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Internal Flow Systems First Edition: 7. Transient Analysis 90
Internal Flow Systems First Edition: 7. Transient Analysis 90
First Edition
Chapter 7
7. Transient Analysis 90
7.1. Introduction 90
7.1.1. Calculation of transients 92
7.2. Definitions 93
© D.S. Miller
ransient nalysis
ON
a!:lU
!:lh =----, 7.1
g
90 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
(m
~w)
(:."',..)
... 1000m iL
~ 4 ml' • U 4 mh • - =-:2
a) just prior to 'instantaneous' valve closure
64m / s ~
b) just after valve closes
It 4m/s
u=o
"_[==3
(note: friction friction ir:cluded the static pressure, prior a valve closing,
vvould be lovver upstrearrL One second after valve closure static pressure at
valve would a smail residual flow towards the valve would remain)
. 'instantaneous' valve closure
+1Om
t;]
E
1000 m io-ll
o
........ ··.·.·-.·.-··--····-----.·.··-··--tr--··------· _ _- - I..
.+
4 m/s ..
--- .. _- - .. -~~-~~~~-~~~~~.,-
--.-... - - i r
El"vapour pressure
a -10 m gauge
~ _SL
_J
I
--< 4 m/s --._-
TRANSIENT ANALYSIS 91
With a pipe on the downstream side of the valve in Fig. 7.1, equation 7.1. predicts a head
change of equal magnitude but of opposite sign to that on the upstream side. In reality the
head on the downstream side of the valve is likely to fall to vapour pressure. On reaching
vapour pressure a vapour filled cavity opens to maintain the pressure local to the valve at
vapour pressure, until the flow reverses and closes or collapses the cavity, when a head rise is
again predicted by equation 7.1. Assuming a similar pipe on the downstream as in the
upstream side of the valve with the addition of a reservoir, as in Fig. 7.2, then the head on the
downstream side of the valve has only to drop about 20 m to reach vapour pressure. When a
cavity persists for much longer than it takes pressure waves to travel to the reservoir and back
two seconds in the present case - the flow can be treated as incompressible (rigid water column
theory) until the cavity collapses. For the situation in Fig. 7.2. the equation of motion can be
used to find the time for the head differential acting between the reseryoir and the valve to
arrest the flow. Neglecting friction:
Force = mass X acceleration
pressure X pipe area = density X pipe area X length X acceleration
as pressure = hpg
length X acceleration
so h
g
1000 X acceleration
-20
9.81
Transient analysis, particularly of complex systems, should be approached with caution and
preferably be carried out in conjunction with a specialist. Except for simple systems, recourse
has to be made to computer solutions. A major part of a comprehensive surge program is
concerned with progresssing the solution from time step to time step and the input and output
of results. Numerical subroutines used to solve the mathematical models of various parts of a
system usually occupy only a small part of a program, but it is these that take up much of the
computer time. The numerical methods adopted have, therefore, a marked influence on the
cost of analysing a system. However, speed of execution is only one factor; accuracy,
stability and reliability are of equal or greater importance. Extreme precision in numerical
calculations is not usually justified or required, since basic system data is usually only known
to within ten percent. Surge analysis is not particularly demanding mathematically and
relatively simple techniques are often adequate. In a comprehensive surge program it is usually
92 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
worthwhile to usc comprehensive techniques since the cost of modifying a program after the
programming team has dispersed may be many times the accumulated savings in running costs
of simpler, quicker, but less stable techniques.
Organisations with a particular interest in transient or surge analysis have developed
comprehensive modular surge programs. Systems are represented as multi branch modes
connected together by modules, with each module representing a component such as a pipe, a
valve, a pump or a reservoir. By specifying the modules comprising the system and to which
nodes they connect, it is possible to simulate many different systems. Whatever the origin of the
computer program, be it written for a particular project or as a general program, it is only an
aid to engineering design and judgements. The need will always remain for engineers involved
with transient analysis to have a thorough understanding of systems and how they perform
with varying pressures and flows.
The objectives of this chapter are to define the terms used in the analysis of piping systems,
to outline how calculations are performed and to indicate why transients occur. The
presentation is aimed at conceptual understanding rather than a rigorous treatment. It provides
the background for assessing the need to consider a systems transient behaviour, to indicate
what information is required 10 carry out an analysis and to provide information of use in
interpreting the results of an analysis. To some extent the text reflects the philosophy of the
computor program used [or the pressure surge service described in the notes at the end of the
chapter, but the background information is common to all surge programs.
A recurring problem in transient analysis is checking the of computer programs.
From experience it is often to make a number of simplifications to check important
features of a transient with a desk calculator. The two examples in the text are confined
cJlculations of a few steps which would normally be contained within a program.
These illustrate an important in checking that for a time period
cqual to the time for pressure waves to travel along the shortest pipe connected to a
component or series of changes in conditions at the component can be calculated
from a knowledge of the component's time dependent and the known Henv and
head values along the pipes at the start of the time period, without reference to the rest of the
system.
7.2. DEFINITIONS
TRANSIENT ANALYSIS 93
cavity collapses. At a of the
7.3
a 7.3a
Equation 7.3a also includes the effect of pipe restraint on the pressure wave velocity. It is
usual to carry out check calculations over a range of pressure wave velocities that are larger
than the 10 percent variation due to pipe restraint, so C in equation 7.3a can be set to unity.
The pressure wave velocity in pipes of various materials can be obtained from Fig. 7.3. for
water. Except for liquid metals most liquids have pressure wave velocities similar to water. In
calculating the pressure wave velocity in reinforced concrete pipes the steel reinforcing is
conYerted into an equivalent steel pipe wall thickness and five percent of the concrete thick
ness is added to this value.
~~~
VI
i
:::l
:::l
> cem,nt
.-~ ~
r:--~---
10" I "a
, -r·"'J1',-
0,'?----::' __ II iI I
-"j
,fp
-
UJiP
IV
109~ ~. _ _ J,
0.001
I
_L I I I I
0.01 o.
tiD
Pg ag 2
7.4
PL a(l-a)
One percent of gas by volume reduces the pressure wave velocity in water to 120 m/s
;:1:JJlcclLO 1400 m/swithout air.
TRANSIENT ANALYSIS 95
7.3. SURGE EQUATIONS AND PIPELINE CALCULATIONS
The propagation 0 f small amplitude head and flow changes in pipes is described a pair of
partial differential equations which are common to a wide variety of physical phenomena.
Information in the form of surge waves travels along a pipe at the pressure wave velocity,
consequently there is a definite relationship betwecn thc location of the waves in the pipe and
the time since they were generated. This relationship permits the partial differential equations
to be converted to ordinary differential equations and solved using standard finite difference
methods.
n-1 n n+1
~~
The finite difference equations for the labelling system used in Fig. 7.4. arc:
, g , fb.t
Un = U n -1 --- (h n - hn-I ) - . - U n- 1 IU n 11 7.5
a 2D
u'n = I
O.SIUn 1j
+ 7.7
'-
Referring to 7.5., i a surge wave passes point A at time to it arrives at 13 which is f1x
from A at t1 where t]. == to + , At the same time that a surQ:e
u
wave from A arrives at 13 a
wave passing C at to will also have arrived at B. Essentially this means that if the conditions at
A and C are known at to the conditions at a point B mid way between them can be calculated
at a new time t 1 where t 1 = to + .6.x/a.
pressure gradient...r--:,-- _
)r---~,
time t
pressure gradient
time t -1Jt
- - , --______ 1
' ~----
-----.,
-- j
i
I
I
h
~ • -- 1
I
.----.-L
D = 1.0m
T=
I·
II
I
r=
~-----~.
&; =aAt
~I"
A, =100 m
.... ·1"
~
100 m
.
~
-==s=_3----.
+ 2 ""
U= 1.1 m/s 3 '"
U= '.0 m/s 4""U= 1.0 m/s 5 ~U = 1.0 m/s
h 1 =60.19m 17 2 =49.92 =49.85 h 4 =49.77
a f1::.t
h; 0.5 [h2 + h4 + -i- (U 2 -- )
g
1- IU4 1)J
2D
substituting
== 1.1 = LO = 1000
gives:
r
! surge~
ANALYSIS
'7 EFFECT OF FR;CT~ON ON
initial head
rise on
'instantaneous'
closure
valve
L = 100 a
unicated both
be 'distributed'
Having established how to calculate heads and velocities in the interior of pipes the nodal or
junction conditions are now considered. A node is a connection point for pipes and
components, as shown schematically in Fig. 7.8. For each pipe and component connected to a
node equations have to be formulated to calculate the change in heads and flows, over a time
step, given the heads and flows at the start of the time step. Compared to pipes the time for a
pressure wave to travel through a component is negligibly small, allowing the assumption to be
made that flows into and out of a component are equal. It also means that a series of
components can be treated as if they are a single component. For calculation purposes, the
98 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
M
node node
..,
:::
~
pipe
b) 3 leg junction
basic difference between pipes and components is the time delay between events at one end of
a pipe influencing events at the other end. As this time delay is easily accounted for within a
computer program there is no need to treat pipes in a different manner to components. Within
a program a piping system can be treated as consisting of modules, which represent pipes
and components, and nodes, which represent the connections between modules. This is
discussed further in Section 7.5.
Components can be categorised as being mathematically simple or complex. Equations for
simple components depend only upon geometric parameters. Simple components include inlets
from reservoirs, changes in cross-sectional area, orifice plates, dead and valves that do not
operate during a transient. Complex components, of which there must be one or more in a
system in order to initiate a transient, involve dynamic dements. Complex components include
pumps, turbines, surge tanks, surge vessels and valves. In order to find heads and flows in
complex components it is necessary to use numerical techniques to approximate to the
differential equations relating, In the case of a pump, flow, speed and torque.
Equations for all compunents can be reduced to linear equations of the form:
Q
. "".- j h'1 +' I'+B
.t:J2"1
where A and B depend only on conditions known at the start of a time step, Q.' is the flow at
the end of the time step and h; and h; arc the heads at inlet and outlet of the component at
the end of the time step. Provided equations are available to describe henv heads and flows vary
at the node, then using either equation 7.6. for the left hand end of the pipe, or eouation 7.5.
f{)[ the right hand end 0[' the pipe, heads and flows at a new time can be calculated.
TRANSIENT
Several pipes or components may be connected at the junction or node, Fig. 7.9. Since the
Hows in and out must balance, then referring to Fig. 7.9, the equation for a node is:
i=J
L~=O
i =1
where the convention is How into a node is positive and flow out is negative.
Equations 7.5 and 7.6 are more easy to manipulate if re-written in tcrms of now rates.
Substituting U == QlA they become:
, gA, f ilt
~ = ~-l - (h n - h n-l) - - ~_ll~-ll 7.9
a 2D A
()'=O
aA
+,,> f ill
'<-n --n+2 - +1) -- - - ~+ll~+ll 7.10
a 2D A
where Q' and h 'relate to the end of the time step.
It is usually adequate to assume that friction coefficient f has a value appropriate to the
steady state velocity and to use this value throughout an analysis.
Over a time period, ilt, the values of Q and h at to are known and f, D, l::..t, a and g
are constants so putting:
gA
7.11
a
_ fl::..t
C2 - ~-1 + C 1 hn _1 - - ~_ll ~_11 7.12
2DA
fl::..t
C3 = ~+1 - C 1 hn+l - - ~+11 ~+11 7.13
2DA
equations 7.9 and 7.10 become:
for the right hand end
7.14
7.15
Equations 7.14 and 7.15 are linear equations to which form the equations for any
component can be reduced.
"
~
hr
"
~
\.
- ~x
-
~ )
- ~
- -
0
" " "/ / " / / / //
n n+l n+2
Since the left hand end of the pipe is connected to the reservoir, equation 7.15. applies to
node n and interior point 1 and h~ may be substituted by hr giving:
Q'
-n
= C 1 hr + C3 7.16
To demonstrate the effect of a reservoir on a surge ''lave the head and flow at interior point 1
will be round 2D.t seconds after the situation shown in Fig. 7.11, in which a == 1000 mis,
D.x = 100 ill,.A = 0.785 m 2 , f = 0.015.
The steps that would be taken in a computer solution are best illustrated by reference to
Fig. 7 .l2. which shows schematically the paths along which a solution is required.
For this demonstration the head and flow at point 1 are required at system time t + 2~t.
It is, therefore, only necessary to know the heads and flows at 0 and 2 at t + D.t.
hydraulic gradient
-'-------lOR- " - - . ,
3
U~ 3.0 m/s U= 2.9 m/s U= 2.9 m/s U= 2.9 m/s U= 2.9 m/s
'k = 30 m h=39.21 m h = 38.62 h = 37.94 h ~ 37.25
Q= 2.20
Q= 2.277
Q)
E t + .6.t
'';:;
h= 30 h = 38.62
Q= 2.355
t ~
Q== 2.277
____________
X Q= 2.277
____________
~'~(
Q == 2.277___
_____________ ~>L~
~ ~v~
/
h == 30 h == 39.31 h = 38.62 h = 37.94
o 2 3
position
Fig. 7.12. Development of solution
Head and flow at 0 for system time t + .6.t
Equation 7.15 applies with constants C 1 and C 3 given by equations 7.11 and 7.13.
gA 0.81 X 0.785
- - - - - = 0.0077
a .1000
f .6.t
C3 = Ql - C 1 hI - _ . - Q\IQll
2D A
0.015
= 2.277 - 0.0077 X 39.31 - _ _ _ X 0.1 X 2.277 12.771
2XO.785
= l.969
from equation 7.16.
Q~ = 2.20 m3 /s
Head and flow at interior point 2 at time t + .6.t
Because the surge wave amplitude is reduced by friction as it moves along the pipc the
constant values of Q = 2.77 m 3 /s at interior points 1 to 4 in Fig. 7.11 are only approximate.
Taking note of this it is adequate, for present purposes, to take Q2 and h2 at t + .6.t equal to
their values at t.
Ql = 0.5
I [
Qo gA
+ Q2 +- (ho - h 2 ) - -
f.6.t (Qo IQ o 1 + Q 2 1Q21)]
a 2AD
gIves:
The equation for a dead end or shut valve, Fig. 7.13., is Q = O. Since the boundary is at the
right hand end equation 7.14 applies so substituting Q = O.
0=- C 1 h; + C2 7.19
This is the linear equation for a dead end. Re-arranging and substituting from equations
7.11 and 7.12 and Q = UA gives:
aU a j:D.t
h'
1
:=
--
n-l + h n-l --
--
U
n-l
IU
n-l
I 7.20
g 2gD
n-3 n-2 n -1 n
What happens when a surge wave is reflected by a dead end is shown on Fig. 7.14, where for
simplicity the small effect of friction has been neglected. As would be expected and predicted
by equation 7.20, the incident wave is reflected with a doubling in magnitude. The incident
pressure wave gives the fluid a velocity towards the dead end. When the wave reaches the dead
end an equal pressure rise is required to stop the fluid as was required to set it in rnotion
initially. The pressure wave generated travels back up the pipe bringing the fluid to rest unless
:. l~~l'ets another wave travelling towards the dead end.
t- '1
u=f::.hg
a
u=o
a) time t b)timet+f::.t c) time t + 2f::.t
Fig. 7.14. Wave reflection at a dead end
7.4.3. VALVES
The steady state head loss equation from Chapter 14 for valves is assumed to be valid during
a surge. For the notation shown in Fig. 7.15 the valve relationship is:
[jl
h -h = K 7.21
u d v 2g
On the upstream side of the valve the right hand equation 7.14 applies:
7.22
and on the downstream side of the valve the left hand equation 7.15 applies:
7.23
The valves loss coefficient variation with time, t, can usually be expressed as one or more
equations of the form:
K = e at + b 7.24
v
hydraulic
gradient
t--- __
. --
Area = A
C2u=Qd=~ 7.25
A number of techniques of varying sophistication are available for solving the differential
equations arising from the time dependent quantities in equations 7.21 to 7.25. The result is a
linear equation of the form:
Q; =Al h{ +A 2 h; +B
7.4.4. PUMP
When considering complex components, such as a pump, it is often more convenient to work
with dimensionless quantities. Usually the design head and flow are selected and all heads and
flows normalised by these reference values. Pump speed and torque are also normalised by
their dcsig11 values.
The pump normalised head H*, flow Q*, speed N* and torque lY1* are given by:
Q*=~,
h N 1\:1
II*=_ N*= - , M* 7.26
hr Qr Nr Mr
2.8
1
I H* == 4.5 at Q* == -0.5
H* == 3.6 at Q* == -0.7
I
2.4~ I ---i
I
1\
2+
mil
I
I
~
I
I
1.6
-
,.II
J:;
>
..::::
..::::
1.2
I \ 1"- ~~ /' radial
N=+r--n
0.8 , .. I""
"
..- radial
<: ~
I
--r---.-----t-j
I
-0.4
-1.6 -1.2 -0.8 -0.4 o 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
Q* -= O/Or
Fig. 7.16. Head/flow curves
(The specific speeds are axial 260, mixed flow 150 and radial 35 where
specific speed N QJff75 has units of rpm, m 3 /s and m)
N * =_1
_1
Q* and 7.27
N2 '" Q 2 '"
To illustrate the implications of the pump laws if N2 * = 1.0 and N j * = 0.5 and the pump
operates at the same efficiency then the flow would be reduced along the line AB in Fig. 7.18
and the head along BC, to give at C half the flow at a quarter of the head. Along the line OCA
the efficiency is assumed to remain constant.
2.4 f - - - - - - - + - -
2.0 -"----t------\--t--
r
mixed flow
1.6
MjMr
N= +100%
0.8 -~F--"I.---t-~-
radial
o r-------~~----~~------+_----~----_r----~------~----~~
1.4
- r- r-...
,
1.2 .......... 1
line of constant efficiency
~ I
1.0 - B
,..........
'" VA
~
0.8 -..... r.......
~
.........
........
.........
J"~
(.
" I
,,/ I"'~*
~o
~q~"
0.6 -..... ~
r--..../ . . . '::P*~ " !\. ~
0.4 - r--
I) ~
/ "'- i'o..4>-* ~ "'-
~_l
~
-b K. c
" ~-'
--1?*
q.>
" "' t\. I\. \.
~
0.2
C/ h " ""
4'* ....... ~
qe
--1?*
'\
"\
\
o
o 0.2
-r--
L,....-'
t-..... ~ ......
0.4
.....: ~O
"
"~"
0.6
" \ ~
1.6
1\
1.8 2.0
Q*
If the homologous pump relationships are used directly, difficulties can arise in manipulating
data within computer programs because head, flow, torque or speed may be zero.
A refinement in the applications of the pump relationship reduces the four curves for a
pump from Fig. 7.16 and 7.17 to two curves and eliminate the problems with zero or near
zero quantities. The new relationships are:
H*
WH = sign of (H*) _I Q*2 + N*2 7.28
M*
WM = sign of (M*) I Q*2 + N*2 7.29
e ~ tan -I ( ; : )
7.30
I
1.2 r-
0.8 - -
?:.'::E,
'"0
~
ro
;::::::t::
0.4
0
+
-0.4 H ' - - 1 - - - - + - - - - - - + - - - - - - + - - - - - + - - - - - - - l , , - 1
Q
. negative
, , N positive, 11"!2 < e <11"
pump
These definitions assume that pump failure excludes shearing of the drive shaft.
fI
fI*= where fIr = 32.3 m
lIr
M* = Ai
",1
" 'r
GO f ghr
!'rIr = N
21T r
For Tly = 0.815 and Ny = 985 and fresh water p = 1000 kg/m 3
Ai r
= 1832 N m
where p = density of Huid
1'1
'Ir
= efficiency' at reference conditions
The normalised pump curves from Fig. 7.21 are given in Fig. 7.22. Values
along the curves in Fig. 7.22 arc read off and used as data.
The calculated variations of normalised head, flow and
Fig. 7.23. Following loss of power the head drops
pump reach the reservoir and return to the pump as
curves in Fig. 7.23 it is evident that the initial rapid
reduction in speed, is accompanied by little change flovv.
pressure waves stabalisc the pump head a relatively small
flow through the pump to reverse. At about O.7s when the
forward speed is in execsss of GO percent of the initial value.
The form of the curves in Fig. 2.23. is common to a -,an
ini tially rapid reduction in head until positive pressure waves return a smooth
reduction in speed, an intially slow reduction in flow followed
Drcssurc waves return to the pump.
32.3m
40m
r--------~--~~~~-tJoIoI
reflux valve
60 ---, 100
I-~ -- ~--r-T-T
-- ~ -1
40 80
I
H I V"---~
I
~
-r--LJ
30 . I I
f-----4----t-- '" --- - - 60
I · I "
f--_._-
H"d ~
VL~ff'~~
'\
20 1------- -
~ 40
E -- -,
/ I
-0
'"
Q)
I
10 20
/
o /
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Flow (m 3 Is)
1.4
H*
1.2 /
~
1.0
-gco 0.8
I
--V L
t::-:----- /
~
. ~ r
~"
n
v
~
0.6
~
~ M*- - - - - ~
\
0.4 I- --1---
I '
0.2
o
d~~---:---l--c-=~ -d
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Q*
~_
I I Q*
0.2
ol___
r---rL_____l__l__~1
o
I
Fig. 7.23. Head, flow and speed variation for system of Fig. 7.20
reservoir
air vessel
control/
reservoir
valves
pump ~ reservoir
'-~nm
valve
Module Type
2· Pipeline
Type
10·pump
i=j
2:(4=0
i =1
Substituting n'.
X-z = A I .
lIZ
h;. + A2 ·h• 2' 1. + B.Z
o =AllhJ'1+A21hr:ode+Bl
+ + -+
+A j h {j + A2i h~ode + B j
It is possible to obtain a direct solution to equation 7.32 for some nodes, but in the more
general case a simultaneous solution has to be made for a number of nodes. The linear
equations [or a number of nodes form what is known as a sparse matrix, as many of the
coefficients are zero. Adequate numerical techniques arc available to obtain efficient and
reliable solutions to sparse matrices to yield the heads from which the nodal Hows may be
calculated.
Before a surge calculation can start steady state heads, /lows and component conditions
must be set either from a prior analysis or [rom actual measurements. A possible but expensive
solution for the steady state is to use the for transients to analyse a start up surge
which damps to the steady state. A more is to have the facility to replace
all pipes with equivalent losses, so time delays are eliminated and this, combined with
restrictions on the changes permitted during a time step, rapid convergence to the steady
state. An approach with much merit is to carry out a hand calculation of the steady state and
feed the values in as programme data. This approach at least ensures that the system is not
analysed before some time is spent in understanding it.
The test of a mathematical model is whether it predicts type behaviour adequately. Most
aspects of surge are understood and well formulated mathematical models predict the first and
most important part of a surge. As the surge progresses it is usually found that heads in the
prototype decay much than those predicted by the mathematical model, although the
timing of events may still be predicted reasonably well. A number of reasons for the
hi"hl'r than predicted decay rates have been postulated but await experimental confirmation,
:-n:rih' because it is not considered important.
In this section a number of important causes of surge are breifly outlined. Surges are associated
with:
1. Pump failure or start up.
2. Valve operation.
3. Vapour cavities.
4. Free air and gas.
5. Turbine load acceptance, load rejection and governing.
6. A pipe or component failure.
Single, parallel and series operations of pumps and a wide variety of system layouts prevent
general predictions about system behaviour following pump failure. :Four simple situations that
illustrate a number of important aspects of surges due to pumps are considered:
1. Low friction, low head systems..
2. Low friction, medium and high head systems.
3. Medium to high friction, medium to high head systems.
4. Condenser systems.
Usually axial Dow pumps are used on low head systems, mixed flow pumps on medium head
systems and radial flow pumps on high head systems.
motor
pump
a
p"m P
H b
Drainage, water transfer in treatment works and irrigation are typical low head, low friction
systems. Axial How pumps have low resistance to reverse flow so head rises are not a problem
following power failure except when a reflux valve with a poor dosing action is fitted. Due to
the high reverse flow that can occur and low system design pressure, extreme caution is
required if a reHux valve is installed. Reverse pump speeds can be very high with axial How
pumps so a check should be made that reverse speeds do not exceed the manufacturer's
recommended values. Axial How pumps require large starting torques and have a high
shut-off head compared to their duty head. When the pipeline is not designed for the full
shut-off head the start up time should be sufficiently long to prevent the full shut-off head
being reached. In cases where a syphon system is used the sequence for priming the system and
starting the pump requires careful consideration in case the pump is started with significant
backflow.
The important features of pump behaviour following loss of power are shown by the results
of the example in Section 7.4.4. and Fig. 7.23. Once rarcfication waves originating at the
pump are reflected as positive waves from the reservoir or surge vessel and return to the pump
the flow decreases rapidly. Without a valve on the discharge, the sequence of events is now
reversal followed by speed reversal whilst the head remains fairly constant. With increasing
reverse speed the pump begins to generate head, a radial now pump may generate almost the
same head running in reverse as in the forward direction and act in a similar manner to a
closing valve. If the reduction in How is rapid, excessive heads can occur.
An extreme case of a short outlet pipe is parallel operation of several pumps with one
failing. With a large installation, such as a power station cooling water system, it is often
impractical to isolate the failing pump by closing the discharge valve before the pump reaches
steady state reverse now and speed appropriate to the combined characteristics of all the
pumps. Closing of the discharge valve is usually programmed to meet the major failure
condition, which is usually all pumps failing. Short duration low t10ws to the plant are
tolerable because of thermal inertia in the condensers. So provided the failed pump's valve
closes in a reasonable time, reverse flow through the failed pump is not important. A check
should always be made to establish that the reverse speed is within the limits set by the pump
and motor manufacturers.
Fluid inertia in a long system is very much greater than the inertia of the pump. What happens
following power failure is dictated more by the elevation or the pipeline relative to the pump's
inlet reservoir and the pipeline outlet rather than by the characteristics of the pump.
Following loss of power, rarcfication waves travel along the pipeline. As the waves move
along the pipe they enter lower head regions. The actual location of minimum static head
depends upon the pipeline profile, the initial velocity, the pump inertia and the pressure
wave velocity. A typical envelope of minimum heads is shown in Fig. 7.27. In this case vapour
head is reached near the centre of the pipeline over a length of pipe with no distinct high
point. 0 rten the location at which cavitites will form can be identified by studying the pipeline
profile. When this is so, approximate analytic solution can bc obtained which are useful in
checking computer solutions.
At the deign stage careful consideration should be given to the location of control and shut
uff valves and to their operating times. Where practical, valves arc best located close to the pump
but this may not always be possible. Up io a closed valve the system may be subject to the
,hut \'alve head of the pump plus any surge head. In addition to surges arising from pump
Icdure and valve operatiull, a pump starting on a system with a shut valve, remote from the
----
/
/
vapour head /
/
;---
envelope of minimum heads
---_.-"""
/'
/
pump, may experience an excessive head rise. The magnitude of this head rise is greatly
influenced the ratio of time for pressure waves to travel to the valve and back to the pump
and the time the pump takes to increase speed from that sufficient to open the ret1ux valve up
to full speed. If the pump start up is long compared to the wave travel time, head rise above
shut valve head will be small, but if it is less than the wave travel time, the excess head may
approach the shut-valve head.
An example of where installing equipment to give a slow pump start up is the most
economic solution is on large pressurised fire fighting mains. Normally system pressure is
maintained by a small pump, but on opening of a hydrant the system pressure falls and
activates the main pumps. At the hydrant flexible hoses are connected, which may only be
partially filled with water, so that if the main pumps accelerated rapidly up to full speed they
could induce high velocities in the system before the pressure increases in the hose. If system
velocities exceed about 1 mis, the pressure rise is likely to burst the hose. Depending on the
length of the system, start up times of 30 seconds or more may be appropriate.
Condenser and heat exchanger systems have a number of high points where cavities can be
expected since steady state pressures at these points are near or below atmospheric. Following
loss of power to a pump, vapour pressure is reached almost immediately following the arrival
of rarefication waves at the condenser or heat exchanger.
There are usually a number of heat exchangers - in a large petro-chemical plant 20 is not
uncommon - supplied two or more pumps. In this situation complex interactions occur
between cavities in different parts of a plant. These can cause concentration of flow into
particular cavities resulting in higher heads with the maximum head rise occurring on the
second or third cavity growth and collapse cycle.
vapour head
pump
Closure of a control valve in a pipeline causes a pressure rise upstream and reduction in
pressure downstream. On the upstream side the head rise will approach -a!::..u/g if the valve
closes in a time less than that for surge waves to travel upstream and be reflected back to the
valve. On the downstream side a cavity will form if the vapour head is reached followed by a
head rise of aUd/g, where Ud is the velocity at the time of vapour cavity collapse. Under
conditions when part of the liquid in the downstream pipe is lost, or delayed opening of air
valves occurs close to the valve, the downstream water column may reach a velocity in excess
of the original pipeline velocity. If this happens the maximum pressure rise may take place on
the downstream side of the valve.
-I
L_.---------- --~~ - ~
fhead rise
----- //
head drop
Vapour caVItIes resulting from a dynamic event elsewhere in a system cause more surge
problems than any other phenomena. Cavities form due to pump failure upstream or a valve
closing upstream or a valve opening downstream, or because positive surge waves are reflected as
rarefication waves. Cavities may also form in a high part of a system when the outlet pipe is
higher than the vapour pressure, or because of heat transfer or because the fluid is supersaturated.
Supercavitation at valves and other components may involve large cavities that can collapse if
now conditions are changed.
As a cavity head rise equal to a!::..U/2g occurs unless the collapse is at a dead end
when its amplitude is twice this value.
There are seldom advantages in free gas through system when it is operating
under conditions. During a transient, frec gas may reduce pressure rises or it may cause
excessive pressures. In the discussion that follows the term air is used although it applies
equally to other gases, except when the gas can condense at the heads and temperatures
existing during a transient.
Free air introduces the pressure wave velocity. Since pressure
rises are proportional to the pressure wave velocity the presence of all' is beneficial
it is distributed or in such a manner as to reduce the effective pressure wave
on the
11
gas in usually not important, if air release is confined to a limited volume of water, say in a heat
exchanger. In cases where the pressure in a long length of pipe is lowered to vapour pressure
sufficient air may be released to attentuate surges. It should be noted that the pressure wave
velocity may fall to a relatively low value as the static pressure approaches the vapour pressure
but it increases rapidly as the static pressure rises. Positive waves cause an increase in the
pressure wave velocities as the air is compressed and re-dissolved.
Three basic types of problems arise due to air:
1. Sudden accelerations due to air pockets moving into a low static pressure region.
2. Air release during filling of a system.
3. Columns of water separated by air being accelerated and then decelerated due to another
transient event.
1. Sudden accelerations due to air pockets
Transients caused by sudden accelerations due to air pockets are usually confined to large civil
engineering structures, fluid machines and partially open valves. A typical situation is shown in
Fig. 7.30 of an air pocket moving through a system until it reaches a gate structure at the
outlet into a reservoir. Once the front of the air pocket begins to escape up the gate channel a
large head differential - in terms of air velocity head - exists. As the air pocket in the tunnel
contracts water moves in to take its place and there is an abrupt pressure rise as the water
slows down. Spectacular water ejections can occur and in extreme cases severe damage may
result.
In the cases of turbines and pumps a large air pocket can cause a sudden change in head.
Shock loading of the machine and head fluctuations may result.
Sources of air are residual air from filling the system, vortices and air entrainment at inlet,
excessive downs urge in surge chambers, operation of air valves during a surge.
gate shaft---'lI"! -
reservoir
a)
b)
. 1 I
- V2
~. ~
7 7 7~J
-r-r-r"J pu m p
A typical situation of two water columns separated by an air pocket is shown in Fig. 7.32. On
start up the full pump head is available to accelerate a short water column. If the pocket is
very small the first column will not reach a high velocity before the air pocket is compressed,
putting up the head on the pump and accelerating the second column. At the other extreme, if
the air pocket is very large it will slowly be compressed and accelerate the second column with
little excess pressure. In between the two extremes are a range of air pocket sizes that give rise
to large pressure rises. A particularly dangerous situation is if the air pocket is under a
vacuum so that its contents have little mass to absorb and transmit energy to the second
column.
Whcn two or more air pockets are involved interactions can occur leading to higher local
surges.
Compared to a pump the mathematical model of a turbine is more complex because variable
blade angles are involved along with equations for the governor. Other components in hydro
power systems do not differ greatly from pump systems except that complex surge chamber
arrangements may be used. As turbines are associated with large capital projects extensive
studies of the machine and system interactions are justified, and are not considered further in
the present work.
TRANSIENT A1\!\LYSIS 11 9
steady state hydraulic gradient
-- vapour head
break
a) simple
b) one-way
air supply
a) b) c)
Fig. 7.35.
a) simple air vessel
b) throttled loss
c) high reverse flow loss
Penalties are involved, both financial and engineering, if surge protection is required.
In the extreme, failure of a surge protection system may cause larger surges than if no
protection was fitted. The first requirement is that the protection method adopted be safe.
The second requirement is that it will work. The latter requirement may seem elementary but
in many instances operation is infrequent and maintenance is minimal or non-existant. To
meet the required reliability expensive solutions, such as surge shafts may be more appropriate
than a cheaper solution, such as relief valves with their attendant maintenance problems.
Since surge pressures are related to velocities an increase in pipe size usually reduces surge
pressures. Using a larger pipe size is seldom economic.
In cases where the margin between the design pressure and predicted posItIve or negative
pressures is not too an increase in a pump's moment of inertia, by adding a flywheel, can
provide a safe solution. Penalties il'l.dude power losses in windage and a higher rated starting
system. A flywheel is not effective if the pump shaft or if the pump suddenly becomes
or if massive of air causes the pump to suddenly
Flywheels may be essential to maintain a flow whilst remedial action is taken to shut dovvn
a reactor or a chemical process.
Except where the local topology is suitable, surge tanks arc an solution for pump
installations. Correctly sized and fitted with restrictions at outlet are very effective and
safe. One-way surge tanks, that do not use the full pump head, can be useful, but if they are
required to prevent negative pressures a careful analysis of their response is necessary.
On small systems flexible tubes that reduce the pressure wave velocity to a low value can be
used to reduce surge pressures.
The usual assumption that the transfer of kinetic energy to strain energy or vice-versa is a
low loss process does not apply to flexible hoses. Rubber and particularly thermo-plastic hoses
absorb significant amounts of energy. Where flexible hoses are used for surge protection their
fatigue life should be considered as cyclic pressures may have to be restricted to a small
percentage of the ultimate bursting pressure of a new hose.
Programmed closing of a valve will reduce the maximum head provided the valve's operating
time is longer than the wave travel time to and back from a reservoir or component. As the loss
coefficient against valve opening curves in Chapter ] 4 show, the first part of the closing
operation has little effect on the valve's loss coefficient. Initial closing should be rapid followed
by a closing sequence which makes full use of rarcfication waves returning to the upstream
side and positive waves returning to the downstream side. By neglecting friction a closing
sequence can easily be worked out to minimise the maximum head. This would then he
checked using the full calculation procedure.
When rapid valve operation is essential, such as a rire tanker loading, it may be
necessary to provide a dump tank close to a valve. Liquid is diverted into the dump tank until
the main liquid column is brought to rest.
Air valves provide a very effective and, sometimes, the only economic method of surge controL
Equally can be very troublesome when malfunction. An air valve may vent air or it
may let air in or it may fulfill botb functIOns. Combined inlet and vent valves should have very
much lower to inflow capacity if air to act as a
cushion. Precautions should be taken Air valves arc not sui table for
pipelines carrying sewage or sludge.
The location of valves is important if they are to be effective. Venting under static conditions is
taken care of by appropriate pipe slopes with valves at high points. Under flow conditions
velocities of a fraction of a metre per second are sufficient to carry air past most valves, so air
not vented under static conditions or air that enters during operation is unlikely to be vented.
Float and other types of air valves have opening times that are slow compared to changes in
pressure during surges. If a pipeline cannot withstand significant negative pressure it may be
necessary to install special valves or to use other methods to prevent pressures falling below
ambient.
Condenser and heat exchanger systems are often protected using air valves on the outlet
side of condensers and heat exchangers. On large power station cooling water systems the
problems of obtaining suitable valves to pass large volumes of atmospheric air has made the use
of compressed air bottles attractive. Sufficient air to suppress a major surge is stored m
bottles and released into the system when pressures drop below a pre-determined value.
A wide range of relief valves are manufactured. In assessing a valve's suitability it is necessary
to consider its reliability, its of operation compared to the rate of change of pressures
within the and its flow capacity, particularly if cavitation can occur.
valves around pumps, either head or controlled, and small by-passes around
control valves J1T some of the means of reducing surges using valves.
to be Depending on the
fault or a lightning strike need not require
in opening contactors can be built into
on hack up electrical systems is often