S-108.

3110 OPTICAL COMMUNICATIONS

The optical time domain reflectometry

The optical time domain

Experiment 2: reflectometry

The purpose of this laboratory exercise is to learn to know the fundamentals of an optical time
domain reflectometry and a fusion splicer. Both instruments are frequently used in field work by
professionals and also very useful in laboratory work. After this laboratory exercise the reader
should know how to splice fibers with the fusion splicer and how to perform basic measurements
with the OTDR.

Background/Theory
Introduction to scattering and attenuation
While light propagates in an optical fiber the power of light is decreased bit by bit. Attenuation in
optical fibers can be divided to in two categories: intrinsic and extrinsic attenuation. Intrinsic
attenuation is a result of the material characteristics of fiber and it is composed of absorption and
Rayleigh-scattering. Instead, extrinsic attenuation is a result of the external factors of fiber, bends
for example. Though intrinsic and extrinsic attenuation are notable in long fibers more attenuation
is often produced by connections between fibers. In all connections made by optical connectors
light is partly reflected back or leaked out of the fiber. Nevertheless, when long fibers and fusion
spliced connections are used it is intrinsic attenuation that limits how far light can travel through
fiber before it is too weak to detect.

Most of the light which is sent to the fiber can be detect at the other end, but a part of it is always
absorbed or scattered. Absorption and scattering are caused by imperfections of fiber, small grains
of dirt, for instance. Scattering means that light is not absorbed but it is just sent in different angle
after it hits small particles in optical fiber (Fig. 1). Some of the light is scattered to the direction it
came from. This is called backscattering. Backscattering forms the basis to the use of the optical
time domain reflectometry, which is introduced in next chapter.

Fig 1 Rayleigh –scattering in optical fiber

Recently, because of the development of the manufacturing methods of optical fibers, damage of
attenuation produced by scattering and absorption has been decreased significantly. Nevertheless,
scattering and absorption limits the use of different wavelengths in optical technology. Rayleigh-
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Experiment 1: The optical time domain reflectometry

scattering reduces the use of wavelengths smaller than 800 nm. It is also hard to make good use of
wavelengths larger than 1700 nm because of infrared-absorption.

Introduction to the Optical Time Domain Reflectometry

The optical time domain reflectometry is used to examine the fiber, faults and connections for
example. The attenuation profile of fiber can also be found out easily. The OTDR is very suitable
for those kinds of operations because the whole fiber can be examined in one measurement and
measurements can be done where fiber is mounted. Optical time domain reflectometry can also
probe more than one fiber or other passive components at the same time. In measurements we can
find location and attenuation of different components or possible faults of fibers between them.

Optical time domain reflectometry is based on scattering and reflections. OTDR sends an optical
pulse to the fiber and measures the received backscattering. The signal which is received consists
naturally only of scattering and reflections of pulse which was sent. By interpreting signal as a
function of time OTDR can draw an attenuation of a measured component, fiber for instance, as a
function of distance.

Theory of the OTDR

Optical time domain reflectometry measures backscattering as a function of time and graph is then
drawn as a function of distance (Fig. 2). The graph represents the power of signal which the
detector of the OTDR receives. The graph of fiber probed by OTDR consists of two spikes with
gradually decreasing line between them. The line between spikes is decreasing because the received
signal is decreased as a function of distance in accordance with attenuation coefficient of fiber. At
the both ends of fiber reflection is rather large (Fresnel reflection) which creates spikes to the graph.
Length of the fiber can therefore be measured from the width of the graph.

Fig 2 OTDR signal as a function of distance

In the graph of OTDR single components and other sources of attenuation, faults for instance, are
shown as a drop in the power of received signal (Fig. 3). Size of a drop depends on an amount of
power that is lost due to the component. The lost power represents of course the attenuation of

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Experiment 1: The optical time domain reflectometry

component. Components and faults in fiber are either reflective or nonreflective. Reflective
components create a spike to the graph of OTDR the same way as the both ends of fiber do. With
nonreflective components there are no spikes because no excess light is reflected back. In most
cases reflective attenuation is caused by connectors or other passive components and nonreflective
attenuation is usually caused by fusion splice or similar fault in fiber.

Fig 3 Attenuation of different faults

Calculation of attenuation caused by components or faults is done by measuring and comparing the
power level of signal before and after the drop of power. Instead, attenuation coefficient of fiber can
be measured by examining the part of the graph straight.

Fig 4 Measuring attenuation of fault

By calculating the slope of straight part, x1 - x2 (Fig. 4) for instance, we get the attenuation (dB/km)
of measured fiber. Attenuation coefficient α can therefore be calculated simply by formula (1).

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Experiment 1: The optical time domain reflectometry

y 2 − y3
α= (dB / km) (1)
x 2 − x1

Attenuation of components, or suchlike faults, can be calculated from the graph of OTDR by
examining the power levels nearby the drop. The difference between points y1-y2 (Fig. 4) tells us an
attenuation shown in graph. The size of the second attenuation could be calculated in the same way.

Introduction to fusion splicing

While working with optical fibers there often occurs a need for longer fibers or we have to fix
broken ones. We also need connectors to the ends of fiber to be able to use fibers with other optical
instruments. For these kinds of problems we need a fusion splicer. The idea of fusion splicing is to
connect two fibers without connectors. Nevertheless, splicing is not a simple procedure and it needs
very specialized instruments.

In fusion splicing the ends of two fibers are spliced together. Because the core of fibers is very
small (~9 µm) fibers have to be aligned precisely at the right angle and distance. If alignment is not
done correctly light leaks or reflects out of splice and the attenuation of the splice increases
significantly. Attenuation can be due to three kinds of faults (Fig. 5). In fusion splicing the fusion
splicer takes care of the alignment of fibers. There are two cameras which scan the splice from two
different angles. According to the data got from the cameras, splicer can align fibers correctly.
When fibers are aligned the ends of the fibers are melted together by arc aimed to the splice. While
melting splicer also pushes fibers a bit together.

Fig 5 Possible faults of splices

If the ends of the fibers are not clean enough the attenuation of splice increases remarkably (Fig. 5)
because small bubbles or grain of dirt may be left in the splice. So, to get the lowest possible
attenuation for the splice we have to finish the ends of fibers as carefully as we can.

When splicing is done strength of splice is tested by fusion splicer. Fusion splice is quite durable to
longitudinal stress but if splice is bent it breaks easily. To prevent breaking heat-shrinkable jacket is
threaded to the fiber. Jacket is melted in the oven of fusion splicer after splicing.

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Experiment 1: The optical time domain reflectometry

List of equipment
• The Optical Time Domain Reflectometry
The buttons of the front panel of optical time domain reflectometry are shown in figure 7. While
performing measurements we mostly need the buttons located on the right side of the screen.
Buttons on the left side of the front panel have to be adjusted only at the beginning of the
measurements. To get a good resolution to measurements we should keep the fiber range as small as
it can be (50 km) because the fibers we are using are quite short. The wavelength which is used at
measurements can be adjusted by Wave Length button.

Buttons on the right side of the front panel can be used to adjust the view of screen and perform the
calculations while measuring fibers. By Vertical Position and Center Distance buttons we can move
the graph on the screen and by dB Scale and Distance Scale buttons we can adjust the scale of the
graph. All calculations are done by Loss Measurements buttons and Mode buttons are used to
change the way of measuring. Avg button is used to view the average of the measurement data.
After pressing Avg button OTDR starts to average the signal which is received and when it is
pressed again the calculations are stopped. We are encouraged to use average before all calculations
because the graph of OTDR is more defined with averaging. Pulse Width button is used to adjust
the width of the pulse which OTDR sends to the fiber. Smaller width of the pulse gives better
measurement results.

Fig 6 Optical Time Domain Reflectometry

Fiber which is measured is connected to lower right corner of the front panel with FC/PC
connectors. On/Off button of OTDR is located in the back panel.

• The Fusion splicer

The front panel of the fusion splicer consists of three parts (Fig 6). At the top of the front panel
there is oven, which is used to heat the shrinkable jacket. In the middle of the front panel is a cover.
Under the cover there are clips for fibers. At the bottom of the front panel there are buttons and a
folding screen that are used to control and observe splicing.

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Experiment 1: The optical time domain reflectometry

Fig 7 Fusion splicer

We can turn the fusion splicer on by pressing “1” -button. While starting the splicer performs initial
tests and finally returns to main menu. Buttons at the left side of front panel are used to operate in
different menus of the fusion splicer and buttons on the right are used to start splicing and heating.
Reset-button can always be used to return to main menu. We can find instruction of the use of
buttons at the bottom of the folding screen.

Fibers that are going to be spliced are placed under the cover (Fig 6). To prevent fibers to move
while splicing there are two clips for both fibers. One must remember not to break or dirt the end of
fiber while placing it to the splicer. The ends of the fibers should be placed between electrodes and
because there is not much space fibers must be placed very carefully.

When fiber is placed in the oven after splicing, splice must be placed in the middle of the heat-
shrinkable jacket. We also have to take care of keeping fiber straight inside the jacket. The bends
that are left in the jacket may increase the attenuation. To keep the fiber straight it must be pulled a
bit while closing the second clip and the cover of oven.

• Variable attenuator, fibers and connectors

Because even the smallest impurity will greatly affect the attenuation of optical connectors and
fibers we have to be very careful when operating with optical instruments. Connectors have to be
cleaned always before connecting. In this exercise we are using two long fibers and one a bit
shorter. One variable attenuator is also needed. Variable attenuator uses batteries and On/Off button
is located in the front panel.

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Experiment 1: The optical time domain reflectometry

Measurement goals
Aims of this laboratory exercise are to first splice two fibers to longer one and then characterize the
fiber with OTDR. The measurements are also done to variable attenuator which is connected to
spliced fiber. We are about to measure the length and the attenuation of the fibers as well as the
attenuation of the separate component, variable attenuator.

Fig 8 Setup of part 2

The first part of this laboratory work consists of splicing fibers and in the second part (Fig 8) the
fiber and the splice are measured with OTDR. Spliced fiber is connected to OTDR with FC/PC
connectors. In the last part of measurements variable attenuator and third fiber are connected to
fiber which was measured in part 2 (Fig 9).

Fig 9 Setup of part 3

Measurement 1: Splicing
1. Turn on fusion splicer. It takes a while to start, so you can straight away begin to prepare fibers.
2. Before splicing you have to remove the cladding of the fiber. There is a special pair of tongs for
that purpose. Place the fiber in tongs and pull the cladding of the fiber away. You should peel at
least a few centimeters because you still have to finish the end of the fiber with a staple cutter.
Remark that the fiber which has no coating is very thin and sharp.

Beware that you don’t hurt anyone with the sharp end of the fiber and take care that the
clippings of the fiber end in garbage can.

3. When the cladding is removed fiber has to be cleaned. Before cleaning you still have to thread a
heat-shrinkable jacket in the fiber. Water the cleaning cloth in a cleaning solution and wipe the
end of the fiber a few times. Fiber has to be as clean as possible because even the smallest
amount of dirt increases the attenuation of splice significantly.
4. To get better splices, the end of the fiber has to be finished with a staple cutter before splicing.
In the cutter there are numbers from one to three that guide you to use the cutter. Ask assistant
for help if you need it. Notice that after finishing the end of the fiber it easily breaks again if you

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Experiment 1: The optical time domain reflectometry

handle it carelessly. If the end of the fiber is not prepared well enough the fusion splicer may
advice you to finish it again.
5. After finishing the fibers place them in the fusion splicer and begin the splicing. Ask an
assistant to advice you to place the fibers in the splicer properly. Make sure that you have
threaded a heat-shrinkable jacket in the fiber before splicing. When you have placed both fibers
in fusion splicer follow the instruction given in screen and perform the splicing. After splicing
find an attenuation of the splice from the screen and write it down in your measurement report.
You still have to heat the shrinkable jacket to protect the splice. When heating is done you can
move to part two of this exercise.

Measurement 2: Measuring fibers

1. We begin the part two by measuring the length of the spliced fiber. Connect fiber to the OTDR
with FC/PC connectors and find the graph from the screen of the OTDR. Every time you
connect fibers remember to clean the connectors well.
2. Locate the both ends of the fiber and try to find the splice from the graph of the OTDR. You can
adjust dB Scale and Distance Scale to get better view. To find the value of certain spot at the
screen use a Marker-function. After finding the splice and the both ends write down required
values to the measurement report. It is easier to get good measurement results if you use the
Average-function of the OTDR. A Delta-function may also help you to define the length of the
fiber.
3. To specify the attenuation of the fiber there is Delta-function in the OTDR. By the Delta-
function you can calculate the slope of the graph and so find the coefficient of attenuation. For
calculating the slope two points - x1 and x2 - are needed (Fig 4). First move a marker to point x1
and press the Delta-button and then do the same with the point x2. Then you can find the value
of the coefficient of attenuation from the screen (dB/km). Write it down to the measurement
report and answer questions concerning the part 2 of the measurements.

Measurement 3: Measuring variable attenuator

1. Connect the variable attenuator and the third fiber to the setup used in the part 2 (Fig 9). Always
remember to clean the connectors carefully when you are using optical fibers or components.
Use FC/PC connectors. Set the wave length of the OTDR to 1300 nm.
2. Set value 0 dB to the variable connector and adjust the screen so that you can locate the variable
connector and the third fiber from the graph of the OTDR. Experiment how different values of
attenuation affect the graph. At the end set the variable attenuator back to value 0 dB and
answer questions 3.1 and 3.2 in the measurement report.
3. Finally, we are going to measure the real attenuation of the variable attenuator with values 0, 2
and 4 dB. For measuring the attenuation of the component there is a Splice Loss-function in the
OTDR. You can use either manual or automatic calculation and you can switch between those
two options by pressing Splice Loss-button 5 seconds. Calculations are done as explained in
chapter 2.2. Ask an assistant for advice if necessary. After measuring attenuations answer the
question in measurement report and return it to your assistant.

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MEASUREMENT REPORT
Date:____________________
Group number:____________
Student IDs:_________,_________,_________,_________

Part 1 Splicing

1.1. Attenuation of splice: _____________________________________

1.2. Is that good value for an optical splice? Attenuation of connection

done by connectors is usually 0,5-1 dB and attenuation coefficient of
optical fiber 0,3 dB/km for example.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Part 2 Measuring fibers

2.1. Length (km):

Length of the spliced fiber: _____________________________________
Location of splice: ____________________________________________

2.2. Attenuation coefficient (dB/km):

Wave length:
1300 nm 1550 nm
Attenuation:

2.3. Why is the attenuation of the fiber different with different wavelengths?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

2.4. It may be difficult to find splice from the graph, but could the
connection done by connectors be located?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Part 3 Measuring variable attenuator

3.1. Is attenuator a reflective or a nonreflective component?

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

3.2. Does the variable attenuator create attenuation with value 0 dB?
Why?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

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Experiment 1: The optical time domain reflectometry

3.3. Attenuation of the variable attenuator:

Shown value Real attenuation (dB)

0 dB:
2 dB:
4 dB:

3.4. Is there something wrong in the scale of variable attenuator?

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

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