
div D    D  V (2.26)
Eqn. (2.26) is Maxwell’s first equation in differential form.

43
Example 2-2
Find the electric field due to a charged hollow sphere of
radius a in Fig. 2.8.

Fig. 2.8 Electric field due to a charged hollow sphere

Solution:
From symmetry the field E depends only on the spherical
coordinate r and only E r exists.

Consider the Gaussian surface of radius r and centre O. By

44
Gauss’s theorem,

Q
   Er 
E dS 4 r
, r>a (2.27)
2
S 0
= 0, r < a
Hence,
Q
Er 
4 0 r 2 , r>a (2.28)
=0 r<a
i.e. the field outside the sphere is identical to that due to a
point charge placed at the origin, but no field exists within
the sphere.

45