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MECHATRONICS:
It field of study that implies the synergistic integration of electronic engineering, electrical
engineering, control engineering and computer technology with mechanical engineering for the
design, manufacture, analyse and maintenance of a wide range of engineering products and
processes".
SYSTEM:
A system may be defined as a black box which has an input and an output. System
concerned only with the relationship between the input and output and not on the process going
inside the box.
MECHATRONIC SYSTEM:
Actuators: Solenoids, voice coils, D.C. motors, Stepper motors, Servomotor, hydraulics,
pneumatics.
Sensors: Switches, Potentiometer, Photoelectrics, Digital encoder, Strain gauge,
Thermocouple, accelerometer etc.
Input signal conditioning and interfacing: Discrete circuits, Amplifiers, Filters, A/D,
D/D.
Digital control architecture: Logic circuits, Microcontroller, SBC, PLC, Sequencing and
timing, Logic and arithmetic, Control algorithm, Communication.
Output signal conditioning and interfacing: D/A D/D, Amplifiers, PWM, Power
transistor, Power Op - amps.
Graphical displays: LEDs, Digital displays, LCD, CRT
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM:
A measurement system can be defined as a black box which is used for making
measurements. It has the input as the quantity being measured and the output as a measured
value of that quantity.
Example:
Sensor:
A sensor consists of transducer whose function is to convert the one form of energy into
electrical form of energy. A sensor is a sensing element of measurement system that converts
the input quantity being measured into an output signal which is related to the quantity
Example:
Temperature Sensor – Thermocouple
Input – Temperature
Output – E.M.F (Electrical Parameter).
Signal Conditioner:
A signal conditioner receives signal from the sensor and manipulates it into a suitable
condition for display. The signal conditioner performs filtering, amplification or other signal
conditioning on the sensor output.
Example:
Temperature measurement – Single Conditioner function (Amplifier)
Input – Small E.M.F value (From sensor)
Output – Big E.M.F Value (Amplified).
Display System:
A display system displays the data (output) from the signal conditioner by analog or
digital. A digital system is a temporary store such as recorder.
Example:
Display – L.E.D (or) Number on scale by pointer movement
Input – Conditioned Signal (from signal conditioner)
Output – Value of the quantity (Temperature)
CONTROL SYSTEM:
If there is no feedback device to compare the actual value with desired one.
No control over its input
If there is feedback device to compare the actual value with desired one.
EXAMPLES:
System of Controlling Room Temperature
Controlled Variable : Room temperature
Reference Variable : Required Room temperature (pre-set value)
Comparison Element : Person compares the measured value with required value
Error Signal : Different between the measured and required temperatures.
Control Unit : Person
Correction Unit : The switch on the fire
Process : Heating by the fire
Measuring Device : Thermometer.
SEQUENTIAL CONTROLLERS:
It is used to control the process that are strictly ordered in a time or sequence
AUTOMATIC CAMERA:
SENSORS
Transducers:
It is an element which is subjected to physical change experience a related change.
Example: Tactile Sensors.
Sensors:
It is an element which is not subjected to physical change experience a related change.
Example: LVDT
PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGY:
Static Characteristics:
Repeatability:
The repeatability and reproducibility of a transducer are its ability to give the same
output for repeated applications of the same input value.
Reliability:
The reliability of a system is defined as the possibility that it will perform its assigned
functions for a specific period of time under given conditions.
Stability:
MECHATRONICS NOTES by Ashok Kumar. R (AP/Mechanical) Page 13
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The stability of a transducer is its ability to give the same output when used to measure a
constant input over a period of time.
Drift:
The term drift is the change in output that occurs over time.
Dead band:
There will be no output for certain range of input values. This is known as dead band.
There will be no output until the input has reached a particular value.
Dead time:
It is the time required by a transducer to begin to respond to a change in input value.
Resolution:
Resolution is defined as the smallest increment in the measured value that can be
detected.
The resolution is the smallest change in the input value which will produce an observable
change in the input.
Backlash:
Backlash is defined as the maximum distance (or) angle through which any part of a
mechanical system can be moved in one direction without causing any motion of the
attached part.
Backlash is an undesirable phenomenon and is important in the precision design of gear
trains.
SELECTION OF DISPLACEMENT, POSITION & PROXIMITY SENSOR:
CAPACITIVE SENSORS:
It is used for measuring, displacement, velocity, force etc..
Principle:
It is passive type sensors in which equal and opposite charges are generated on the plates
due to voltage applied across the plate which is separated by dielectric material.
Formula:
PROXIMITY SENSORS
Proximity sensors are non – contact type sensor.
Types of Proximity Sensor:
Eddy current proximity sensor
Inductive proximity sensor
PROXIMITY SWITCHES:
It is used in robotics for sensing elements
It is also used in NC machines, material handling systems and assembly lines.
Micro switch
Reed switch
Photo sensitive switch
Mechanical switch
Micro Switch:
It consists three components light source, coded disk and photo detector
The disk is made up of plastic or glass.
The disk consists of opaque and transparent segment alternatively.
The wheel is between light and photo detector.
The photo detector receives the light signal alternatively which is converted into
electrical signal.
ABSOLUTE ENCODERS
PRINCIPLE:
The principle of operation is that they provide a unique output corresponds to each
rotational position of the shaft.
The output is in the form of binary numbers representing the angular position.
Principle:
When a current carrying semiconductor plate is placed in a transverse magnetic field, it
experiences a force (Lorentz force). Due to this action a beam of charged particles are
forced to get displaced from its straight path. This is known as Hall Effect.
FLUID SENSORS
FLUID PRESSURE SENSORS:
Diaphragm Type:
In the diaphragm type sensor, when there is a difference in pressure between the two
sides then the centre of the diaphragm becomes displaced.
Corrugations in the diaphragm result in a greater sensitivity.
This movement can be monitored by some form of displacement sensor, e.g: a strain
gauge.
A specially designed strain gauge is often used, consisting of four strain gauges with two
measuring the strain in a circumferential direction while two measure strains in a radial
direction
The four strain gauges are then connected to form the arm of a Wheatstone bridge.
While strain gauges can be stuck on a diaphragm, an alternative is to create a silicon
diaphragm with the strain gauges as specially doped areas of the diaphragm.
Piezoelectric Sensors:
Piezoelectric materials when stretched or compressed generate electric charges with one
face of the managerial becoming positively charged and the opposite face negatively
charged.
Tactile Sensor:
It is used on fingertips of robot hands and for touch display screen
It uses piezoelectric polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) film
Two layers are separated by sift film
The lower PVDF film has an alternating voltage applied to it results in mechanical
oscillations
Intermediate film transmits the vibration to upper film
Orifice Plate:
It is a simple disc with a central hole and it is placed in the tube through which the fluid
flows.
The pressure difference measured between a point equal to the diameter of the tube
upstream and half the diameter of downstream.
The accuracy of this instrument is ±1.5%.
Float System:
In this method the level of liquid is measured by movement of a float.
The movement of float rotates the arm and slider will move across a potentiometer.
The output result is related to the height of the liquid.
TEMPERATURE SENSORS:
Bimetallic Strips:
A Bimetallic thermostat consists of two different metal strips bounded together and they
cannot move relative to each other.
These metals have different coefficients of expansion and when the temperature changes
the composite strips bends into a curved strip, with the higher coefficient metal on the
outside of the curve.
The basic principle in this is all metals try to change their physical dimensions at
different rates when subjected to same change in temperature.
This deformation may be used as a temperature- controlled switch, as in the simple
thermostat.
The Resistance temperature detectors are simple and resistive elements in the form of
coils of wire
The equation which is used to find the linear relationship in RTD is
Thermistors:
Thermistor is a semiconductor device that has a negative temperature coefficient of
resistance in contrast to positive coefficient displayed by most metals.
Thermistors are small pieces of material made from mixtures of metal oxides, such as
Iron, cobalt, chromium, Nickel, and Manganese.
The shape of the materials is in terms of discs, beads and rods.
The thermistor is an extremely sensitive device because its resistance changes rapidly
with temperature.
The resistance of conventional metal-oxide thermistors decreases in a very non-linear
manner with an increase in temperature.
The change in resistance per degree change in temperature is considerably larger than
that which occurs with metals.
The resistance-temperature relationship for a thermistor can be described by an equation
of the form
Rt = Keβ/t
Where Rt, is the resistance at temperature t, with K and β being constant. Thermistors
have many advantages when compared with other temperature sensors.
The simple series circuit for measurement of temperature using a thermistor and the
variation of resistance with temperature for a typical thermistor.
The thermistor is an extremely sensitive device because its resistance changes rapidly
with temperature.
Thermocouples:
Thermocouples are based on the See back Effect.
The thermocouple temperature measurement is based on a creation of an electromotive
force (emf).
PROBLEMS:
1) Derive a differential equation for the system shown in figure. The
input ’x’
The proportional mode, the size of the controller output is proportional to the size of the
error.
Change in controller output = Kp
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% Change in controller output from set point = Kp * % change in error
K = 100 / Proportional Band
Change in Output (s) = Kp * E(s)
Transformer function = Change in Output (s) / E(s)
Electronic Proportional Controller:
Iout – IO = KD
Iout = KP e + KD + I0
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Iout = KP e + KI ∫ + IO
Transfer Function = Kp +
= (S + )
Combinations of Modes:
Proportional plus derivative modes (PD), proportional plus integral modes (PI),
proportional plus integral plus derivative modes (PID).
The term three – term controller is used for PID control.
DIGITAL CONTROLLERS:
The tern digital control is used when the digital controller, basically a microprocessor is
in control of the closed-loop control system.
The controller receives inputs from sensors, executes control programs and provides the
output to the correction elements.
The controllers require inputs which are digital, process the information in digital form
and give an output in digital form.
Since many control systems have analogue measurements an analogue-to-digital
converter (ADC) is used forth inputs.
A clock supplies a pulse at regular time intervals and dictates when samples of the
controlled variable are taken by the ADC.
The samples are then converted to digital signals which are compared by the
microprocessor with the set point value to give the error signal.
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The microprocessor can then initiate a control mode to process the error signal and give a
digital output.
The control mode used by the microprocessor is determined by the program of
instruction used by the microprocessor for processing the digital signals, i.e., the
software.
The digital output, generally after processing by a digital-to-analogue converter since
correcting elements generally require analogue signals can be used to initiate the
correcting action
ADAPTIVE CONTROL:
An adaptive control system which 'adapts' to changes and changes its parameters to fit
the circumstances prevailing.
The adaptive control system is based on the use of a microprocessor as the controller.
Such a device enables the control mode and the control parameters used to be adapted to
fit the circumstances, modifying them as the circumstances change.
Stages of Adaptive Control System:
An adaptive control system can be considered to have three stages of operation.
Starts to operate with controller conditions set on the basis of an assumed condition.
The desired performance is continuously compared with the actual system performance.
The control system mode and parameters are automatically and continuously adjusted in
order to minimise the difference between the desired and actual system performance.
Forms of Adaptive Control System:
Adaptive control systems can take a number of forms. Three commonly used forms are:
Gain-scheduled control
Self – tuning
Model-reference adaptive systems
Self – Tuning:
With self-tuning control the system continuously tunes its own parameters based on
monitoring the variable that the system is controlling and the output from the controller.
Self-tuning is often found in commercial PID controller, it generally then being referred
to as auto-tuning.
When the operator presses a button, the controller injects a small disturbance into the
system and measures the response.
Response is compared to the desired response and the control parameters adjusted, by
modified Ziegler-Nichol rule, to bring the actual response closer to the desired response.
Processor:
It is the heart of PLC
Volatile Memory:
Volatile memory or temporary memory or Application memory is the user memory,
where the user can enter and edit the program.
Volatile memory will lose all its programmed contents if operating power is removed or
lost.
Therefore, necessary to provide a battery backup power to all times.
Non Volatile Memory:
Non-volatile memory or permanent memory or system memory is (used) a system
memory that stores the monitor a booting programs, lookup tables etc.,
This usually programmed and supplied by the manufacturer.
This controls the operation of PLC.
It does not lose its content during power failure.
It does not require any battery.
The ROM memory offers the CPU to use only fixed amount of data.
The Different Types of ROMS are
Mask programmed ROM
PROM
EPROM
EEPROM
Mask Programmed ROM:
It is a special type of ROM which is programmed during manufacturing.
The programmed content stored by this type of ROM memory cannot be altered.
PROM:
PROM stands for programmable Read only memory.
It is a special type of ROM usually programed by manufacturer during manufacturing.
It has the disadvantage of requiring special programming device and once programmed
cannot be erased or altered.
EPROM:
EPROM stands for electrically programmable Read only Memory.
Here, the user programs electrically.
Address Bus:
The Address bus contains 16, 20, 24 or 32 parallel signal lines to carry the Address of the
memory locations for accessing stored data.
Every memory location is given a distinct unique address to locate easily and accessed
by the CPU either to read or write data.
Control Bus:
The Control bus contains 4 to 10 parallel signal lines to carry the signals used by the
CPU that are related to internal Control actions. Typical control bus signals are Memory
read Memory write, I/O Read and I/O write.
I/O System Bus:
The I/O system bus provide the communication between the I/O ports and I/O units
Input / Output Unit:
The I/O units provide the interface between the system and the outside world, allowing
for connections to be made through I/O channels to input / output devices.
Programs are entered from a program panel through I/O unit.
INPUT / OUTPUT PROCESSING:
The sourcing and sinking are used to describe the way in which DC devices are connected
to PLC
Sourcing:
If a switch is connected to the positive of the battery and current flows from positive to
negative, it is said to be the sourcing the current. So, the input device receives current
from the input module.
For the PLC, input unit, hence input module is the source of the current. For the PLC
output unit, output module is the source of current as it supplies current to the output
devices. Sourcing output units for interfacing with solenoids.
Sinking:
Here, the input device supplies current to the input module. For the PLC input unit,
hence the input module is the sink for the current. Sinking input units are used for
interfacing with electronic equipment.
So, if a switch is connected to the negative of the battery and current flows from positive
to negative, by conventional current flow direction, it is said to be the sinking for
Current. For the PLC output unit, the current flows from output device to the output
module then the output module is the sink for current.
Continuous Updating:
The sequence followed thus in continuous updating is as follows:
Fetch and decode the first program instruction
Scan there relevant inputs
Fetch and decode the second program instruction
Scan the relevant inputs etc. For the remaining program instructions
Update outputs
Report the entire sequence.
Mass Input / Output Copying:
The sequence followed in Mass I/O copying is thus:
Scan all the inputs and copy into RAM
Fetch and decode and execute all the program instructions in sequence
Copy all the output instructions to RAM
Update all outputs.
Repeat the sequence
PLC LOGIC:
Instruction Code Mnemonics:
OR Logic Function:
OR logic circuit represents the parallel circuit.
OR Gate is composed of two or more inputs and one output.
OR operation is like addition of binary numbers.
OR gate produce output when any one input are HIGH state.
When both the inputs are at LOW state the output will be at LOW state
When both the inputs are at HIGH state the output will be at LOW state
When any one input is HIGH state the output will be at HIGH state
Latching:
It is necessary to hold an output coil energized, even when the input ceases
The term latch is used for the circuit used to carry out such an operation.
Latch circuit is a self – maintaining circuit that maintains its output in an energized state
until the next input is updated
A timer is a special counter ladder function that allows the PLC to perform timing
operations based on a precise internal clock.
Types of Timers:
Delay ON Timers or ON delay timers
Delay OFF Timers or OFF delay timers
Pulse Timers
Cascaded Timers
ON-OFF Cycle Timers
One Shot Timers
Delay ON Timers:
The term delay is used to indicate that this timer burns on, after waiting for a fixed time
delay period.
When there is an input, the timer is energised and starts timing, after some pre-set value,
the timer contacts are closed to output.
TON is used to denote ON-delay.
OFF delay timers are maintained as ON for a fixed time of delay period before turning
off.
TOF is used to denote OFF-delay.
Pulse Timers:
Pulse timer switches is another type of Timer which comes either ON or OFF for a fixed
period of time as a function of pulses.
TP is used to denote Pulse Timers
Cascaded Timers:
Timers producing an output for some period and no output for some period and an output
for some period.
The timer is designed to switch an output for T sec and off for another T second
One shot timers produces an output for a fixed length of some initiation input.
INTERNAL RELAY:
An internal relay behaves like relays with their associated contacts, buy they are not
actual relays whose simulations are controlled by the PLC software.
Internal relays can be very useful in the implementation of switching sequences.
They are often used when there are programs with multiple input conditions.
They are also known as Auxiliary relays or markers.
COUNTERS:
Types of Counters:
Up Counters
Down Counters
Up Counters:
Down Counters:
Down counters count down from the pre – set value to zero
The events are subtracted until the pre – set value is reached
When the counter reaches the Zero value, its contacts change state
A shift register is an electronic storage device that allows the stored bits of one relay
to get shifted into another relay.
DATA HANDLING:
Program:
LD X400
MOV
D1
D2
> or GRT
< or LEQ
≠ or <> or NEQ
> or GEQ
For data comparison the typical instruction will contain the data transfer instruction to
compare the data from source address and designation address
SELECTION OF PLCS
The selection process of PLC for a particular task depends on the following factors.
Preparation of a Specification:
The second stage of the mechatronic process involves in the preparation of a
specification
The specification must be given to understand the requirements and the functions to be
met.
The specification gives mass dimensions, types, accuracy, power requirements, load,
praying environments, velocity, speed, life etc.
Conceptualization:
The possible solution should be generated for each of the functions required
It is generated by verifying the old problems or some newly developed techniques may
be used
Optimization:
This stage involves in a selection of a best solution for the problem
Optimization is defined as a technique in which a best solution is selected among a
group of solutions to solve a problem.
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The various possible solutions are evaluated and the most suitable solution is selected.
Detail Design:
Once optimizing a solution is completed, the detail design of that solution is developed.
This may require a production of prototype etc.
Mechanical layout is to be made whether physically all component can be
accommodated.
Also whether components are accessible for replacement / maintenance are to be
checked.
Mechatronics Approach:
The mechatronics approach uses a stepper motor with microprocessor for controlling it.
The input to the stepper is required to cause it to rotate a number of steps in one direction
and then reverse to rotate the same number of steps in other direction.
Transistors are used as a switch for controlling the stepper motor.
To start and rotate the motor, the coils of the stepper motor are to be energised in a
proper sequence. Stepper motor can be operated in two configurations.
Full step Configuration
Half step Configuration
CASE STUDIES IN MECHATRONIC SYSTEMS:
A Pick and Place Robot:
The robot has three axes and about these three axes only motion occurs.
The following movements are required for this robot
Clockwise and Anti-clockwise rotation of the robot unit on its base
Horizontal Linear movement of the arm to extend or contraction
Up and down movement of the arm and
Open or close movement of the gripper
The above movements are accomplished by the use of pneumatic cylinders operated by
solenoid controlled values with limit switches.
The limit switches are used to indicate when a motion is completed.
The clockwise rotation of the robot unit can be obtained from a piston and cylinder
arrangement during its extension and that of counter clockwise during its retraction.
The upward and downward movement of the arm can be obtained from a piston and
cylinder arrangement during the extension and retraction of a piston respectively.
Similarly, the gripper can be opened or closed by the piston in a linear cylinder during its
extension.
The micro controller used to control the solenoid values and hence the movements of the
robot unit.
The type of microcontroller used in M68C11.
A software program is used to control the robot.
Eight C port lies PC0 – PC7, are used to sense the position of eight separate limit switches
used for eight different robotic movements.
Also one line from port D is used to start or stop the robot operation.
The switch in its one position will provide +5V (a logic high signal), to the
corresponding port lines and the switch in another position will provide 0V (a logic low
signal), to the port lines.
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So the two positions of a switch will provide either a logic high or logic low to the
corresponding PC0 – PC7, and PD, lines.
Eight part B lines (PB0 – PB7) are used to control eight different movement. These are
Base CW, Base CEW, Arm extends, Arm retract, Arm up, Arm down Gripper close and
Gripper open of the robot.
PB0, is connected to the Triac optoisolator through a resistor.
When the current flows through solenoid B, the piston in the cylinder moves downward
end causes the barrier to get down.
Limit switches are used to detect when the barrier is down and also when fully up.
This control can be controlled by PLC
Program:
LD X400
OR Y430
ANI M100
ANI Y431
OUT Y430
LD X401
OUT T450
K 10
LD T450
OUT M100
LD M100
OR Y431
ANI X402
ANI Y430
OUT Y431
LD X403
OR Y432
ANI M101
ANI Y433
OUT Y432
LD X404
OUT T451
K 10
LD T45 1
OUT M101
LD M101
OR Y433
ANI X405
ANI Y432
OUT Y433
END
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Assume a 10 sec delay for the car is to come inside the barrier and to go outside the
barrier.
These time delays provided by T450 and T451 energising their Internal relays
respectively.
Engine Management System:
Engine management system is now-a-days, used in many of the modem cars
This car includes many electronic control systems such as microcontrollers for the
control of various engine factors.
The main objective of the system is to ensure that the engine is operated at its optimum
settings.
The engine management system of a car is responsible for managing the ignition and
fuelling requirements of the engine.
The power and speed of the engine are controlled by varying the ignition timing and the
Air fue1 mixture.
In modern cars, this is done by microprocessor.
To control the ignition delay, the crank shaft drives a distribution which makes electrical
contacts for each spark plug in turn and a timing wheel.
This timing wheel generates pulses - to indicate the crankshaft position.
The microprocessor then adjusts the timing at which high voltage pulses are sent to the
distributor so that they occur at right moments of time.
To control the amount of air-fuel mixture entering into a cylinder during the suction
stroke, the microprocessor varies the time for which a solenoid is activated to the inlet
valve on the basis of inputs received by the engine temperature and the throttle position.
The amount of fuel to be injected into the air stream can be determined on input from a
sensor of the mass rate of air, or computed from other measurements.
The microprocessor then gives as output to control of fuel inject valve.
The system hence consists of number of sensor for observing vehicle speed, Engine
temperature, oil and fuel pressure, air flow etc.,
These sensors supplies input signals to the microprocessor after suitable signal
conditioning and provides output signals via drivers to actuate corresponding actuators.
Collaboration:
The final element to be evaluated in the robot's overall capabilities is collaboration
among teams of robots.
Multiple robots, either homogeneous or heterogeneous in design and capabilities, should
be able to more quickly explore the area.
The issues to be examined are how effectively they maximize coverage given multiple
robots, whether redundancy is an advantage, and whether or how they communicate
among themselves to assign responsibilities.
The human may make the decisions about assignments for each robot a priority, but that
would not be as desirable as seeing the robots jointly decide how to attack the problem
when confronted in the field.
MECHATRONICS APPLICATIONS: