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International Relations vs. Comparative Politics
International Relations vs. Comparative Politics
Madison defines factions as groups of people who gather together to protect and
promote their special economic interests and public opinions. Although these factions
are at odds with each other, they frequently work against the public interest, and infringe
upon the rights of others. J. Madison argues that the greatest vice of popular
government is its vulnerability to problems caused by factions who occasionally
undermine the rights of other citizens or the good of the whole. People are diverse by
nature, possessing different opinions, abilities, and resources. Because of this, they
generally have different interests at heart, interests which they will support, often at the
expense of others, if they are given the freedom to do so. Thus, human nature is prone
towards faction. When a faction gains of political power it is likely to: pursue its own
interest zealously, trample the rights of others and govern without concern for the
“public good”. There are two ways, Madison argues to eliminate this problem. First, the
causes of faction may be eliminated, or second, its effects may be controlled. There are
two ways of eliminating causes of faction: liberty which allows factions to form may be
eliminated, or people may be given identical interests, passions, and opinions. The
second, because of the diversity of human nature, is completely impossible. Therefore,
Madison concluded that factions arise out of human nature, and are rooted in human
liberty and the unequal distribution of property. So any attempt to eliminate them was
doomed to fail. “Liberty is to faction what air is to fire” – the inference to which we are
brought is, that the causes of faction cannot be removed, and that relief is only to be
sought in the means of controlling its effects.
What is the role of factions in the democratic state or society? Pure democracies are
always spectacles of turbulence and contention. Since the causes of factions are
impossible to remove, the only solution to the problems caused by faction is in
controlling its effects. In a pure democracy, a minority faction poses a little threat
because it can be easily outvoted and suppressed. A majority faction, however, through
popular vote, has the power to completely control the government. Therefore,
modifications must be made to democratic government to keep the majority from
oppressing minority groups or acting against the good of nation. James Madison
created a sort of argument in federalist paper no.10 in which the smaller the society, the
fewer the distinct parties and interests, and the more frequently they will be a majority.
The smaller the number of individuals composing a majority and the smaller area they
inhabit, the more easily will they combine and execute their plans of oppression.
Consequently, Madison stated that “according to the degree of pleasure and pride we
feel in being the Republicans, ought to be our zeal in cherishing the spirit and
supporting the character of Federalists.”
o Traditional society believes in the strict adherence to the scriptural directions. It believed
seriously in the following of the directions as enjoined in the Bible or Quran or Vedas.
Modern society tends to relax the following of the strict directions enjoined in the
respective scriptures for lack of time and such other reasons.
o Traditional society has a lot of time at their disposal to perform its duties as prescribed
in the texts of the past. Modern society does not have a lot of time at their disposal to
perform its duties as prescribed in the olden texts. This is a major difference between
the two terms.
o Traditional society does not believe in the application of technology and science to a
great extent and hence, it tends to rely more on traditional methods of science and
medicine. On the other hand, the modern society revels in making the best use of the
technology available to it. It also makes use of the advancements made in medicine and
science to a great extent.
o Traditional society attaches more importance to the cultural and philosophical values of
the land. On the other hand, modern society does not pay much importance to the
cultural and the philosophical values of the land of its existence. Instead, it allows itself
to be influenced greatly by the cultures of the other lands.
o Traditional society believes in the joint family system of living. On the other hand,
modern society believes in the individual family system of living. Traditional society does
not believe in making use of the latest fashion in clothes and other accessories. On the
other hand modern society believes in making the best use of the latest fashion in attire
and other accessories.
Consequently, human history can be described as a process of social evolution. Just as
biological evolution is development of simpler forms of life into more complex and highly
organized forms of life. Social evolution is a process of growth of complexity and
differentiation of social organization.
RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY
Rational Choice Theory is an economic principle that assumes that individuals always
make prudent and logical decisions that provide them with the greatest benefit or
satisfaction and that are in the highest self-interest. Most mainstream economic
assumptions and theories are based on rational choice theory. RTC argues that self-
interests guide all behaviours, which involves conducting a cost benefit analysis.
Individuals weigh the cost along with the benefits and then decide to pursue something
if the benefits outweigh the costs. If we assume that everyone basis their actions on
self-interest we have to come to terms with situations involving actions that are not
beneficial and this depends on the quality of information one has been able to accrue.
Therefore, what is the nature of the Rational Choice Theory?
RATIONALITY, here equated with “wanting more rather than less of a good” is
widely used as an assumption of the behaviour of individuals in the microeconomic
model and analysis and appears in almost all economic textbook treatments of human
decision-making. Dissenters have pointed out that individuals do not always make
rational, utility-maximizing decisions whereas; RTC is a framework for understanding
and often formally modelling social and economic behaviour. There are 3 basic
principles of the said theory namely: human beings base their actions on rational
calculation, they act with rationality when making choices, and their choices are aimed
at optimization of their pleasure or profit. How does it form? It is formed as an
ideological development accompanied at the end of the Cold War, the attempt to apply
neo-classical theory model of a market to politics, maximizes utility and profits as to
minimize outlay and lastly, based on the laissez faire principle. According to Chalmers
Johnson, rational choice approach leads people to think they know what others want
and there is no place for ideology and culture. It was further criticized for ignoring
traditions and norms of communities and collectivities by paying attention solely to the
self-interest of individuals, even though collective norms are fundamental social factors
in these still traditional societies. Thus, it was criticized for paucity of empirical
application as critics claim that less attention is paid to the individuals and real-world
political events. As a result, BATES sparked the debate between area studies and RTC.
According to him, area studies have failed to generate scientific knowledge as RTC fails
to illuminate anything of genuine significance and avoid the complexities of real world.
Consequently, rational choice theory has its benefits in the study of
comparative politics (though there are few criticisms) such as neither neoclassical
economics nor RCT provides a mechanical alternative to genuine social science
analysis, i.e what political science but no other discipline of the social sciences calls
area studies. Secondly, it leads directly to genuine area studies since it requires that for
a researcher to break free of his or her own culture, he or she must immerse “oneself in
one’s subject, learning the language, living with the people, and getting to understand
the society so thoroughly as a participant that it problematizes one’s place as an
objective observer”. Finally, rational choice theory creates the whole pattern as area
studies discerns the pattern (interrelated) and therefore, the collaborative study will give
more profits to science and create more objective point of view and one should
understand that the study of the cultural dimension should be present in science,
because human beings are influenced by culture and the conditions in which they exist.