Limits and An Introduction To Calculus

Limits and an Introduction
11 to Calculus
6
11.1 Introduction to Limits
11.2 Techniques for Evaluating Limits
11.3 The Tangent Line Problem
11.4 Limits at Infinity and Limits of Sequences
11.5 The Area Problem
0 100,000
0
Section 11.4, Example 3

Average Cost
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749
750 Chapter 11 Limits and an Introduction to Calculus
11.1 Introduction to Limits
The Limit Concept What you should learn

● Understand the limit concept.
The notion of a limit is a fundamental concept of calculus. In this chapter, you will learn
● Use the definition of a limit to
how to evaluate limits and how they are used in the two basic problems of calculus: the
estimate limits.
tangent line problem and the area problem.
● Determine whether limits of
functions exist.
Example 1 Finding a Rectangle of Maximum Area ● Use properties of limits and
direct substitution to evaluate
You are given 24 inches of wire and are asked to form a rectangle whose area is as large
limits.
as possible. What dimensions should the rectangle have?
Why you should learn it
Solution
The concept of a limit is useful in
Let w represent the width of the rectangle and let l represent the length of the rectangle. applications involving maximization.
Because For instance, in Exercise 5 on page
2w 2l 24 Perimeter is 24. 757, the concept of a limit is used to
verify the maximum volume of an
it follows that open box.
l 12 w
as shown in Figure 11.1. So, the area of the rectangle is
A lw Formula for area
共12 w兲w Substitute 12 w for l.
12w w 2. Simplify.
l = 12 − w
Figure 11.1
Using this model for area, you can experiment with different values of w to see how to
obtain the maximum area. After trying several values, it appears that the maximum area
occurs when
w6
as shown in the table.
Width, w 5.0 5.5 5.9 6.0 6.1 6.5 7.0

Area, A 35.00 35.75 35.99 36.00 35.99 35.75 35.00
In limit terminology, you can say that “the limit of A as w approaches 6 is 36.” This is
written as
lim A lim 共12w w2兲 36.
w→6 w→6
Now try Exercise 5.

cristovao 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
Section 11.1 Introduction to Limits 751
Definition of Limit
Definition of Limit
If f 共x兲 becomes arbitrarily close to a unique number L as x approaches c from
either side, then the limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches c is L. This is written as
lim f 共x兲 L.
x→c
Example 2 Estimating a Limit Numerically

Use a table to estimate the limit numerically.
lim 共3x 2兲
x→2
y
Solution
5
Let f 共x兲 3x 2. Then construct a table that shows values of f 共x兲 for two sets of
4 (2, 4)
x-values—one set that approaches 2 from the left and one that approaches 2 from the
right. 3
1 f(x) = 3x − 2
x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2.0 2.001 2.01 2.1
x
f 共x兲 3.700 3.970 3.997 ? 4.003 4.030 4.300 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2
From the table, it appears that the closer x gets to 2, the closer f 共x兲 gets to 4. So, you
can estimate the limit to be 4. Figure 11.2 adds further support to this conclusion. Figure 11.2
Now try Exercise 7.
In Figure 11.2, note that the graph of

f 共x兲 3x 2
is continuous. For graphs that are not continuous, finding a limit can be more difficult.
Example 3 Estimating a Limit Numerically

Use a table to estimate the limit numerically.
x
lim lim f(x) = 2
x→ 0 冪x 1 1 x→ 0
y
Solution f(x) =
x
5
Let f 共x兲 x兾共冪x 1 1兲. Then construct a table that shows values of f 共x兲 for two (0, 2) x+1−1
sets of x-values—one set that approaches 0 from the left and one that approaches 0 from 4
the right. 3
x 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0 0.0001 0.001 0.01 f is undefined

1
at x = 0.
f 共x兲 1.99499 1.99949 1.99995 ? 2.00005 2.00050 2.00499 x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1
From the table, it appears that the limit is 2. This limit is reinforced by the graph of f
(see Figure 11.3). Figure 11.3
Now try Exercise 9.

In Example 3, note that f 共x兲 has a limit as x → 0 even though the function is not
defined at x 0. This often happens, and it is important to realize that the existence or
nonexistence of f 共x兲 at x c has no bearing on the existence of the limit of f 共x兲 as x
approaches c.
Example 4 Using a Graphing Utility to Estimate a Limit

Estimate the limit.
x3 x 2 x 1
lim
x→1 x1
Numerical Solution Graphical Solution

Let f 共x兲共x3 x2 x 1兲兾共x 1兲. Use a graphing utility to graph
Create a table that shows values

f 共x兲共x3 x2 x 1兲兾共x 1兲
of f(x) for several x-values near 1. using a decimal setting, as shown in Figure 11.5.
5.1 Use the trace feature to

determine that as x gets
closer and closer to 1, f(x)
gets closer and closer to 2
from the left and from
−4.7 4.7
the right.
Figure 11.4
−1.1
From Figure 11.4, it appears that the closer x gets to 1, Figure 11.5
the closer f 共x兲 gets to 2. So, you can estimate the limit
to be 2. From Figure 11.5, you can estimate the limit to be 2. As you use the
trace feature, notice that there is no value given for y when x 1,
and that there is a hole or break in the graph at x 1.
Now try Exercise 15.
Example 5 Using a Graph to Find a Limit Some students may come to think that a
limit is a quantity that can be approached
Find the limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches 3, where f is defined as but cannot actually be reached, as shown in
Example 4. Remind them that some limits
x3
冦0,
2,
f 共x兲 . are like that, but, as Example 2 shows, many
x3 are not.
Solution
Because f 共x兲 2 for all x other than x 3 and y
because the value of f 共3兲 is immaterial, it follows 2, x ≠ 3

4
that the limit is 2 (see Figure 11.6). So, you can f(x) =
0, x = 3
write 3
lim f 共x兲 2.
x→3
The fact that f 共3兲 0 has no bearing on the 1

existence or value of the limit as x approaches 3.
x
For instance, if the function were defined as −1 1 2 3 4
冦2,4, x3 −1
f 共x兲
x3
Figure 11.6
then the limit as x approaches 3 would be the same.
Limits That Fail to Exist

In the next three examples, you will examine some limits that fail to exist. What’s Wrong?
You use a graphing utility to
Example 6 Comparing Left and Right Behavior graph
Show that the limit does not exist. x3 1

y1
x1
lim ⱍxⱍ
x→ 0 x using a decimal setting, as
shown in the figure. You use the
Solution trace feature to conclude that
y
Consider the graph of the function given the limit
ⱍⱍ
by f 共x兲 x 兾x. In Figure 11.7, you can 2
f(x) =
⏐x⏐
x
lim
x3 1
see that for positive x-values x→1 x 1
ⱍxⱍ 1, x > 0
1
does not exist. What’s wrong?
x f(x) = 1
x
and for negative x-values −2 −1 1 2 5.1
ⱍxⱍ 1, x < 0. f(x) = − 1

x
−2
This means that no matter how close x −4.7 4.7
gets to 0, there will be both positive and
−1.1
negative x-values that yield Figure 11.7
f 共x兲 1
and
f 共x兲 1.
This implies that the limit does not exist.
Consider reinforcing the nonexistence of the
limits in Examples 6 and 7 by constructing
Example 7 Unbounded Behavior and examining a table of values. Encourage
students to investigate limits using a variety
Discuss the existence of the limit.
of approaches.
1
lim
x→ 0 x2
Solution
y
Let f 共x兲 1兾x 2. In Figure 11.8, note that as x approaches 0 from either the right or the
left, f 共x兲 increases without bound. This means that by choosing x close enough to 0, you
can force f 共x兲 to be as large as you want. For instance, f 共x兲 will be larger than 100 when f(x) = 12
1
you choose x that is within 10 of 0. That is, x
3
1 1
0 < x <ⱍⱍ 10
f 共x兲
x2
> 100.
2
Similarly, you can force f 共x兲 to be larger than 1,000,000, as follows. 1
1 1 x
0 < x <ⱍⱍ 1000
f 共x兲
x2
> 1,000,000 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3
Because f 共x兲 is not approaching a unique real number L as x approaches 0, you can Figure 11.8
conclude that the limit does not exist.
Example 8 Oscillating Behavior

Discuss the existence of the limit. Technology Tip
1 When using a graphing
lim sin
x→ 0 x utility to investigate the
behavior of a function
Solution near the x-value at which you
Let f 共x兲 sin共1兾x兲. In Figure 11.9, you can see that as x approaches 0, f 共x兲 oscillates are trying to evaluate a limit,
between 1 and 1. remember that you cannot
always trust the graphs that the
y
graphing utility displays. For
f(x) = sin 1
x instance, consider the incorrect
1 graph shown in Figure 11.10.
The graphing utility can’t show
the correct graph because
f 共x兲 sin共1兾x兲 has infinitely
x many oscillations over any
−1 1
interval that contains 0.
−1
f(x) = sin 1
1.2 x
Figure 11.9
So, the limit does not exist because no matter how close you are to 0, it is possible to
−0.25 0.25
choose values of x1 and x 2 such that
1 1
sin 1 and sin 1
x1 x2 −1.2
as indicated in the table. Figure 11.10
2 2 2 2 2 2
x x→0
3 5 7 9 11
1 Limit does
sin 1 1 1 1 1 1
x not exist.
Examples 6, 7, and 8 show three of the most common types of behavior associated
with the nonexistence of a limit.
Conditions Under Which Limits Do Not Exist

The limit of f 共x兲 as x → c does not exist under any of the following conditions.
1. f 共x兲 approaches a different number from the right Example 6
side of c than it approaches from the left side of c.
2. f 共x兲 increases or decreases without bound as Example 7
x approaches c.
3. f 共x兲 oscillates between two fixed values as Example 8
x approaches c.
Properties of Limits and Direct Substitution

You have seen that sometimes the limit of f 共x兲 as x → c is simply f 共c兲. In such cases, it Explore the Concept
is said that the limit can be evaluated by direct substitution. That is,
Use a graphing utility
lim f 共x兲 f 共c兲.
x→c
Substitute c for x. to graph the tangent
function. What are
There are many “well-behaved” functions, such as polynomial functions and rational
lim tan x and lim tan x?
functions with nonzero denominators, that have this property. Some of the basic ones x→ 0 x→ 兾4
are included in the following list. What can you say about the
existence of the limit
lim tan x?
Basic Limits x→ 兾2
Let b and c be real numbers and let n be a positive integer.

lim b b
1. x→c
lim x c
2. x→c
lim x n c n
3. x→c (See the proof on page 804.)
4. x→c
lim 冪
n x 冪
n
c, for n even and c > 0
Trigonometric functions can also be included in this list.

For instance,
lim sin x sin 0 and
x→
lim cos x cos 0 1.
x→ 0
By combining the basic limits with the following operations,

you can find limits for a wide variety of functions.
Properties of Limits
Let b and c be real numbers, let n be a positive integer, and let f and g
be functions with the following limits.
lim f 共 x兲 L
x→c
and lim g共 x兲 K
x→c
1. Scalar multiple: lim 关b f 共x兲兴 bL

x→c
2. Sum or difference: lim 关 f 共x兲 ± g共x兲兴 L ± K

x→c
3. Product: lim 关 f 共x兲 g共x兲兴 LK

x→c
f 共x兲 L
4. Quotient: lim , provided K 0
x→c g共x兲 K
5. Power: lim 关 f 共x兲兴n Ln
x→c
Additional Example
Let lim f 共x兲 7 and lim g 共x兲 12.
x→3 x→3
a. lim 关f 共x兲 g共x兲兴 5
x→3
b. lim 关f 共x兲g共x兲兴 84
Technology Tip x→3
c. lim 关g共x兲兴1兾2 2冪3
x→3
When evaluating limits, remember that there are several ways to solve
most problems. Often, a problem can be solved numerically, graphically,
or algebraically. You can use a graphing utility to confirm the limits in
the examples and in the exercise set numerically using the table feature or
graphically using the zoom and trace features.
Aldo Murillo/iStockphoto.com
Example 9 Direct Substitution and Properties of Limits
a. lim x 2 共4兲2 16 Direct Substitution

Explore the Concept
x→ 4
Sketch the graph of
b. lim 5x 5 lim x 5共4兲 20 Scalar Multiple Property
x→4 x→4 each function. Then
lim tan x find the limits of each
tan x x→ 0
c. lim 0 Quotient Property function as x approaches 1
x→ x lim x
x→
and as x approaches 2. What
conclusions can you make?
d. lim 冪x 冪9 3 Direct Substitution
x→9
a. f 共x兲 x 1
e. lim 共x cos x) 共lim x兲共lim cos x兲 Product Property
x→ x→ x→ x2 1
b. g共x兲
共cos 兲 x1
x3 2x2 x 2
c. h共x兲
x2 3x 2
冤共 lim x兲共 lim 4兲冥
2
f. lim 共x 4兲2 Sum and Power Properties
x→3 x→3 x→3 Use a graphing utility to graph
each function above. Does the
共3 4兲 2
graphing utility distinguish
72 49 among the three graphs? Write
a short explanation of your
findings.
The results of using direct substitution to evaluate limits of polynomial and rational
functions are summarized as follows.
Limits of Polynomial and Rational Functions

1. If p is a polynomial function and c is a real number, then
lim p共x兲 p共c兲. (See the proof on page 804.)
x→c
2. If r is a rational function given by r共x兲 p共x兲兾q共x兲, and c is a real number

such that q共c兲 0, then
p共c兲
lim r 共x兲 r 共c兲 .
x→c q共c兲
Example 10 Evaluating Limits by Direct Substitution

Find each limit. Explore the Concept
x2 x 6
a. lim 共 x2 x 6兲 b. lim Use a graphing utility
x→1 x→1 x3
to graph the function
Solution
x 2 3x 10
a. To evaluate the limit of a polynomial function, use direct substitution. f 共x兲 .
x5
lim 共x 2 x 6兲共1兲2 共1兲 6 6
x→1
Use the trace feature to
b. The denominator is not 0 when x 1, so you can evaluate the limit of the approximate lim f 共x兲. What do
x→4
rational function using direct substitution. you think lim f 共x兲 equals? Is
x→5
x 2 x 6 共1兲2 共1兲 6 6 f defined at x 5? Does this
lim 3 affect the existence of the limit
x→1 x3 1 3 2
as x approaches 5?
See www.CalcChat.com for worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

11.1 Exercises For instructions on how to use a graphing utility, see Appendix A.
Vocabulary and Concept Check

In Exercises 1 and 2, fill in the blank.
1. If f 共x兲 becomes arbitrarily close to a unique number L as x approaches c from
either side, then the _______ of f 共x兲 as x approaches c is L.
2. To find a limit of a polynomial function, use _______ .
3. Find the limit: lim 3.

x→0
4. List three conditions under which limits do not exist.
Procedures and Problem Solving

5. (p. 750) You create an Estimating a Limit Numerically In Exercises 7–12,
open box from a square piece of material, complete the table and use the result to estimate the limit
24 centimeters on a side. You cut equal numerically. Determine whether the limit can be
squares from the corners and turn up the reached.
sides.
7. lim 共5x 4兲
x→2
(a) Draw and label a diagram that represents
the box. x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2 2.001 2.01 2.1
(b) Verify that the volume V of the box is given by
V 4x共12 x兲2. f 共x兲 ?
(c) The box has a maximum volume when x 4. Use a
8. lim 共2x2 x 4兲
graphing utility to complete the table and observe the x→1
behavior of the function as x approaches 4. Use the

lim V.
table to find x→ x 0.9 0.99 0.999 1 1.001 1.01 1.1
4
f 共x兲 ?
x 3 3.5 3.9 4 4.1 4.5 5
x1
V 9. lim
x→1 x x2
2
(d) Use the graphing utility to graph the volume function. x 1.1 1.01 1.001 1 0.999
Verify that the volume is maximum when x 4.
f 共x兲 ?
6. Landscape Design A landscaper arranges bricks to
enclose a region shaped like a right triangle with a
hypotenuse of 冪18 meters whose area is as large as x 0.99 0.9
possible. f 共x兲
(a) Draw and label a diagram that shows the base x and
height y of the triangle. sin 2x
10. lim
(b) Verify that the area A of the triangle is given by
x→0 x
1
A 2x冪18 x2. x 0.1 0.01 0.001 0 0.001
(c) The triangle has a maximum area when x 3 meters. f 共x兲 ?
Use a graphing utility to complete the table and observe
the behavior of the function as x approaches 3. Use the x 0.01 0.1
table to find lim A.
x→ 3 f 共x兲
x 2 2.5 2.9 3 3.1 3.5 4
A
(d) Use the graphing utility to graph the area function.

Verify that the area is maximum when x 3 meters.
cristovao 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
tan x Using a Graph to Find a Limit In Exercises 33–40, use

11. lim
x→0 2x the graph to find the limit (if it exists). If the limit does
not exist, explain why.
x 0.1 0.01 0.001 0 0.001
x2 4
f 共x兲 ? 33. lim 共2 x2兲 34. lim
x→0 x→2 x2
y y
x 0.01 0.1
4 2
f 共x兲 x
−2 2 4
x −2
12. lim ln x 4
x→1
x1 −2
−4 −6
x 0.9 0.99 0.999 1 1.001 1.01 1.1
f 共x兲 ? 35. lim ⱍx 2ⱍ 36. lim sin
x
x→2 x2 x→1 2
y y
Using a Graphing Utility to Estimate a Limit In
Exercises 13–28, use the table feature of a graphing 3 2
2
utility to create a table for the function and use the result 1
to estimate the limit numerically. Use the graphing utility x x
to graph the corresponding function to confirm your −1 1 − 3 − 2 −1 1
result graphically. −2
−3 −2
x2 1 4 x2
13. lim 14. lim
x→1 x 1 x→2 x 2
1
x1 x2 37. lim 38. lim tan x
15. lim 2 16. lim x→1 x1 x→ 兾2
x→1 x 2x 3 x→2 x2 5x 6 y y
冪x 5 冪5 冪1 x 2 4
17. lim 18. lim 3
x→ 0 x x→3 x3 2
2
1 1 1
x
2 x x
x2 x2 4 −2 2 4 − π2 π π 3π
19. lim 20. lim −2 2 2
x→4 x4 x→2 x2
sin x cos x 1 −4
21. lim 22. lim
x→0 x x→0 x
sin2 x 2x 39. lim 2 cos 40. lim sec x
x→ 0 x x→ 兾2
23. lim 24. lim
x→0 x x→0 tan 4x y y
2x 1
e 1 e4x 3
25. lim 26. lim
x→0 2x x→0 x
1
ln共2x 3兲 ln共x2兲 x x
27. lim 28. lim −2 − π −1 π π 3π
x→2 x2 x→1 x 1 1 2 3
2 2
−3
Using a Graph to Find a Limit In Exercises 29–32,
graph the function and find the limit (if it exists) as x
Determining Whether a Limit Exists In Exercises 41–48,
approaches 2.
use a graphing utility to graph the function and use the
29. f 共x兲冦3,1, xx 22 30. f 共x兲冦x,4, x2
x2
graph to determine whether the limit exists. If the limit
does not exist, explain why.
31. f 共x兲冦
2x 1, x < 2 5
x 3, x 2 41. f 共x兲 , lim f 共x兲
2 e1兾x x→0
x 2
32. f 共x兲冦
2x, ex 1
42. f 共x兲 , lim f 共x兲
x 4x 1, x > 2
2
x x→0
1 Conclusions
43. f 共x兲 cos , lim f 共x兲
x x→0
True or False? In Exercises 69 and 70, determine whether
44. f 共x兲 sin x, lim f 共x兲 the statement is true or false. Justify your answer.
x→1
冪x 3 1 69. The limit of a function as x approaches c does not exist

45. f 共x兲 , lim f 共x兲 when the function approaches 3 from the left of c and
x4 x→4
冪x 5 4
3 from the right of c.
46. f 共x兲 , lim f 共x兲 70. If f is a rational function, then the limit of f 共x兲 as x
x2 x→2
approaches c is f 共c兲.
47. f 共x兲 ln共x 3兲, lim f 共x兲
x→4
71. Think About It From Exercises 7 to 12, select a limit
48. f 共x兲 ln共7 x兲, lim f 共x兲
x→1 that can be reached and one that cannot be reached.
(a) Use a graphing utility to graph the corresponding
Evaluating Limits In Exercises 49 and 50, use the given functions using a standard viewing window. Do the
information to evaluate each limit. graphs reveal whether the limit can be reached?
49. lim f 共x兲 4, lim g共x兲 8 Explain.
x→c x→c
(b) Use the graphing utility to graph the corresponding
(a) lim 关2g共x兲兴 (b) lim 关 f 共x兲 g共x兲兴 functions using a decimal setting. Do the graphs
x→c x→c
reveal whether the limit can be reached? Explain.
f 共x兲
(c) lim (d) lim 冪f 共x兲 72. Think About It Use the results of Exercise 71 to draw
x→c g共x兲 x→c
a conclusion as to whether you can use the graph
50. lim f 共x兲 3, lim g共x兲 1 generated by a graphing utility to determine reliably
x→c x→c
(a) lim 关 f 共x兲 g共x兲兴2 (b) lim 关6f 共x兲 g共x兲兴 when a limit can be reached.
x→c x→c
73. Think About It
5g共x兲 1
(c) lim (d) lim (a) Given f 共2兲 4, can you conclude anything about
x→c 4f 共x兲 x→c 冪f 共x兲
lim f 共x兲? Explain your reasoning.
x→2
Evaluating Limits In Exercises 51 and 52, find (b) Given lim f 共x兲 4, can you conclude anything
x→2
(a) lim f 冇 x冈, (b) lim g冇 x冈, (c) lim [ f 冇 x冈 g冇 x冈], and about f 共2兲? Explain your reasoning.
x→2 x→2 x→2
(d) lim [ g 冇 x冈 ⴚ f 冇 x冈].
x→2 74. C A P S T O N E Use the graph of the function f to
冪x2 5 decide whether the value of the given quantity exists.
51. f 共x兲 x3, g共x兲 If it does, find it. If not, explain why.
2x2
x (a) f 共0兲 y
52. f 共x兲 , g共x兲 sin x
3x (b) lim f 共x兲 5
x→0
(c) f 共2兲 3
Evaluating a Limit by Direct Substitution In Exercises
53–68, find the limit by direct substitution. (d) lim f 共x兲 2
x→2 1
53. lim 共10 x 兲

x→5
2 54. 1
lim x3
x→2 2
共 5x兲 −1 1 2 3 4
x
55. lim 共2x2 4x 1兲 56. lim 共x3 6x 5兲

x→3 x→2
3x x1
57. lim 58. lim Cumulative Mixed Review
x→3 x2 1 x→ 4 x2 2x 3
Simplifying Rational Expressions In Exercises 75–80,
5x 3 x2 1 simplify the rational expression.
59. lim 60. lim
x→2 2x 9 x→3 x
5x x2 81
61. lim 冪x 2 3 x2 1
62. lim 冪 75.
3x 15
76.
9x
x→1 x→3
63. lim ex 64. lim ln x 15x2 7x 4 x2 12x 36

x→3 x→e 77. 78.
15x2 x 2 x2 7x 6
65. lim sin 2x 66. lim tan x
x→ x→
x3 27 x3 8
79. 80.
x x2 x6 x2 4
67. lim arcsin x 68. lim arccos
x→1兾2 x→1 2
11.2 Techniques for Evaluating Limits
Dividing Out Technique What you should learn

● Use the dividing out technique
In Section 11.1, you studied several types of functions whose limits can be evaluated
to evaluate limits of functions.
by direct substitution. In this section, you will study several techniques for evaluating
● Use the rationalizing technique
limits of functions for which direct substitution fails.
to evaluate limits of functions.
Suppose you were asked to find the following limit.
● Use technology to approximate
x2 x 6 limits of functions graphically
lim
x→3 x3 and numerically.
● Evaluate one-sided limits of
Direct substitution fails because 3 is a zero of the denominator. By using a table,
functions.
however, it appears that the limit of the function as x approaches 3 is 5.
● Evaluate limits of difference
quotients from calculus.
x 3.01 3.001 3.0001 3 2.9999 2.999 2.99 Why you should learn it
x2 x6 Many definitions in calculus involve
5.01 5.001 5.0001 ? 4.9999 4.999 4.99
x3 the limit of a function. For instance,
in Exercises 69 and 70 on page 768,
the definition of the velocity of
Another way to find the limit of this function is shown in Example 1. a free-falling object at any
instant in time involves
Example 1 Dividing Out Technique finding the limit of a
position function.
Find the limit.
x2 x 6
lim
x→3 x3
Solution
Begin by factoring the numerator and dividing out any common factors.
x2 x 6 共x 2兲共x 3兲
lim lim Factor numerator.
x→3 x3 x→3 x3
共x 2兲共x 3兲
lim Divide out common factor.
x→3 x3
lim 共x 2兲 Simplify.
x→3
3 2 Direct substitution
5 Simplify.
This procedure for evaluating a limit is called the dividing out technique.
The validity of this technique stems from the fact that when two functions agree
at all but a single number c, they must have identical limit behavior at x c.
In Example 1, the functions given by
x2 x 6
f 共x兲 and g共x兲 x 2
x3
agree at all values of x other than
x 3.
So, you can use g共x兲 to find the limit of f 共x兲.
Vibrant Image Studio 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
Grafissimo/iStockphoto.com
Section 11.2 Techniques for Evaluating Limits 761
The dividing out technique should be applied only when direct substitution
produces 0 in both the numerator and the denominator. An expression such as 00 has no
meaning as a real number. It is called an indeterminate form because you
cannot, from the form alone, determine the limit. When you try to evaluate a limit of a
rational function by direct substitution and encounter this form, you can conclude
that the numerator and denominator must have a common factor. After factoring and
dividing out, you should try direct substitution again.
Example 2 Dividing Out Technique

Find the limit.
x1 Consider suggesting to your students that
lim they try making a table of values to estimate
x→1 x3 x2 x 1 the limit in Example 2 before finding it
algebraically. A range of 0.9 through 1.1
Solution with increment 0.01 is useful.
Begin by substituting x 1 into the numerator and denominator.
110 Numerator is 0 when x 1.
x1
x3 x2 x 1
13 12 1 1 0 Denominator is 0 when x 1.
Because both the numerator and denominator are zero when x 1, direct substitution
will not yield the limit. To find the limit, you should factor the numerator and
denominator, divide out any common factors, and then try direct substitution again.
x1 x1
lim lim Factor denominator.
x→1 x x x 1
3 2 x→1 共x 1兲共x 2 1兲
x1 Study Tip

lim Divide out common factor.
x→1 共x 1兲共x 2 1兲
In Example 2, the
1 factorization of the
lim 2 Simplify. denominator can be
x→1 x 1
obtained by dividing by 共x 1兲
1 or by grouping as follows.
Direct substitution
1 12
x3 x 2 x 1
1
Simplify. x 2共x 1兲共x 1兲
2
共x 1兲共x 2 1兲
This result is shown graphically in Figure 11.11.
f(x) = x−1
x3 − x2 + x − 1
f is undefined
when x = 1.
(1, 12 ) x
1 2
Figure 11.11

Rationalizing Technique
Another way to find the limits of some functions is first to rationalize the numerator of
the function. This is called the rationalizing technique. Recall that rationalizing the
numerator means multiplying the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of
the numerator. For instance, the conjugate of 冪x 4 is
冪x 4.
Example 3 Rationalizing Technique

Find the limit.
冪x 1 1
lim
x→ 0 x
Solution
By direct substitution, you obtain the indeterminate form 00.
冪x 1 1 冪0 1 1 0
lim Indeterminate form
x→ 0 x 0 0
In this case, you can rewrite the fraction by rationalizing the numerator.
冢冣冢冣
冪x 1 1 冪x 1 1 冪x 1 1

x x 冪x 1 1
共x 1兲 1
Multiply.
x共冪x 1 1兲
x
Simplify. y
x共冪x 1 1兲
x 3
Divide out common factor.
x 共冪x 1 1兲
1 2
, x0 Simplify. x+1−1
冪x 1 1 f(x) =
x
Now you can evaluate the limit by direct substitution.
冪x 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
(0, 12 ) f is undefined
when x = 0.
lim lim
x→ 0 x x→ 0 冪x 1 1 冪0 1 1 11 2 x
1
−1 1 2
You can reinforce your conclusion that the limit is by constructing a table, as shown
2
below, or by sketching a graph, as shown in Figure 11.12. Figure 11.12
x 0.1 0.01 0.001 0 0.001 0.01 0.1

f(x) 0.5132 0.5013 0.5001 ? 0.4999 0.4988 0.4881
The rationalizing technique for evaluating limits is based on multiplication by a

convenient form of 1. In Example 3, the convenient form is
冪x 1 1
1 .
冪x 1 1
Using Technology
The dividing out and rationalizing techniques may not work well for finding limits of Technology Tip
nonalgebraic functions. You often need to use more sophisticated analytic techniques to
In Example 4, a graph
find limits of these types of functions.
of f 共x兲共1 x兲1兾x
on a graphing utility
Example 4 Approximating a Limit Numerically would appear continuous at
Approximate the limit: lim 共1 x兲1兾x. x 0 (see below). But when
x→0 you try to use the trace feature
Solution of a graphing utility to determine
Let f 共x兲共1 x兲1兾x. f 共0兲, no value is given. Some
graphing utilities can show
Create a table that shows values breaks or holes in a graph
of f(x) for several x-values near 0. when an appropriate viewing
window is used. Because the
hole in the graph of f occurs
on the y-axis, the hole is
not visible.
Figure 11.13
Because 0 is halfway between 0.001 and 0.001 (see Figure 11.13), use the average of
the values of f at these two x-coordinates to estimate the limit.
2.7196 2.7169
lim 共1 x兲1兾x ⬇ 2.71825
x→0 2
The actual limit can be found algebraically to be
e ⬇ 2.71828.
Example 5 Approximating a Limit Graphically
Approximate the limit: lim sin x.

x→ 0
x
Solution
Direct substitution produces the indeterminate sin x
f(x) =
form 00. To approximate the limit, begin by using a 2 x
graphing utility to graph f 共x兲共sin x兲兾x, as shown
in Figure 11.14. Then use the zoom and trace features
of the graphing utility to choose a point on each side −4 4
of 0, such as 共0.0012467, 0.9999997兲 and
共0.0012467, 0.9999997兲. Because 0 is halfway
between 0.0012467 and 0.0012467, use the −2
average of the values of f at these two x-coordinates Figure 11.14
to estimate the limit.
sin x 0.9999997 0.9999997
lim ⬇ 0.9999997
x→0 x 2
It can be shown algebraically that this limit is exactly 1.
Andresr 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
One-Sided Limits
In Section 11.1, you saw that one way in which a limit can fail to exist is when a
function approaches a different value from the left side of c than it approaches from the
right side of c. This type of behavior can be described more concisely with the concept
of a one-sided limit.
lim f 共x兲 L 1 or f 共x兲 → L 1 as x → c Limit from the left
x→c
lim f 共x兲 L 2 or f 共x兲 → L 2 as x → c Limit from the right
x→c
Example 6 Evaluating One-Sided Limits You might wish to illustrate the concept
of one-sided limits (and why they are
Find the limit as x → 0 from the left and the limit as x → 0 from the right for necessary) with tables or graphs.
f 共x兲 ⱍ2xⱍ.
x
Solution
From the graph of f, shown in Figure 11.15, you can see that f 共x兲 2 for all x < 0.
y
f(x) = 2
2
1 ⏐2x⏐
f(x) =
x
x
−2 −1 1 2
−1
f(x) = − 2
Figure 11.15
So, the limit from the left is
lim ⱍ2xⱍ 2. Limit from the left

x→0 x
Because f 共x兲 2 for all x > 0, the limit from the right is
lim ⱍ2xⱍ 2. Limit from the right

x→0 x
In Example 6, note that the function approaches different limits from the left and
from the right. In such cases, the limit of f 共x兲 as x → c does not exist. For the limit of a
function to exist as x → c, it must be true that both one-sided limits exist and are equal.
Existence of a Limit
If f is a function and c and L are real numbers, then
lim f 共x兲 L
x→c
if and only if both the left and right limits exist and are equal to L.
Example 7 Finding One-Sided Limits

Find the limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches 1.
冦44xx,x , x < 1
f 共x兲 2 x > 1
Solution
Remember that you are concerned about the value of f near x 1 rather than at x 1. y
So, for x < 1, f 共x兲 is given by 4 x, and you can use direct substitution to obtain 7
f(x) = 4 − x, x < 1
lim f 共x兲 lim 共4 x兲 6
x→1 x→1
5 f(x) = 4x − x 2, x > 1
41 4
3. 3
2
For x > 1, f 共x兲 is given by 4x x 2, and you can use direct substitution to obtain
1
lim f 共x兲 lim 共4x x2兲 x
x→1 x→1
−2 − 1 1 2 3 5 6
−1
4共1兲 12
3. Figure 11.16
Because the one-sided limits both exist and are equal to 3, it follows that
lim f 共x兲 3.
x→1
The graph in Figure 11.16 confirms this conclusion.

Example 8 Comparing Limits from the Left and Right

To ship a package overnight, a delivery service charges $17.80 for the first pound and
$1.40 for each additional pound or portion of a pound. Let x represent the weight of a
package and let f 共x兲 represent the shipping cost. Show that the limit of f 共x兲 as x → 2
does not exist.
冦
17.80, 0 < x ≤ 1
f 共x兲 19.20, 1 < x ≤ 2
20.60, 2 < x ≤ 3
Solution
The graph of f is shown in Figure 11.17. The limit Overnight Delivery
of f 共x兲 as x approaches 2 from the left is y
lim f 共x兲 19.20 22

Shipping cost (in dollars)
x→2 For 2 < x ≤ 3, f(x) = 20.60

21
whereas the limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches 2 from 20
the right is 19
For 1 < x ≤ 2, f(x) = 19.20
lim f 共x兲 20.60. 18
x→2
17
For 0 < x ≤ 1, f(x) = 17.80
Because these one-sided limits are not equal, the 16
limit of f 共x兲 as x → 2 does not exist. x
1 2 3
Weight (in pounds)
Figure 11.17

Franck Boston 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
A Limit from Calculus

In the next section, you will study an important type of limit from calculus—the limit
of a difference quotient.
Example 9 Evaluating a Limit from Calculus

For the function given by f 共x兲 x 2 1, find
f 共3 h兲 f 共3兲
lim .
h→ 0 h
Solution
Direct substitution produces an indeterminate form. Example 9 previews the derivative that is
introduced in Section 11.3.
f 共3 h兲 f 共3兲关共3 h兲2 1兴关共3兲2 1兴
lim lim
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
lim 9 6h h 1 9 1
2
h→0 Group Activity
h
Write a limit problem (be sure the limit
lim 6h h
2 exists) and exchange it with that of a
h→0 partner. Use a numerical approach to
h
estimate the limit, and use an algebraic
0 approach to verify your estimate. Discuss
your results with your partner.
0
By factoring and dividing out, you obtain the following.
f 共3 h兲 f 共3兲 6h h2
lim lim
h→0 h h→0 h
h共6 h兲
lim
h→0 h
lim 共6 h兲
h→0
60
6
So, the limit is 6.
Note that for any x-value, the limit of a difference quotient is an expression of the
form
f 共x h兲 f 共x兲
lim .
h→ 0 h
Direct substitution into the difference quotient always produces the indeterminate
form 00. For instance,
f 共x h兲 f 共x兲 f 共x 0兲 f 共x兲
lim
h→0 h 0
f 共x兲 f 共x兲

0
0
.
0


1. To find a limit of a rational function that has common factors in its numerator and
denominator, use the _______ .
0
2. The expression 0 has no meaning as a real number and is called an _______ because
you cannot, from the form alone, determine the limit.
冪x 4 2
3. Which algebraic technique can you use to find lim ?
x→ 0 x
4. Describe in words what is meant by lim f 共x兲 2.
x→0

Using a Graph to Determine Limits In Exercises 5–8, Finding a Limit In Exercises 9–36, find the limit (if it
use the graph to determine each limit (if it exists). Then exists). Use a graphing utility to confirm your result
identify another function that agrees with the given graphically.
function at all but one point.
x6 9x
2x 2 x x 2 3x 9. lim 10. lim
x→6 x2 36 x→9 x2 81
5. g共x兲 6. h共x兲
x x x2 x 2 x2 6x 5
11. lim 12. lim
y y x→2 x2 x→1 x1
6 2 1 2x 3x 2 2x2 7x 4
13. lim 14. lim
4 x x→1 1x x→4 x4
−2 4
−2 t3 8 a3 64
15. lim 16. lim
t→2 t 2 a→4 a 4
x
−2 x5 32
−2
2 4
−6
x4 1
17. lim 18. lim
x→2 x 2 x→1 x1
(a) lim g共x兲 (a) lim h共x兲 x2 x 12 x2 8x 15
x→0 x→2
19. lim 20. lim
(b) lim g共x兲 (b) lim h共x兲 x→4 x2 6x 8 x→3 x2 2x 3
x→1 x→ 0
x3 2x x 2
2 x3 2x2 9x 18
(c) lim g共x兲 (c) lim h共x兲 21. lim 22. lim
x→2 x→3 x→1 x3 4x2 x 4 x→3 x3 x2 9x 9
x3 x x2 1 冪5 y 冪5 冪7 z 冪7
7. g共x兲 8. f 共x兲 23. lim 24. lim
x1 x1 y→0 y z→0 z
y y 冪x 7 2 4 冪18 x
25. lim 26. lim
6 4 x→3 x3 x→2 x2
4 2 1 1 1
1
2 x x1 x8 8
−2 2 4
27. lim 28. lim
x→0 x x→0 x
x
−2 2 4 1 1 1 1
−2 −4
x4 4 2x 2
29. lim 30. lim
(a) lim g共x兲 (a) lim f 共x兲 x→0 x x→ 0 x
x→1 x→1
1 sin x cos x 1
(b) lim g共x兲 (b) lim f 共x兲 31. lim 32. lim
x→1 x→2
x→ 兾2 cos x x→0 sin x
(c) lim g共x兲 (c) lim f 共x兲 33. lim
cos 2x
34. lim
sin x
x→ 0 x→1
x→0 cot 2x x→ csc x
sin x 1 1 cos x
35. lim 36. lim
x→ 兾2 x x→ x
Approximating a Limit Numerically In Exercises 37–42, Finding a Limit In Exercises 61–66, use a graphing
use the table feature of a graphing utility to create a table utility to graph the function and the equations y ⴝ x and
for the function and use the result to approximate the limit y ⴝ ⴚx in the same viewing window. Use the graph to
numerically. Write an approximation that is accurate to find lim f 冇x冈.
x→0
three decimal places.
61. f 共x兲 x cos x ⱍ
62. f 共x兲 x sin x ⱍ
e2x 1 1 ex
37. lim
x→0 x
38. lim
x→0 x
ⱍⱍ
63. f 共x兲 x sin x ⱍⱍ
64. f 共x兲 x cos x
1 1
冪2x 1 1 3 冪x 65. f 共x兲 x sin 66. f 共x兲 x cos
39. lim 40. lim x x
x→0 x x→9 x9
41. lim 共1 x兲2兾x 42. lim 共1 2x兲1兾x Finding Limits In Exercises 67 and 68, state which limit
x→0 x→0
can be evaluated by using direct substitution. Then
Approximating a Limit Graphically In Exercises 43–48, evaluate or approximate each limit.
use a graphing utility to graph the function and
sin x 2
approximate the limit. Write an approximation that is 67. (a) lim x 2 sin x 2 (b) lim
accurate to three decimal places.
x→ 0 x→ 0 x2
x 1 cos x
sin 2x sin 3x 68. (a) lim (b) lim
43. lim 44. lim x→ 0 cos x x→ 0 x
x→0 x x→0 x
tan x 1 cos 2x (p. 760) In Exercises 69 and
45. lim 46. lim
x→0 x x→ 0 x 70, use the position function
1冪 3 x
冪x x
3
s冇t冈 ⴝ ⴚ16t 2 ⴙ 128
47. lim
x→1 1 x
48. lim
x→1 x 1
which gives the height (in feet) of a
Evaluating One-Sided Limits In Exercises 49–56, free-falling object. The velocity at time
graph the function. Determine the limit (if it exists) by t ⴝ a seconds is given by
evaluating the corresponding one-sided limits. s冇a冈 ⴚ s冇t冈
lim .
49. lim ⱍx 6ⱍ 50. lim ⱍx 2ⱍ t→a aⴚt
x→6 x6 x→2 x2 69. Find the velocity when t 1 second.
1 1 70. Find the velocity when t 2 seconds.
51. lim
x→1 x2 1
52. lim
x→1 x2 1
71. Human Resources A union contract guarantees an
冦 x 1, x 2
53. lim f 共x兲 where f 共x兲 8% salary increase yearly for 3 years. For a current
x→2 2x 3, x > 2 salary of $30,000, the salaries f 共t兲 (in thousands of
54. lim f 共x兲 where f 共x兲冦
2x 1, x < 1 dollars) for the next 3 years are given by
4x, 2 x 1
冦
x→1
30.000, 0 < t 1
4x , 2 x 1 f 共t兲 32.400, 1 < t 2
x→1 3 x, x > 1 34.992, 2 < t 3

4x, 2 x 0 where t represents the time in years. Show that the limit
x→0 x 4, x > 0 of f as t → 2 does not exist.
Algebraic-Graphical-Numerical In Exercises 57– 60, 72. Business The cost of sending a package overnight is
(a) graphically approximate the limit (if it exists) by using $15 for the first pound and $1.30 for each additional
a graphing utility to graph the function, (b) numerically pound or portion of a pound. A plastic mailing bag can
approximate the limit (if it exists) by using the table hold up to 3 pounds. The cost f 共x兲 of sending a package
feature of the graphing utility to create a table, and in a plastic mailing bag is given by
冦
(c) algebraically evaluate the limit (if it exists) by the 15.00, 0 < x 1
appropriate technique(s). f 共x兲 16.30, 1 < x 2
x1 5x 17.60, 2 < x 3
57. lim 2 58. lim
x→1 x 1 x→5 25 x2
where x represents the weight of the package (in
4 冪x 冪x 2 冪2 pounds). Show that the limit of f as x → 1 does not exist.
59. lim 60. lim
x→16 x 16 x→0 x
Vibrant Image Studio 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
Grafissimo/iStockphoto.com
73. MODELING DATA 1 1

81. f 共x兲 82. f 共x兲
The cost of hooking up and towing a car is $85 for x2 x1
the first mile and $5 for each additional mile or
portion of a mile. A model for the cost C (in dollars) is Conclusions
C共x兲 85 5冀共x 1兲冁, where x is the distance in True or False? In Exercises 83 and 84, determine whether
miles. (Recall from Section 1.3 that f 共x兲冀x冁 the the statement is true or false. Justify your answer.
greatest integer less than or equal to x.)
83. When your attempt to find the limit of a rational
(a) Use a graphing utility to graph C for 0 < x 10. 0
function yields the indeterminate form 0, the rational
(b) Complete the table and observe the behavior of C function’s numerator and denominator have a common
as x approaches 5.5. Use the graph from part (a) factor.
and the table to find lim C共x兲.
x→5.5 84. If f 共c兲 L, then lim
x→c
f 共x兲 L.
x 5 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 6 85. Think About It Sketch the graph of a function for
which f 共2兲 is defined but the limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches
C共x兲 ? 2 does not exist.
86. Think About It Sketch the graph of a function for
(c) Complete the table and observe the behavior of C which the limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches 1 is 4 but f 共1兲 4.
as x approaches 5. Does the limit of C共x兲 as x
approaches 5 exist? Explain. 87. Writing Consider the limit of the rational function
p共x兲兾q共x兲. What conclusion can you make when direct
x 4 4.5 4.9 5 5.1 5.5 6 substitution produces each expression? Write a short
paragraph explaining your reasoning.
C共x兲 ? p共x兲 0 p共x兲 1
(a) lim (b) lim
x→c q共x兲 1 x→c q共x兲 1
p共x兲 1 p共x兲 0
74. MODELING DATA (c) lim (d) lim
x→c q共x兲 0 x→c q共x兲 0
The cost C (in dollars) of making x photocopies at a
copy shop is given by the function 88. C A P S T O N E Given
冦冦2x,
0.15x, 0 < x 25 x 0
f 共x兲 ,
0.10x, 25 < x 100 x 1,
2
x > 0
C共x兲 .
0.07x, 100 < x 500 find each of the following limits. If the limit does not
0.05x, x > 500 exist, explain why.
(a) Sketch a graph of the function. (a) lim f 共x兲 (b) lim f 共x兲 (c) lim f 共x兲
x→0 x→0 x→0
(b) Find each limit and interpret your result in the
context of the situation.
(i) lim C共x兲 (ii) lim C共x兲 (iii) lim C共x兲 Cumulative Mixed Review
x→15 x→99 x→305
(c) Create a table of values to show numerically that Identifying a Conic from Its Equation In Exercises
each limit does not exist. 89–92, identify the type of conic represented by the
(i) lim C共x兲 (ii) lim C共x兲 (iii) lim C共x兲 equation. Use a graphing utility to confirm your result.
x→25 x→100 x→500
(d) Explain how you can use the graph in part (a) to 3 12
89. r 90. r
verify that the limits in part (c) do not exist. 1 cos 3 2 sin
9 4
91. r 92. r
2 3 cos 4 cos
Evaluating a Limit from Calculus In Exercises 75–82, find
f 冇x ⴙ h冈 ⴚ f 冇x冈 A Relationship of Two Vectors In Exercises 93–96,
lim . determine whether the vectors are orthogonal, parallel,
h→0 h
or neither.
75. f 共x兲 3x 1 76. f 共x兲 5 6x
93. 具7, 2, 3典, 具1, 4, 5典 94. 具5, 5, 0典, 具0, 5, 1典
77. f 共x兲冪x 78. f 共x兲冪x 2
95. 具2, 3, 1典, 具2, 2, 2典 96. 具1, 3, 1典, 具3, 9, 3典
79. f 共x兲 x 2 3x 80. f 共x兲 4 2x x 2
11.3 The Tangent Line Problem
Tangent Line to a Graph What you should learn

● Understand the tangent line
Calculus is a branch of mathematics that studies rates of change of functions. If you
problem.
go on to take a course in calculus, you will learn that rates of change have many
● Use a tangent line to approximate
applications in real life.
the slope of a graph at a point.
Earlier in the text, you learned how the slope of a line indicates the rate at which a
● Use the limit definition of slope
line rises or falls. For a line, this rate (or slope) is the same at every point on the line.
to find exact slopes of graphs.
For graphs other than lines, the rate at which the graph rises or falls changes from point
● Find derivatives of functions and
to point. For instance, in Figure 11.18, the parabola is rising more quickly at the point
use derivatives to find slopes of
共x1, y1兲 than it is at the point 共x2, y2兲. At the vertex 共x3, y3兲, the graph levels off, and at
graphs.
the point 共x4, y4兲, the graph is falling.
Why you should learn it
y
(x3 , y3 ) The derivative, or the slope of the
tangent line to the graph of a
function at a point, can be used
(x2 , y2 ) to analyze rates of change. For
(x4 , y4 ) instance, in Exercise 69 on page
779, the derivative is used to
analyze the rate of change of the
x volume of a spherical balloon.
(x1 , y1 )
Figure 11.18
To determine the rate at which a graph rises or falls at a single point, you can
find the slope of the tangent line at that point. In simple terms, the tangent line
to the graph of a function f at a point
P共x1, y1兲
is the line that best approximates the slope of the graph at the point. Figure 11.19 shows
other examples of tangent lines.
y y y
P P
x x x
Figure 11.19
y
From geometry, you know that a line is tangent to
a circle when the line intersects the circle at only one point
(see Figure 11.20). Tangent lines to noncircular graphs, P
however, can intersect the graph at more than one point.
For instance, in the first graph in Figure 11.19, if the
tangent line were extended, then it would intersect the
graph at a point other than the point of tangency. x
3dfoto 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
STILLFX 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
Figure 11.20
Section 11.3 The Tangent Line Problem 771
Slope of a Graph
Because a tangent line approximates the slope of a graph at a point, the problem of
finding the slope of a graph at a point is the same as finding the slope of the tangent line
at the point.
Example 1 Visually Approximating the Slope of a Graph

Use the graph in Figure 11.21 to approximate the slope of the graph of y f(x) = x 2
f 共x兲 x 2
5
at the point 共1, 1兲. 4
Solution 3
From the graph of f 共x兲 x , you can see that the tangent line at 共1, 1兲 rises
2
2 2
approximately two units for each unit change in x. So, you can estimate the slope of the
1
tangent line at 共1, 1兲 to be 1
x
change in y −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
Slope −1
change in x
2 Figure 11.21
⬇
1
2.
Because the tangent line at the point 共1, 1兲 has a slope of about 2, you can conclude that
the graph of f has a slope of about 2 at the point 共1, 1兲.
Now try Exercise 7.
When you are visually approximating the slope of a graph, remember that the
scales on the horizontal and vertical axes may differ. When this happens (as it
frequently does in applications), the slope of the tangent line is distorted, and you must
be careful to account for the difference in the scales.
Example 2 Approximating the Slope of a Graph

Figure 11.22 graphically depicts the monthly normal temperatures (in degrees Monthly Normal
Fahrenheit) for Dallas, Texas. Approximate the slope of this graph at the indicated Temperatures
y
point and give a physical interpretation of the result. (Source: National Climatic Data
Center) 90 2
Solution 80
16
Temperature (°F)
From the graph, you can see that the tangent line at the given point falls approximately 70
(10, 69)
16 units for each two-unit change in x. So, you can estimate the slope at the given 60
point to be
50
change in y
Slope 40
change in x
30
16
⬇ x
2 2 4 6 8 10 12
Month
8 degrees per month.
Figure 11.22
This means that you can expect the monthly normal temperature in November to be
about 8 degrees lower than the normal temperature in October.
Now try Exercise 9.
Slope and the Limit Process

y
In Examples 1 and 2, you approximated
the slope of a graph at a point by creating
a graph and then “eyeballing” the tangent
line at the point of tangency. A more (x + h, f(x + h))
systematic method of approximating
tangent lines makes use of a secant line
through the point of tangency and a f(x + h) − f(x)
second point on the graph, as shown
(x, f(x))
in Figure 11.23. If 共x, f 共x兲兲 is the point
of tangency and
h
共x h, f 共x h兲兲 x
is a second point on the graph of f, then Figure 11.23

the slope of the secant line through the
two points is given by
msec . Slope of secant line
h
The right side of this equation is called the difference quotient. The denominator h is
the change in x, and the numerator is the change in y. The beauty of this procedure is
that you obtain more and more accurate approximations of the slope of the tangent line
by choosing points closer and closer to the point of tangency, as shown in Figure 11.24.
y y y y
(x + h, f(x + h)) (x + h, f(x + h)) (x + h, f(x + h))
(x, f(x))
(x, f(x))
f(x + h) − f(x) (x, f(x))
f(x + h) − f(x)
f(x + h) − f(x) Tangent line
(x, f(x))
h x h x h x x
As h approaches 0, the secant line approaches the tangent line.

Figure 11.24
Using the limit process, you can find the exact slope of the tangent line at 共x, f 共x兲兲.
Definition of the Slope of a Graph

The slope m of the graph of f at the point 共x, f 共x兲兲 is equal to the slope of its
tangent line at 共x, f 共x兲兲, and is given by
m lim msec
h→ 0
lim
h→ 0 h
provided this limit exists.
From the definition above and from Section 11.2, you can see that the difference
quotient is used frequently in calculus. Using the difference quotient to find the slope
of a tangent line to a graph is a major concept of calculus.
Example 3 Finding the Slope of a Graph

Find the slope of the graph of f 共x兲 x 2 at the point 共2, 4兲.
Solution
Find an expression that represents the slope of a secant line at 共2, 4兲.
f 共2 h兲 f 共2兲
msec Set up difference quotient.
h
共2 h兲2 共2兲2
Substitute into f 共x兲 x2.
h
4 4h h 2 4
Expand terms.
h
4h h 2
Simplify.
h
h共4 h兲 y f(x) = x 2
Factor and divide out.
h 5
4 h, h0 Simplify. Tangent 4

line at
Next, take the limit of msec as h approaches 0. (− 2, 4) 3
m lim msec 2
h→ 0
lim 共4 h兲 1
h→ 0 m = −4
4 0 x
−4 −3 −2 1 2
4
The graph has a slope of 4 at the point 共2, 4兲, as shown in Figure 11.25. Figure 11.25
Example 4 Finding the Slope of a Graph

Find the slope of f 共x兲 2x 4.
Solution
m lim Set up difference quotient.
h→ 0 h
关2(x h兲 4兴共2x 4兲
lim Substitute into f 共x兲 2x 4.
h→0 h y
2x 2h 4 2x 4
lim Expand terms. f(x) = −2x + 4
h→ 0 h
4
2h
lim Divide out. 3
h→ 0 h
m = −2
2
2 Simplify.
1
You know from your study of linear functions that the line given by
x
f 共x兲 2x 4 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1
has a slope of 2, as shown in Figure 11.26. This conclusion is consistent with that
obtained by the limit definition of slope, as shown above. Figure 11.26

It is important that you see the difference between the ways the difference quotients
were set up in Examples 3 and 4. In Example 3, you were finding the slope of a graph
at a specific point 共c, f 共c兲兲. To find the slope in such a case, you can use the following
form of the difference quotient.
f 共c h兲 f 共c兲
m lim Slope at specific point
h→ 0 h
In Example 4, however, you were finding a formula for the slope at any point on the
graph. In such cases, you should use x, rather than c, in the difference quotient.
m lim Formula for slope
h→ 0 h Technology Tip
Example 5 Finding a Formula for the Slope of a Graph Try verifying the result
in Example 5 by using
Find a formula for the slope of the graph of a graphing utility to
f 共x兲 x 2 1. graph the function and the
tangent lines at 共1, 2兲 and
What are the slopes at the points 共1, 2兲 and 共2, 5兲? 共2, 5兲 as
Solution y1 x2 1
f 共x h兲 f 共x兲 y2 2x
msec Set up difference quotient.
h y3 4x 3
关共x h兲2 1兴共x2 1兲 in the same viewing window.
Substitute into f 共x兲 x2 1.
You can also verify the result
h
using the tangent feature. For
x 2 2xh h 2 1 x 2 1 instructions on how to use the
Expand terms.
h tangent feature, see Appendix
2xh h 2 A; for specific keystrokes, go
Simplify. to this textbook’s Companion
h
Website.
h共2x h兲
Factor and divide out.
h
2x h, h0 Simplify.
Next, take the limit of msec as h approaches 0.

m lim msec
h→ 0
lim 共2x h兲
h→ 0 y f(x) = x 2 + 1
2x 0
7
2x 6
Using the formula m 2x for the slope 5

Tangent
at 共x, f 共x兲兲, you can find the slope at the 4
line at
specified points. At 共1, 2兲, the slope is 3 (2, 5)
Tangent
m 2共1兲 2 line at
2
(− 1, 2)
and at 共2, 5兲, the slope is x
−4 − 3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
m 2共2兲 4. −1
The graph of f is shown in Figure 11.27. Figure 11.27

The Derivative of a Function

In Example 5, you started with the function f 共x兲 x 2 1 and used the limit process Study Tip
to derive another function, m 2x, that represents the slope of the graph of f at the
point 共x, f 共x兲兲. This derived function is called the derivative of f at x. It is denoted by In Section 1.1, you
f
共x兲, which is read as “f prime of x.” studied the slope of a
line, which represents
the average rate of change over
Definition of the Derivative an interval. The derivative of a
The derivative of f at x is given by function is a formula which
represents the instantaneous
f 共x h兲 f 共x兲 rate of change at a point.
f
共x兲 lim
h→ 0 h
Remember that the derivative f

共x兲 is a formula for the slope of the tangent line to the Explore the Concept
graph of f at the point 共x, f 共x兲兲. Use a graphing utility
to graph the function
Example 6 Finding a Derivative f 共x兲 3x2 2x. Use
the trace feature to approximate
Find the derivative of the coordinates of the vertex of
f 共x兲 3x 2 2x. this parabola. Then use the
derivative of f 共x兲 3x2 2x
Solution to find the slope of the tangent
f 共x h兲 f 共x兲 line at the vertex. Make a
f
共x兲 lim conjecture about the slope of
h→ 0 h
the tangent line at the vertex
关3共x h兲2 2共x h兲兴共3x2 2x兲 of an arbitrary parabola.
lim
h→0 h
3x 2 6xh 3h 2 2x 2h 3x 2 2x
lim
h→ 0 h
6xh 3h 2 2h
lim
h→ 0 h
lim h共6x 3h 2兲
h→ 0 h
lim 共6x 3h 2兲
h→ 0
6x 3共0兲 2
6x 2
So, the derivative of f 共x兲 3x 2 2x is
f
共x兲 6x 2. Derivative of f at x
Note that in addition to f

共x兲, other notations can be used to denote the derivative
of y f 共x兲. The most common are
dy d
, y
, 关 f 共x兲兴, and Dx 关 y兴.
dx dx
Hasan Kursad Ergan/iStockphoto.com
Example 7 Using the Derivative

Find f
共x兲 for Additional Example
Find the derivative of
f 共x兲冪x.
f 共x兲 x2 5x.
Then find the slopes of the graph of f at the points 共1, 1兲 and 共4, 2兲 and equations of the Answer: f
共x兲 2x 5
tangent lines to the graph at the points.
Solution
f
共x兲 lim
h→ 0 h
冪x h 冪x
lim
h→0 h
Because direct substitution yields the indeterminate form 00, you should use the
rationalizing technique discussed in Section 11.2 to find the limit.
Study Tip
冢冣冢冣
冪x h 冪x 冪x h 冪x
f
共x兲 lim Remember that in order
h→ 0 h 冪x h 冪x
to rationalize the
共x h兲 x numerator of an
lim
h→ 0 h共冪x h 冪x 兲 expression, you must multiply
the numerator and denominator
h
lim by the conjugate of the
h→ 0 h共冪x h 冪x 兲 numerator.
1
lim
h→ 0 冪x h 冪x
1

冪x 0 冪x
1

2冪x Activity
Ask your students to graph f 共t 兲 3兾t and
At the point 共1, 1兲, the slope is identify the point 共3, 1兲 on the graph to give
some meaning to the task of finding the
11
f
共1兲 . slope at that point. You might also consider
2冪1 2 asking your students to find this limit
numerically, for the sake of comparison.
An equation of the tangent line at the point 共1, 1兲 is
y y1 m共x x1兲 Point-slope form
2 共x 1兲
1
y1 1
Substitute 2 for m, 1 for x1, and 1 for y1.
1 1
y 2 x 2. Tangent line
y
At the point 共4, 2兲, the slope is
4 y = 12 x + 12
11
f
共4兲 . 3
2冪4 4 y = 14 x + 1
An equation of the tangent line at the point 共4, 2兲 is (1, 1) m= 1
4
(4, 2)
y y1 m共x x1兲 Point-slope form m= 1
2
x
y 2 14共x 4兲 Substitute 14 for m, 4 for x1, and 2 for y1. −1 1 2 3 4 5
1 −1
y 4 x 1. Tangent line f(x) = x
−2
The graphs of f and the tangent lines at the points 共1, 1兲 and 共4, 2兲 are shown in
Figure 11.28. Figure 11.28


In Exercises 1–4, fill in the blank.
1. _______ is the study of the rates of change of functions.
2. The _______ to the graph of a function at a point is the line that best approximates
the slope of the graph at the point.
3. To approximate a tangent line to a graph, you can make use of a _______ through
the point of tangency and a second point on the graph.
4. The _______ of a function f at x represents the slope of the graph of f at the point 共x, f 共x兲兲.
5. The slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at the point 共1, 5兲 is 2. What is the
slope of the graph of f at the point 共1, 5兲?
6. Given f 共1兲 2 and f
共1兲 4, what is the slope of the graph of f at the point 共1, 2兲?

Approximating the Slope of a Graph In Exercises 7–10, Finding a Formula for the Slope of a Graph In Exercises
use the figure to approximate the slope of the curve at 19–24, find a formula for the slope of the graph of f at
the point 冇x, y冈. the point 冇x, f 冇 x冈冈. Then use it to find the slopes at the
y y two specified points.
7. 8.
3 (x, y) 3 19. f 共x兲 4 x 2 20. f 共x兲 x3
2 (x, y) (a) 共0, 4兲 (a) 共1, 1兲
1 (b) 共2, 0兲 (b) 共2, 8兲
x x
−1 −2 − 1 1 1
1 2 4 1 3
x4 x2
−2
(a) 共0, 4 兲 (a) 共0, 2 兲
1 1
(b) 共2, 2 兲
1
9. y 10. y
(b) 共3, 1兲
3 3 23. f 共x兲冪x 1 24. f 共x兲冪x 4
2 2
(x, y) (a) 共2, 1兲 (a) 共5, 1兲
1 1 (x, y)
x x
(b) 共10, 3兲 (b) 共8, 2兲
−2 − 1 1 2 3 −2 − 1 1 2 3
Approximating the Slope of a Tangent Line In Exercises
−2 −2
25–30, use a graphing utility to graph the function and
the tangent line at the point 冇1, f 冇1冈冈. Use the graph to
Finding the Slope of a Graph In Exercises 11–18, use approximate the slope of the tangent line.
the limit process to find the slope of the graph of the 25. f 共x兲 x 2 3 26. f 共x兲 x 2 2x 1
function at the specified point. Use a graphing utility to
confirm your result. 27. f 共x兲冪2 x 28. f 共x兲冪x 3
4 3
11. g共x兲 x 2 4x, 共3, 3兲 29. f 共x兲 30. f 共x兲
x1 2x
12. f 共x兲 10x 2x 2, 共3, 12兲
13. g共x兲 5 2x, 共1, 3兲 Finding a Derivative In Exercises 31– 42, find the
14. h共x兲 2x 5, 共1, 3兲 derivative of the function.
4 31. f 共x兲 4 3x2 32. f 共x兲 x 2 3x 4
15. g共x兲 , 共2, 2兲
x 33. f 共x兲 5 34. f 共x兲 1
冢冣 35. f 共x兲 9 3x
1
1 1 36. f 共x兲 5x 2
16. g共x兲 , 4,
x2 2 1 1
37. f 共x兲 2 38. f 共x兲 3
17. h共x兲冪x, 共9, 3兲 x x
18. h共x兲冪x 10, 共1, 3兲 39. f 共x兲冪x 4 40. f 共x兲冪x 1
1 1 67. MODELING DATA

冪x 9 冪x 1 The projected populations y (in thousands) of New
Jersey for selected years from 2015 to 2030 are shown
Using the Derivative In Exercises 43–50, (a) find the in the table. (Source: U.S. Census Bureau)
slope of the graph of f at the given point, (b) find an
equation of the tangent line to the graph at the point, and Population, y
(c) graph the function and the tangent line. Year
(in thousands)
43. f 共x兲 x2 1, 共2, 3兲 44. f 共x兲 4 x2, 共1, 3兲 2015 9256
45. f 共x兲 x3 2x, 共1, 1兲 2020 9462
46. f 共x兲 x2 2x 1, 共3, 4兲 2025 9637
47. f 共x兲冪x 1, 共3, 2兲 48. f 共x兲冪x 2, 共3, 1兲 2030 9802
1 1
49. f 共x兲 , 共4, 1兲 50. f 共x兲 , 共4, 1兲 (a) Use the regression feature of a graphing utility to
x5 x3
find a quadratic model for the data. Let t represent
the year, with t 15 corresponding to 2015.
Graphing a Function Over an Interval In Exercises
51–54, use a graphing utility to graph f over the interval (b) Use the graphing utility to graph the model found
[ⴚ2, 2] and complete the table. Compare the value of the in part (a). Estimate the slope of the graph when
first derivative with a visual approximation of the slope t 20, and interpret the result.
of the graph. (c) Find the derivative of the model in part (a). Then
evaluate the derivative for t 20.
x 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 (d) Write a brief statement regarding your results for
f 共x兲 parts (a) through (c).
f
共x兲
68. MODELING DATA
51. f 共x兲 2x 2 52. f 共x兲 4 x3
1 1 The data in the table show the number N (in
x2 4 thousands) of books sold when the price per book is p
53. f 共x兲冪x 3 54. f 共x兲 (in dollars).
x4
Using the Derivative In Exercises 55–58, find the Number of books,

Price, p
derivative of f. Use the derivative to determine any N (in thousands)
points on the graph of f at which the tangent line is $10 900
horizontal. Use a graphing utility to verify your results. $15 630
55. f 共x兲 x 2 4x 3 56. f 共x兲 x2 6x 4 $20 396
57. f 共x兲 3x3 9x 58. f 共x兲 x3 3x $25 227
$30 102
Using the Derivative In Exercises 59– 66, use the $35 36
function and its derivative to determine any points on
the graph of f at which the tangent line is horizontal. Use (a) Use the regression feature of a graphing utility to
a graphing utility to verify your results. find a quadratic model for the data.
59. f 共x兲 x4 2x2, f
共x兲 4x3 4x (b) Use the graphing utility to graph the model found
in part (a). Estimate the slopes of the graph when
60. f 共x兲 3x4 4x3, f
共x兲 12x3 12x2 p $15 and p $30.
61. f 共x兲 2 cos x x, f
共x兲 2 sin x 1, (c) Use the graphing utility to graph the tangent lines
over the interval 共0, 2兲 to the model when p $15 and p $30.
62. f 共x兲 x 2 sin x, f
共x兲 1 2 cos x, Compare the slopes given by the graphing utility
over the interval 共0, 2兲 with your estimates in part (b).
63. f 共x兲 x2ex, f
共x兲 x2ex 2xex (d) The slopes of the tangent lines at p $15 and
64. f 共x兲 xex, f
共x兲 ex xex p $30 are not the same. Explain what this
65. f 共x兲 x ln x, f
共x兲 ln x 1 means to the company selling the books.
ln x 1 ln x
66. f 共x兲 , f
共x兲
x x2
69. (p. 770) A spherical Conclusions

balloon is inflated. The volume V is True or False? In Exercises 73 and 74, determine whether
approximated by the formula V共r兲 3 r 3,
4
the statement is true or false. Justify your answer.
where r is the radius.
73. The slope of the graph of y x2 is different at every
(a) Find the derivative of V with respect to r. point on the graph of f.
(b) Evaluate the derivative when the radius 74. A tangent line to a graph can intersect the graph only at
is 4 inches. the point of tangency.
(c) What type of unit would be applied to your answer
in part (b)? Explain. Graphing the Derivative of a Function In Exercises
70. Rate of Change An approximately spherical benign 75–78, match the function with the graph of its
tumor is reducing in size. The surface area S is given by derivative. It is not necessary to find the derivative of the
the formula S共r兲 4 r 2, where r is the radius. function. [The graphs are labeled (a), (b), (c), and (d).]
(a) Find the derivative of S with respect to r. (a) y (b) y
(b) Evaluate the derivative when the radius is 1 5

x 4
3 millimeters. −2 2 3 3
(c) What type of unit would be applied to your answer 2
in part (b)? Explain. 1
x
71. Vertical Motion A water balloon is thrown upward 1 2 3 4 5
−1
from the top of an 80-foot building with a velocity of
64 feet per second. The height or displacement s (in (c) y (d) y
feet) of the balloon can be modeled by the position 5 3
function s共t兲 16t2 64t 80, where t is the time 4 2
in seconds from when it was thrown. 3 1
x
(a) Find a formula for the instantaneous rate of change 1 2 3
of the balloon.
x −2
(b) Find the average rate of change of the balloon after −2 −1 1 2 3 −3
the first three seconds of flight. Explain your results.
1
(c) Find the time at which the balloon reaches its 75. f 共x兲冪x 76. f 共x兲
maximum height. Explain your method. x
(d) Velocity is given by the derivative of the position 77. f 共x兲 x ⱍⱍ 78. f 共x兲 x 3
function. Find the velocity of the balloon as it
79. Think About It Sketch the graph of a function whose
impacts the ground.
derivative is always positive.
(e) Use a graphing utility to graph the model and
verify your results for parts (a)–(d). 80. C A P S T O N E Consider the graph of a function f.
72. Vertical Motion A coin is dropped from the top of a (a) Explain how you can use a secant line to
120-foot building. The height or displacement s (in feet) approximate the tangent line at 共x, f 共x兲兲.
of the coin can be modeled by the position function
s共t兲 16t2 120, where t is the time in seconds (b) Explain how you can use the limit process to find
from when it was dropped. the exact slope of the tangent line at 共x, f 共x兲兲.
(a) Find a formula for the instantaneous rate of change
of the coin. 81. Think About It Sketch the graph of a function for
(b) Find the average rate of change of the coin after the which f
共x兲 < 0 for x < 1, f
共x兲 0 for x > 1, and
first two seconds of free fall. Explain your results. f
共1兲 0.
(c) Velocity is given by the derivative of the position
function. Find the velocity of the coin as it impacts Cumulative Mixed Review
the ground. Sketching the Graph of a Rational Function In Exercises
(d) Find the time when the coin’s velocity is 70 feet 82 and 83, sketch the graph of the rational function.
per second. 1 x2
(e) Use a graphing utility to graph the model and x2 x 2 x2 4x 3
verify your results for parts (a)–(d).
3dfoto 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
STILLFX 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
11.4 Limits at Infinity and Limits of Sequences
Limits at Infinity and Horizontal Asymptotes What you should learn

● Evaluate limits of functions at
As pointed out at the beginning of this chapter, there are two basic problems in
infinity.
calculus: finding tangent lines and finding the area of a region. In Section 11.3, you
● Find limits of sequences
saw how limits can be used to solve the tangent line problem. In this section and the
next, you will see how a different type of limit, a limit at infinity, can be used to solve Why you should learn it
the area problem. To get an idea of what is meant by a limit at infinity, consider the function Finding limits at infinity is useful
f 共x兲共x 1兲兾共2x兲. in analyzing functions that model
real-life situations. For instance, in
The graph of f is shown in Figure 11.29. From earlier work, you know that y 12 is a Exercise 60 on page 788, you are
horizontal asymptote of the graph of this function. Using limit notation, this can be asked to find a limit at infinity to
written as follows. decide whether you can use a given
1 model to predict the payroll of the
lim f 共x兲 Horizontal asymptote to the left legislative branch of the United
x→ 2
States government.
1
lim f 共x兲 Horizontal asymptote to the right
x→ 2
These limits mean that the value of f 共x兲 gets arbitrarily close to 12 as
x decreases or increases without bound.
f(x) = x + 1
3 2x
−3 3
−1 1
y=
2
Figure 11.29
Definition of Limits at Infinity

If f is a function and L1 and L 2 are real numbers, then the statements
lim f 共x兲 L1 Limit as x approaches
x→
and
lim f 共x兲 L 2 Limit as x approaches
x→
denote the limits at infinity. The first statement is read “the limit of f 共x兲 as x
approaches is L1,” and the second is read “the limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches
is L 2.”
Technology Tip
Recall from Section 2.7 that some graphing utilities have difficulty
graphing rational functions. In this text, rational functions are graphed
using the dot mode of a graphing utility, and a blue curve is placed
behind the graphing utility’s display to indicate where the graph should appear.

Section 11.4 Limits at Infinity and Limits of Sequences 781
To help evaluate limits at infinity, you can use the following definition.
Limits at Infinity Explore the Concept

If r is a positive real number, then Use a graphing utility
to graph the two
1
lim 0. Limit toward the right functions given by
x→ xr
1 1
Furthermore, if xr is defined when x < 0, then y1 and y2
冪x 冪
3 x
1
lim 0. Limit toward the left in the same viewing window.
x→ x r
Why doesn’t y1 appear to the
left of the y-axis? How does
this relate to the statement at
Limits at infinity share many of the properties of limits listed in Section 11.1. Some the left about the infinite limit
of these properties are demonstrated in the next example.
1
lim ?
x→ xr
Example 1 Evaluating a Limit at Infinity
Find the limit.
冢
lim 4
x→
3
x2 冣
Algebraic Solution Graphical Solution
Use the properties of limits listed in Section 11.1. Use a graphing utility to graph
冢4 x3 冣 lim 4 lim x3
3
lim y4 .
x→ 2 x→ x→ 2 x2
冢冣
1
x→
lim 4 3 x→
lim 5 y=4
x2
Use the trace feature
4 3共0兲 to determine that as
x increases, y gets
4 y = 4 − 32
x closer to 4.
−20 120
So, the limit of
−1
3
f 共x兲 4 Figure 11.30
x2
as x approaches is 4. From Figure 11.30, you can estimate the limit to be 4. Note in the figure
that the line y 4 is a horizontal asymptote to the right.
In Figure 11.30, it appears that the line

y4
is also a horizontal asymptote to the left. You can verify this by showing that
lim
x→ 冢4 x3 冣 4.
2
The graph of a rational function need not have a horizontal asymptote. When it does,
however, its left and right asymptotes must be the same.
When evaluating limits at infinity for more complicated rational functions, divide
the numerator and denominator by the highest-powered term in the denominator. This
enables you to evaluate each limit using the limits at infinity at the top of this page.
Example 2 Comparing Limits at Infinity

Find the limit as x approaches for each function. Explore the Concept
2x 3 Use a graphing utility
a. f 共x兲
3x 2 1 to complete the table
2x 2 3 below to verify that
b. f 共x兲
3x 2 1 1
lim 0.
x→ x
2x 3 3
c. f 共x兲
3x 2 1
x 10 0 10 1 10 2
Solution
1
In each case, begin by dividing both the numerator and denominator by
x
x2
x 10 3 10 4 10 5
the highest-powered term in the denominator.
1
2 3
2 x
2x 3 x x
a. lim x→
lim
x→ 3x2 1 1
3 2 Make a conjecture about
x
0 0 1
lim .
30
x→0 x
0
3
2
2x 3 2
x2
b. lim x→
lim
x→ 3x2 1 1
3 2
x
2 0

30
2

3
3
2x
2x3 3 x2
c. lim
x→ 3x2 1
x→
lim
1
3
x2
In this case, you can conclude that the limit does not exist because the numerator Activity
decreases without bound as the denominator approaches 3. Have students use these observations from
Example 2 to predict the following limits.
5x共x 3兲
a. lim
x→ 2x
In Example 2, observe that when the degree of the numerator is less than the degree 4x3 5x
b. lim
of the denominator, as in part (a), the limit is 0. When the degrees of the numerator x→ 8x4 3x2 2
and denominator are equal, as in part (b), the limit is the ratio of the coefficients of the 6x2 1
c. lim
highest-powered terms. When the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of x→ 3x2 x 2
the denominator, as in part (c), the limit does not exist. Then ask several students to verify the
This result seems reasonable when you realize that for large values of x, the predictions algebraically, several other
highest-powered term of a polynomial is the most “influential” term. That is, a students to verify the predictions numerically,
and several more students to verify the
polynomial tends to behave as its highest-powered term behaves as x approaches predictions graphically. Lead a discussion
positive or negative infinity. comparing the results.
ivanpavlisko 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
Limits at Infinity for Rational Functions

Consider the rational function
N共x兲
f 共x兲
D共x兲
where
N共x兲 an xn . . . a0 and D共x兲 bm xm . . . b0.
The limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches positive or negative infinity is as follows.
冦
0, n < m
lim f 共x兲 an
x→ ± , nm
bm
If n > m, then the limit does not exist.
Example 3 Finding the Average Cost

You are manufacturing greeting cards that cost $0.50 per card to produce. Your initial Consider asking your students to identify
investment is $5000, which implies that the total cost C of producing x cards is given the practical interpretation of the limit in
part (d) of Example 3.
by
C 0.50x 5000.
The average cost C per card is given by
C 0.50x 5000
C .
x x
Find the average cost per card when (a) x 1000, (b) x 10,000, and
(c) x 100,000. (d) What is the limit of C as x approaches infinity?
Solution
a. When x 1000, the average cost per card is
0.50共1000兲 5000
C x 1000
1000
$5.50.
b. When x 10,000, the average cost per card is
0.50共10,000兲 5000
C x 10,000
10,000
$1.00.
c. When x 100,000, the average cost per card is 6
0.50共100,000兲 5000
C x 100,000 C=
C 0.50x + 5000
=
100,000 x x
$0.55.
0 100,000
d. As x approaches infinity, the limit of C is 0 y = 0.5
0.50x 5000
lim $0.50. x→ As x → ⴥ, the average cost per
x→ x
card approaches $0.50.
The graph of C is shown in Figure 11.31. Figure 11.31

Limits of Sequences
Limits of sequences have many of the same properties as limits of functions. For
instance, consider the sequence whose nth term is an 1兾2n.
1 1 1 1 1
, , , , ,. . .
2 4 8 16 32
As n increases without bound, the terms of this sequence get closer and closer to 0, and
the sequence is said to converge to 0. Using limit notation, you can write
1
lim 0.
n→ 2n
The following relationship shows how limits of functions of x can be used to evaluate
the limit of a sequence.
Limit of a Sequence
Let L be a real number. Let f be a function of a real variable such that
lim f 共x兲 L.
x→
If 再an冎 is a sequence such that

f 共n兲 an
for every positive integer n, then
lim an L.
n→
A sequence that does not converge is said to diverge. For instance, the sequence Another sequence that diverges is
1
1, 1, 1, 1, 1, . . . an 1兾4. You might want your
n
students to discuss why this is true.
diverges because it does not approach a unique number.
Example 4 Finding the Limit of a Sequence

Find the limit of each sequence. (Assume n begins with 1.)
2n 1
a. an
n4
2n 1
b. bn
n2 4
2n2 1
c. cn
4n2
Solution
2n 1 3 5 7 9 11 13
a. n→
lim 2 , , , , , ,. . . → 2
n4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Study Tip
2n 1 3 5 7 9 11 13
b. lim 2 0 , , , , , ,. . . → 0 You can use the defini-
n→ n 4 5 8 13 20 29 40
tion of limits at infinity
2n2 1 1 3 9 19 33 51 73 1 for rational functions
c. lim , , , , , ,. . . → on page 783 to verify the limits
n→ 4n2 2 4 16 36 64 100 144 2
of the sequences in Example 4.
In the next section, you will encounter limits of sequences such as that shown in
Example 5. A strategy for evaluating such limits is to begin by writing the nth term in
standard rational function form. Then you can determine the limit by comparing the
degrees of the numerator and denominator, as shown on page 783.
Example 5 Finding the Limit of a Sequence

Find the limit of the sequence whose nth term is
8 n共n 1兲共2n 1兲
an 冤
n3 6
. 冥
Algebraic Solution Numerical Solution
Begin by writing the nth term in standard rational function form— Enter the sequence
as the ratio of two polynomials.
an 冤冥
an 3
n 冤 6 冥 Write original nth term.
n3 6
into a graphing utility and create a table. (Be sure the
8共n兲共n 1兲共2n 1兲 graphing utility is set to sequence mode.)
Multiply fractions.
6n3
8n3 12n2 4n
Write in standard rational form.
3n3 As n increases, an
approaches 2.667.
From this form, you can see that the degree of the numerator is
equal to the degree of the denominator. So, the limit of the sequence
is the ratio of the coefficients of the highest-powered terms.
Figure 11.32
8n3 12n2 4n 8
lim
n→ 3n3 3 From Figure 11.32, you can estimate that as n approaches
, an gets closer and closer to 2.667 ⬇ 3.
8
The result of Example 5 is supported by Figure 11.33, which shows the graph of
the sequence an and y 8兾3.
10
an
0 8 100
y= 3
0
Figure 11.33
Explore the Concept

In Figure 11.32, the value of an approaches its limit of 83 rather slowly.
(The first term to be accurate to three decimal places is a4801 ⬇ 2.667.)
Each of the following sequences converges to 0. Which converges
the quickest? Which converges the slowest? Why? Write a short paragraph
discussing your conclusions.
1 1 1 1 2n
a. an b. bn 2 c. cn n d. dn e. hn
n n 2 n! n!


1. The line y 5 is a horizontal asymptote to the right of the graph of a function f.
What is the limit of f as x approaches infinity?
2. Given lim f 共x兲 2 for a rational function f, how does the degree of the numerator
x→
compare with the degree of the denominator?

3. A sequence that has a limit is said to _______ .
4. A sequence that does not have a limit is said to _______ .

Identifying the Graph of an Equation In Exercises 5–12, Evaluating a Limit at Infinity In Exercises 13–32, find
match the function with its graph, using horizontal the limit (if it exists). If the limit does not exist, explain
asymptotes as aids. [The graphs are labeled (a), (b), (c), why. Use a graphing utility to verify your result graphically.
(d), (e), (f), (g), and (h).]
3 5
3 6
13. lim 14. lim
(a) (b) x→ x2 x→ 2x
3x 2 7x
lim
15. x→ lim
16. x→
−9 9 3x 2 3x
−3 3
5x 2 5 3x
17. lim 18. lim
−1 −6 x→ 6x 1 x→ x4
(c) 6 (d) 5 4x2 3 x2 3
19. lim 20. lim
x→ 2 x2 x→ 5x2 4
−6 6 t2 4y 4
−6 6 21. lim 22. lim 2
t→ t 3 y→ y 3
−2 −3 4t 2 3t 1 5 6x 3x2
23. lim 2 24. lim
(e) 3 (f) 4 t→ 3t 2t 5 x→ 2x2 x 4
−9 9 3 8y 4y 2 t 2 9t 10
25. lim 26. lim
−6 6 y→ 3 y 2y 2 t→ 2 4t 3t 2
共x 2 3兲 2x 2 6
27. lim 28. lim
−9 −4 x→ 共2 x兲2 x→ 共x 1兲2
冤冥
2x 2
冤共x x 1兲冥
(g) 8 (h) 4
29. lim 4 30. lim 7
x→ 2 x→ 共x 3兲2
−6 12
冤冥
x 3x 2
冢3t 冣
1 5t
−8 10 lim
31. t→

32. lim
x→ 2x 1 共x 3兲2
2 t2
−4 −8
Algebraic-Graphical-Numerical In Exercises 33 –38,
4x 2 x2 (a) complete the table and numerically estimate the limit
5. f 共x兲 2 6. f 共x兲 2
x 1 x 1 as x approaches infinity, (b) use a graphing utility to
1 1 graph the function and estimate the limit graphically,
7. f 共x兲 4 2 8. f 共x兲 x and (c) find the limit algebraically.
x x
x2 2x 1
9. f 共x兲 2 10. f 共x兲 x 100 101 102 103 104 105 106
x 1 x2
f 共x兲
1 2x 1 4x2
11. f 共x兲 12. f 共x兲 2
x2 x 4 3x x2
1x x2 4
2x 2x 1 57. Business The cost function for a certain model of a

1 x2 x2 1 personal digital assistant (PDA) is given by
3 1 C 13.50x 45,750, where C is the cost (in dollars)
37. f 共x兲 1 2 38. f 共x兲 2 and x is the number of PDAs produced.
x x
(a) Write a model for the average cost per unit produced.
Estimating the Limit at Infinity In Exercises 39–42, (a) (b) Find the average costs per unit when x 100 and
complete the table and numerically estimate the limit as x 1000.
x approaches infinity and (b) use a graphing utility to (c) Determine the limit of the average cost function as
graph the function and estimate the limit graphically. x approaches infinity. Explain the meaning of the
limit in the context of the problem.
x 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 58. Business The cost function for a new supermarket
f 共x兲 to recycle x tons of organic material is given by
C 60x 1650, where C is the cost (in dollars).
39. f 共x兲 x 冪x 2 2 40. f 共x兲 3x 冪9x 2 1 (a) Write a model for the average cost per ton of
41. f 共x兲 3共2x 冪4x x 兲
2 organic material recycled.
42. f 共x兲 4共4x 冪16x 2 x 兲 (b) Find the average costs of recycling 100 tons and
1000 tons of organic material.
Finding the Limit of a Sequence In Exercises 43–52, (c) Determine the limit of the average cost function as
write the first five terms of the sequence and find the x approaches infinity. Explain the meaning of the
limit of the sequence (if it exists). If the limit does not limit in the context of the problem.
exist, explain why. Assume n begins with 1.
59. MODELING DATA
n1 n
43. an 2 44. an 2 The table shows the numbers R (in thousands) of
n 1 n 1
United States military reserve personnel in the years
n 4n 1 2002 through 2008. (Source: U.S. Dept. of Defense)
45. an 46. an
2n 1 n3
n2 4n2 1
47. an 48. an Year
Reserves, R
3n 2 2n (in thousands)
共n 1兲! 共3n 1兲! 2002 1222
49. an 50. an
n! 共3n 1兲! 2003 1189
共1兲n 共1兲n1 2004 1167
51. an 52. an
n n2 2005 1136
2006 1120
Finding the Limit of a Sequence In Exercises 53–56, use 2007 1110
a graphing utility to complete the table and estimate the 2008 1100
limit of the sequence as n approaches infinity. Then find
the limit algebraically. A model for the data is given by
n 61.018t 2 1260.64
10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 R共t兲 , 2 t 8
0.0578t 2 1
an
where t represents the year, with t 2 corresponding
to 2002.
1 n共n 1兲
冢冤冥冣
1
53. an n (a) Use a graphing utility to create a scatter plot of the
n n 2 data and graph the model in the same viewing
4 n共n 1兲
冢冤冥冣
4 window. How do they compare?
54. an n
n n 2 (b) Use the model to predict the numbers of reserves
10 n共n 1兲共3n 1兲 in 2009 and 2010.
55. an 3
n 冤 6 冥 (c) Find the limit of the model as t → and interpret
3n共n 1兲 4 n共n 1兲 its meaning in the context of the situation.
冤冥
2
56. an 2
4
(d) Is this a good model for predicting future numbers
n n 2
of reserves? Explain.
60. (p. 780) The table shows 66. Think About It Use a graphing utility to graph the
the annual payrolls P (in millions of dollars) function f 共x兲 x兾冪x2 1. How many horizontal
of the legislative branch of the United States asymptotes does the function appear to have? What are
government for the years 2001 through the horizontal asymptotes?
2008. (Source: U.S. Office of Personnel
Management) Exploration In Exercises 67–70, use a graphing utility
to create a scatter plot of the terms of the sequence.
Payroll, P Determine whether the sequence converges or diverges.
Year (in millions If it converges, estimate its limit.
67. an 4共 3 兲 68. an 3共 2 兲
of dollars) 2 n 3 n
2001 1682 3关1 共1.5兲n兴 3关1 共0.5兲n兴

2002 1781 69. an 70. an
1 1.5 1 0.5
2003 1908
2004 1977 71. Error Analysis Describe the error in finding the limit.
2005 2048 1 2x x2
lim 0
2006 2109 x→ 4x2 1
2007 2119
2008 2162 72. C A P S T O N E Let f be a rational function whose
graph has the line y 3 as a horizontal asymptote to
the right.
A model for the data is given by
(a) Find lim f 共x兲.
182.4312t 2 1634.39 x→
P共t兲 , 1 t 8 (b) Does the graph of f have a horizontal asymptote
0.0808t2 1
to the left? Explain your reasoning.
where t represents the year, with t 1 corresponding to (c) Find lim f 共x兲.
x→
2001.
(d) Let 3x3 x 4 be the numerator of f. Which of
(a) Use a graphing utility to create a scatter plot of the
the following expressions are possible denominators
data and graph the model in the same viewing
of f?
window. How do they compare?
(i) x2 1 (ii) x3 1 (iii) x 4 1
(b) Use the model to predict the payrolls in 2009 and
2010.
(c) Find the limit of the model as t → and interpret Cumulative Mixed Review
its meaning in the context of the situation.
(d) Is this a good model for predicting the annual Sketching Transformations In Exercises 73 and 74,
payrolls in future years? Explain. sketch the graphs of y and each transformation on the
same rectangular coordinate system.
Conclusions 73. y x 4
True or False? In Exercises 61–64, determine whether (a) f 共x兲共x 3兲4 (b) f 共x兲 x 4 1
(d) f 共x兲 2共x 4兲4
1
the statement is true or false. Justify your answer. (c) f 共x兲 2 x 4
61. Every rational function has a horizontal asymptote. 74. y x3

62. If a rational function f has a horizontal asymptote to the (a) f 共x兲共x 2兲3 (b) f 共x兲 3 x3
(c) f 共x兲 2 4 x3
1
right, then the limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches exists. (d) f 共x兲 3共x 1兲3
63. If a sequence converges, then it has a limit.
Using Sigma Notation In Exercises 75–78, find the sum.
64. When the degrees of the numerator and denominator
6 4
of a rational function are equal, the limit as x goes to
infinity does not exist.
75. 兺共2i 3兲
i1
76. 兺 5i
i0
2
10
65. Think About It Find functions f and g such that both
f 共x兲 and g共x兲 increase without bound as x approaches
77. 兺 15
k1
8
, but lim 关 f 共x兲 g共x兲兴 . 3
x→ 78. 兺k
k0
2 1
Section 11.5 The Area Problem 789
11.5 The Area Problem
Limits of Summations What you should learn

● Find limits of summations.
Earlier in the text, you used the concept of a limit to obtain a formula for the sum S of
● Use rectangles to approximate
an infinite geometric series
and limits of summations to find
a1 areas of plane regions.
S a1 a1r a1r 2 . . . 兺a r 1
i1

1r
, ⱍrⱍ < 1.
i1 Why you should learn it
Using limit notation, this sum can be written as Limits of summations are useful in
n determining areas of plane regions.
S n→
lim 兺
ar
i1 1
i1
For instance, in Exercise 46 on page
795, you are asked to find the limit
a1共1 r n兲 of a summation to determine the
lim
n→ 1r area of a parcel of land bounded by
a stream and two roads.
a1

1r
. lim r n 0 for 0 < r < 1
n→
ⱍⱍ
The following summation formulas and properties are used to evaluate finite and
infinite summations.
Summation Formulas and Properties

n n n共n 1兲
1. 兺
i1
c cn, c is a constant. 2. 兺i
i1 2
n n共n 1兲(2n 1兲 n n 2共n 1兲2
3. 兺
i1
i2
6
4. 兺
i1
i3
4
n n n
5. 兺共a
i1
i ± bi兲
i1
兺a ± 兺b
i
i1
i
n n
6. 兺
i1
kai k 兺 a , k is a constant.
i1
i
Example 1 Evaluating a Summation

Evaluate the summation.
200
兺 i 1 2 3 4 . . . 200
i1 Study Tip
Solution Recall from Section 8.3
that the sum of a finite
Using Formula 2 with n 200, you can write
geometric sequence is
n n共n 1兲 given by
兺i 2
冢11 rr 冣.
i1 n n
200 200共200 1兲兺 a1r i1 a1

兺i i1
i1 2 Furthermore, if 0 < r < 1, ⱍⱍ

40,200 then r n → 0 as n → .

2
20,100.
Now try Exercise 5.
Lukasz Laska/iStockphoto.com
Example 2 Evaluating a Summation

Evaluate the summation Technology Tip
n i2
S 兺
i1 n
2
Some graphing utilities
have a sum sequence
3 4 5 n2 feature that is useful
. . . for computing summations.
n2 n2 n2 n2
For instructions on how to
for n 10, 100, 1000, and 10,000. use the sum sequence feature,
see Appendix A; for specific
Solution keystrokes, go to this textbook’s
Begin by applying summation formulas and properties to simplify S. In the second line Companion Website.
of the solution, note that
1
n2
can be factored out of the sum because n is considered to be constant. You could not
factor i out of the summation because i is the (variable) index of summation.
n i2
S 兺
i1 n
2 Write original form of summation.
1 n

n2i1兺共i 2兲 Factor constant 1兾n2 out of sum.
冢兺 i 兺 2冣
n n
1
Write as two sums.
n2 i1 i1
1 n共n 1兲

n2 冤2
2n 冥 Apply Formulas 1 and 2.
1 n 2 5n

n2 冢2 冣 Add fractions.
n5
Simplify.
2n
Now you can evaluate the sum by substituting the appropriate values of n, as shown in
the following table.
n 10 100 1000 10,000

n
i2 n5
兺
i1 n
2

2n
0.75 0.525 0.5025 0.50025
Now try Exercise 15(a) and (b). Point out that finding the sums of
progressively larger numbers of terms—i.e.,
larger values of n—will give better and
In Example 2, note that the sum appears to approach a limit as n increases. To find better approximations of the limit of the
the limit of summation at infinity. For instance, compute
the sum in Example 2 for n 100,000 and
n5 n 1,000,000. What values are these sums
2n approaching?
as n approaches infinity, you can use the techniques from Section 11.4 to write
n5 1
lim .
n→ 2n 2
Be sure you notice the strategy used in Example 2. Rather than separately evaluating
the sums
10
i2 100
i2 1000
i2 10,000
i2
兺
i1 n
2
, 兺
i1 n
2
, 兺
i1 n2
, 兺
i1 n2
it was more efficient first to convert to rational form using the summation formulas and
properties listed on page 789.
n
i2 n5
S 兺
i1 n
2

2n
Summation Rational
form form
With this rational form, each sum can be evaluated by simply substituting appropriate
values of n.
Example 3 Finding the Limit of a Summation

Find the limit of S共n兲 as n → .
兺冢1 n 冣冢 n 冣
n
i 2 1
S共n兲
i1
Solution
Begin by rewriting the summation in rational form.
兺冢1 n 冣冢 n 冣
n 2
i 1 Write original form
S共n兲
i1
of summation.
n 2 2ni i 2
兺冢冣冢1n冣
n
Square 共1 i兾n兲 and

i1 n2 write as a single fraction.
1 n 2
兺
Factor constant 1兾n3
共n 2ni i 2兲
n3i1 out of the sum.
冢兺 n 兺 2ni 兺 i 冣
n n n
1
2 2 Write as three sums.
n3 i1 i1 i1

1 3
n3 冦
n 2n
n共n 1兲
2

n共n 1兲共2n 1兲
冤 6 冥冧 Use summation formulas.
14n3 9n2 n
Simplify.
6n3
In this rational form, you can now find the limit as n → .
14n3 9n2 n 14 7
lim S共n兲 n→
lim
n→ 6n 3 6 3
Now try Exercise 15(c).
Study Tip
As you can see from Example 3, there is a lot of algebra involved in
rewriting a summation in rational form. You may want to review simplifying
rational expressions if you are having difficulty with this procedure.
y
The Area Problem
You now have the tools needed to solve the second basic problem of calculus: the area f
problem. The problem is to find the area of the region R bounded by the graph of a
nonnegative, continuous function f, the x-axis, and the vertical lines x a and x b,
as shown in Figure 11.34.
When the region R is a square, a triangle, a trapezoid, or a semicircle, you can find
its area by using a geometric formula. For more general regions, however, you must use
a different approach—one that involves the limit of a summation. The basic strategy
is to use a collection of rectangles of equal width that approximates the region R, as
illustrated in Example 4.
x
a b
Example 4 Approximating the Area of a Region Figure 11.34
Use the five rectangles in Figure 11.35 to approximate the area of the region bounded
by the graph of y
f 共x兲 6 x 2 f(x) = 6 − x 2
the x-axis, and the lines x 0 and x 2. 5
Solution 4
Because the length of the interval along the x-axis is 2 and there are five rectangles, 3
the width of each rectangle is 25. The height of each rectangle can be obtained by
evaluating f at the right endpoint of each interval. The five intervals are as follows. 2
冤0, 5冥, 冤 5, 5冥, 冤 5, 5冥, 冤 5, 5冥, 冤 5, 5 冥

2 2 4 4 6 6 8 8 10 1
x
2 1 2 3
Notice that the right endpoint of each interval is 5i for i 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. The sum of
the areas of the five rectangles is Figure 11.35
Height Width
兺冢 5 冣冢5冣兺冤6 冢 5 冣冥冢5冣
5 5 2
2i 2 2i 2
f
i1 i1
冢兺 6 254 兺 i 冣
5 5
2
2
5 i1 i1

2
5 冢
30
44
5 冣
212

25
8.48.
So, you can approximate the area of R as 8.48 square units.
By increasing the number of rectangles used in Example 4, you can obtain closer Consider leading a discussion on why
and closer approximations of the area of the region. For instance, using 25 rectangles increasing the number of rectangles used to
2 approximate the area gives better and better
of width 25 each, you can approximate the area to be
estimates of the true area.
A ⬇ 9.17 square units.
The following table shows even better approximations.
n 5 25 100 1000 5000

Approximate area 8.48 9.17 9.29 9.33 9.33
Based on the procedure illustrated in Example 4, the exact area of a plane

region R is given by the limit of the sum of n rectangles as n approaches .
Area of a Plane Region

Let f be continuous and nonnegative on the interval 关a, b兴. The area A of the
region bounded by the graph of f, the x-axis, and the vertical lines x a and
x b is given by
共b a兲i ba
兺 f 冢a 冣冢冣
n
A n→
lim .
i1 n n
Height Width
Example 5 Finding the Area of a Region

y
Find the area of the region bounded by the graph of
f 共x兲 x 2
1 f(x) = x 2
and the x-axis between
x 0 and x1
as shown in Figure 11.36.
Solution
Begin by finding the dimensions of the rectangles.
x
ba 10 1 1
Width:
n n n
Figure 11.36
共b a兲i 共1 0兲i
Height: f a 冢 n 冣
f 0
n冢 f
i
n
i2
2
n 冣冢冣
Next, approximate the area as the sum of the areas of n rectangles.
共b a兲i
兺 f 冢a 冣冢b n a冣
n
A⬇
i1 n
兺冢n 冣冢n冣
n 2
i 1
2
i1
n
i2
兺
i1 n
3
1 n 2

n3i1兺i

n3 冤 6 冥
2n3 3n2 n

6n3
Finally, find the exact area by taking the limit as n approaches .
2n3 3n2 n 1
A lim
n→ 6n3 3


n n
兺兺i
3
1. i _______ 2. _______ y
i1 i1
2
3. Can you obtain a better approximation of the area of the shaded region using
10 rectangles of equal width or 100 rectangles of equal width? 1
4. Does the limit of the sum of n rectangles as n approaches infinity represent the
x
exact area of a plane region or an approximation of the area? 1 2

21. f 共x兲 4x3 22. f 共x兲 2共x 1兲3
Evaluating a Summation In Exercises 5–12, evaluate 1 1
the sum using the summation formulas and properties.

(8 rectangles) (4 rectangles)
60 45
兺7 兺3
y y
5. 6.
i1 i1 2 4
20 30
7. 兺i
i1
3
8. 兺i
i1
2
1
3
2
20 50
9. 兺共k
k1
3
2兲 10. 兺共2k 1兲
k1 x
1
x
25 10 1 2 1 2 3 4
11. 兺共 j
j1
2
j兲 12. 兺共 j
j1
3
3j 兲 2
Approximating the Area of a Region In Exercises

Finding the Limit of a Summation In Exercises 13–18, 23–26, complete the table to show the approximate area
(a) rewrite the sum as a rational function S冇n冈. (b) Use of the region using the indicated numbers n of rectangles
S冇n冈 to complete the table. (c) Find lim S冇n冈. of equal width.
n→ⴥ
n 4 8 20 50
n 100 101 102 103 104
Approximate area
S共n兲
23. f 共x兲 3x 4
1
n n 24. f 共x兲 9 x 2
i3 i
13. 兺
i1 n
4 14. 兺
i1 n 2
y y
10
n
3 n
2i 3
15. 兺
i1 n
3
共1 i 2兲 16. 兺
i1 n2
8
兺冢冣冢冣冢冣冥冢冣
n n
兺冤
i2 2 1 i 1
17. 3
18. 32 x
4
i1 n n n i1 n n
4 8 12 2
−4 x
Approximating the Area of a Region In Exercises −4 2 4 6
19–22, approximate the area of the region using the 25. f 共x兲 9x3
1
26. f 共x兲 3 4x3
1
indicated number of rectangles of equal width.
y y
19. f 共x兲 x 4 20. f 共x兲 2 x2
5
y y 3
4
6 2
5
1 2
1
1
x x
1 2 3 −2 −1 1 2 3
x x
− 3 −2 − 1 1 2 3 −1 1
The Area of a Region In Exercises 27–32, use the given 46. (p. 789) The table shows
expression for the sum of the areas of n rectangles. For the measurements (in feet) of a lot bounded
each finite value of n in the table, approximate the area of by a stream and two straight roads that meet
the region bounded by the graph of f and the x-axis over at right angles (see figure).
the specified interval. Then find the exact area as n → ⴥ.
x 0 50 100 150
n 4 8 20 50 100
y 450 362 305 268
Area
x 200 250 300
Function Interval Sum of areas y 245 156 0
of n rectangles
36n2 16n y
27. f 共x兲 2x 5 关0, 4兴
n2 450
28n2 24n Stream
28. f 共x兲 3x 1 关0, 4兴 360
n2
270
46n3 12n2 4n Road
29. f 共x兲 9 x 2
关0, 2兴 180
3n3
90 Road
158n3 60n2 4n
30. f 共x兲 x 1 2
关4, 6兴 x
3n3 50 100 150 200 250 300
18n2 4n
31. f 共x兲 2x 4
1
关1, 3兴 (a) Use the regression feature of a graphing utility to
n2
find a model of the form y ax3 bx2 cx d.
4n2 4n
32. f 共x兲 2x 1
1
关2, 2兴 (b) Use the graphing utility to plot the data and graph
n2 the model in the same viewing window.
(c) Use the model in part (a) to estimate the area of the lot.
Finding the Area of a Region In Exercises 33–44, use
the limit process to find the area of the region bounded
by the graph of the function and the x-axis over the
Conclusions
specified interval. True or False? In Exercises 47 and 48, determine whether
the statement is true or false. Justify your answer.
Function Interval
33. f 共x兲 4x 1 关0, 1兴 47. The sum of the first n positive integers is n共n 1兲兾2.
34. f 共x兲 3x 2 关0, 2兴 48. The exact area of a region is given by the limit of the
sum of n rectangles as n approaches 0.
35. f 共x兲 x 4 关0, 3兴
36. f 共x兲 3x 6 关2, 5兴 49. Think About It Determine which value best
37. f 共x兲 16 x 2 关0, 4兴 approximates the area of the region shown in the graph.
(Make your selection on the basis of the sketch of the
38. f 共x兲 x 2 2 关0, 1兴
region and not by performing any calculations.)
39. g共x兲 1 x3 关0, 1兴
(a) 2 y
40. g 共x兲 64 x3 关0, 3兴
(b) 1 3
41. g共x兲 2x x3 关0, 1兴
(c) 4
42. g共x兲 4x x3 关0, 2兴 2
(d) 6
43. f 共x兲 x 2 4x 关0, 6兴 1
(e) 9
44. f 共x兲 x 2 x3 关0, 1兴 x
1 3
45. Geometry The boundaries of a parcel of land are two
edges modeled by the coordinate axes and a stream 50. C A P S T O N E Describe the process of finding the
modeled by the equation areas of a region bounded by the graph of a nonnegative,
y 共3.0 106兲 x3 0.002x 2 1.05x 400. continuous function f, the x-axis, and the vertical lines
x a and x b.
Use a graphing utility to graph the equation. Find the
area of the property. (All distances are measured in feet.)
Lukasz Laska/iStockphoto.com
11 Chapter Summary
What did you learn? Explanation and Examples Review

Exercises
Understand the limit concept If f 共x兲 becomes arbitrarily close to a unique number L as x
( p. 750) and use the definition of approaches c from either side, then the limit of f 共x兲 as x 1–4
a limit to estimate limits ( p. 751). approaches c is L. This is written as lim f 共x兲 L.
x→c
Determine whether limits of Conditions Under Which Limits Do Not Exist

functions exist ( p. 753). The limit of f 共x兲 as x → c does not exist under any of the
following conditions.
1. f 共x兲 approaches a different number from the right side of 5–8
c than it approaches from the left side of c.
2. f 共x兲 increases or decreases without bound as x approaches c.
3. f 共x兲 oscillates between two fixed values as x approaches c.
Use properties of limits and direct Let b and c be real numbers and let n be a positive integer.
substitution to evaluate limits 1. lim b b
11.1 ( p. 755). x→c
2. lim x c
x→c
3. lim x n c n
x→c
n x 冪
4. lim 冪 n c,
for n even and c > 0
x→c
Properties of Limits
9–22
Let b and c be real numbers, let n be a positive integer, and
let f and g be functions where
lim f 共x兲 L and lim g共x兲 K.
x→c x→c
1. lim 关bf 共x兲兴 bL 2. lim 关 f 共x兲 ± g共x兲兴 L ± K

x→c x→c
f 共x兲 L
3. lim 关 f 共x兲g共x兲兴 LK 4. lim , K0
x→c x→c g共x兲 K
5. lim 关 f 共x兲兴n Ln
x→c
Use the dividing out technique When evaluating a limit of a rational function by direct
to evaluate limits of functions substitution, you may encounter the indeterminate form 0兾0.
23–30
( p. 760). In this case, factor and divide out any common factors, then
try direct substitution again. (See Examples 1 and 2.)
Use the rationalizing technique The rationalizing technique involves rationalizing the
to evaluate limits of functions numerator of the function when finding a limit. (See 31, 32
( p. 762). Example 3.)
Use technology to approximate The table feature or zoom and trace features of a graphing
11.2 limits of functions graphically and utility can be used to approximate limits. (See Examples 4 33–40
numerically ( p. 763). and 5.)
Evaluate one-sided limits of Limit from left: lim f 共x兲 L1 or f 共x兲 → L1 as x → c

x→c
functions ( p. 764). 41–48
Limit from right: lim f 共x兲 L2 or f 共x兲 → L2 as x → c
x→c
Evaluate limits of difference For any x-value, the limit of a difference quotient is an
quotients from calculus ( p. 766). f 共x h兲 f 共x兲
expression of the form lim . 49, 50
h→0 h
Chapter Summary 797
What did you learn? Explanation and Examples Review

Exercises
y
Understand the tangent line The tangent line to the graph of a
problem ( p. 770) and use a function f at a point P共x1, y1兲 is the P
tangent line to approximate the line that best approximates the slope 51–58
slope of a graph at a point (p. 771). of the graph at the point.
x
Use the limit definition of slope Definition of the Slope of a Graph

to find exact slopes of graphs The slope m of the graph of f at the point 共x, f 共x兲兲 is equal
( p. 772). to the slope of its tangent line at 共x, f 共x兲兲, and is given by
59–62
11.3 f 共x h兲 f 共x兲
m lim msec lim
h→0 h→0 h
Find derivatives of functions and The derivative of f at x is given by

use derivatives to find slopes of f 共x h兲 f 共x兲
graphs ( p. 775). f
共x兲 lim
h→0 h 63–78
provided this limit exists. The derivative f
共x兲 is a formula
for the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at the point
共x, f 共x兲兲.
Evaluate limits of functions at If f is a function and L1 and L2 are real numbers, then the
infinity ( p. 780). statements lim f 共x兲 L1 and lim f 共x兲 L2 denote 79–86
x→ x→
the limits at infinity.
11.4 Find limits of sequences (p. 784). Limit of a Sequence

Let L be a real number. Let f be a function of a real variable
such that lim f 共x兲 L. If 再an冎 is a sequence such that 87–92
x→
f 共n兲 an for every positive integer n, then lim an L.
n→
Find limits of summations Summation Formulas and Properties

( p. 789). n
1. 兺 c cn, c is a constant.
i1
n n共n 1兲
2. 兺i
i1 2
n n共n 1兲共2n 1兲
3. 兺i
i1
2
6 93, 94
n n2共n 1兲2
4. 兺
i1
i3
4
n n n
5. 兺共a
i1
i ± bi兲
i1
兺a ± 兺b
i
i1
i
11.5 n n
6. 兺 ka k 兺 a , k is a constant.
i1
i
i1
i
Use rectangles to approximate A collection of rectangles of equal width can be used to

and limits of summations to find approximate the area of a region. Increasing the number of
areas of plane regions ( p. 792). rectangles gives a closer approximation. (See Example 4.)
Area of a Plane Region
Let f be continuous and nonnegative on 关a, b兴. The area A of 95–105
the region bounded by the graph of f, the x-axis, and the
vertical lines x a and x b is given by
共b a兲i
兺 f 冢a 冣冢b n a冣.
n
A lim
n→ i1 n

11 Review Exercises For instructions on how to use a graphing utility, see Appendix A.
11.1 Evaluating Limits In Exercises 9 and 10, use the given

Estimating a Limit Numerically In Exercises 1– 4, information to evaluate each limit.
complete the table and use the result to estimate the limit 9. lim f 共x兲 2, lim g共x兲 5
x→c x→c
numerically. Determine whether the limit can be
reached. (a) lim关 f 共x兲兴3 (b) lim关3f 共x兲 g共x兲兴
x→c x→c
1. lim 共6x 1兲 f 共x兲

(c) lim关 f 共x兲g共x兲兴 (d) lim
x→3 x→c x→c g共x兲
x 2.9 2.99 2.999 3 3.001 3.01 3.1 10. lim f 共x兲 8, lim g共x兲 3
x→c x→c
f 共x兲 ? 3 f 共x兲 f 共x兲

(a) lim 冪 (b) lim
x→c x→c 18
x2 (c) lim关 f 共x兲g共x兲兴 (d) lim关 f 共x兲 2g共x兲兴
2. lim
x→2 3x 2 4x 4 x→c x→c
x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2 2.001 2.01 2.1 Evaluating Limits by Direct Substitution In Exercises
11–22, find the limit by direct substitution.
f 共x兲 ?
1 ex 11. lim 共12 x 3兲 12. lim 共5x 4兲

3. lim x→4 x→3
x→0 x t2 1 3x 5
13. lim 14. lim
t→3 t x→2 5x 3
x 0.1 0.01 0.001 0 0.001 0.01 0.1
15. lim 冪4x
3 16. lim 冪5 x
f 共x兲 ? x→2 x→1
17. lim sin 3x 18. lim tan x
x→ x→0
ln共1 x兲
4. lim 19. lim ex 20. lim 2 ln x
x→0 x x→1 x→3
21. lim arcsin x 22. lim arctan x
x 0.1 0.01 0.001 0 0.001 0.01 0.1 x→1兾2 x→0
f 共x兲 ? 11.2
Finding Limits In Exercises 23–32, find the limit (if it
exists). Use a graphing utility to confirm your result
Using a Graph to Find a Limit In Exercises 5–8, use the
graphically.
graph to find the limit (if it exists). If the limit does not
exist, explain why. t2 t2 9
23. lim 24. lim
t→2 t 2 4 t→3 t3
1
5. lim 共3 x兲 6. lim x5 x1
x→1 x→2 x2 25. lim 26. lim
y y x→5 x 2 5x 50 x→1 x2 5x 6
3 x2 7x 8 x2 8x 12
27. lim 28. lim
3 2 x→1 x2 3x 2 x→2 x 2 3x 10
2 1
x 1 1
1 1 1
x −1 2 3 4 5 x2 x1
−1 1 2 3 −2 lim
29. x→1 30. lim
x1 x→ 0 x
−2 −3
冪4 u 2 冪v 9 3
7. lim
x3 ⱍ ⱍ 8. lim
x2 1
31. lim
u→ 0 u
32. lim
v→0 v
x→3 x 3 x→1 x 1
y y Approximating a Limit In Exercises 33–40, (a) graphically
3 4 approximate the limit (if it exists) by using a
2 3 graphing utility to graph the function and (b) numerically
2 approximate the limit (if it exists) by using the table
x 1
−2 −1 1
feature of the graphing utility to create a table.
x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 x3 4x
33. lim lim
34. x→4
−3 −2 x→3 x2 9 16 x2
Review Exercises 799
35. lim e2兾x 36. lim e4兾x

2
Finding a Formula for the Slope of a Graph In Exercises
x→0 x→0
59–62, find a formula for the slope of the graph of f at
sin 4x tan 2x the point 冇x, f 冇x冈冈. Then use it to find the slopes at the two
37. lim 38. lim
x→0 2x x→0 x specified points.
冪2x 1 冪3 1 冪x
60. f 共x兲 4 x4
1
39. lim 40. lim 59. f 共x兲 x 2 4x
x→1 x1 x→1 x 1
(a) 共0, 0兲 (a) 共2, 4兲
(b) 共1, 4 兲
1
Evaluating One-Sided Limits In Exercises 41– 48, graph (b) 共5, 5兲
the function. Determine the limit (if it exists) by evaluating 4
61. f 共x兲 62. f 共x兲冪x
the corresponding one-sided limits. x6
41. lim ⱍx 3ⱍ 42. lim ⱍ8 xⱍ (a) 共7, 4兲 (a) 共1, 1兲

x→3 x3 x→8 8x (b) 共8, 2兲 (b) 共4, 2兲
2 1
43. lim 44. lim Finding a Derivative In Exercises 63–74, find the
x2 4
x→2 x2 9 x→3
derivative of the function.
45. lim
x5ⱍ ⱍ46. lim
x2 ⱍ ⱍ
x→5 x 5 x→2 x 2 63. f 共x兲 5 64. g共x兲 3
h共x兲 5 2x
1
5 x, x 2 f 共x兲 3x
冦
65. 66.
47. lim f 共x兲 where f 共x兲 2
x→2 x 3, x > 2 67. g共x兲 2x 1 2
68. f 共x兲 x3 4x
f 共t兲冪t 5 g共t兲冪t 3
x 6, x 0 69. 70.
x→0 x 4, 2 x < 0 4 6
71. g共s兲 72. g共t兲
s5 5t
Evaluating a Limit from Calculus In Exercises 49 and 50, 1 1
f 冇x ⴙ h冈 ⴚ f 冇x冈 73. g共x兲 74. f 共x兲
find lim . 冪x 4 冪12 x
h→0 h
49. f 共x兲 3x x 2 50. f 共x兲 x2 5x 2 Using the Derivative In Exercises 75–78, (a) find the
slope of the graph of f at the given point, (b) find an
11.3
equation of the tangent line to the graph at the point, and
Approximating the Slope of a Graph In Exercises 51 (c) graph the function and the tangent line.
and 52, use the figure to approximate the slope of the
curve at the point 冇x, y冈. 75. f 共x兲 2x2 1, 共0, 1兲
y y 76. f 共x兲 x2 10, 共2, 14兲
51. 52.
2 5
77. f 共x兲 x3 1, 共1, 0兲 78. f 共x兲 x3 x, 共2, 6兲
(x, y)
11.4
x 3
−1 1 3 2 Evaluating a Limit at Infinity In Exercises 79–86, find the
−2 (x, y) 1 limit (if it exists). If the limit does not exist, explain why.
−3 x Use a graphing utility to verify your result graphically.
−4 −1 1 2 3 5
4x 7x
lim
79. x→ lim
80. x→
2x 3 14x 2
Approximating the Slope of a Tangent Line In Exercises
53–58, use a graphing utility to graph the function and 2x
81. lim
x→ x 2 25
the tangent line at the point 冇2, f 冇2冈冈. Use the graph to
approximate the slope of the tangent line. 3x
82. lim
x→ 共1 x兲3
53. f 共x兲 x 2 2x
54. f 共x兲 6 x2 x2
83. lim
x→ 2x 3
55. f 共x兲冪x 2
56. f 共x兲冪x2 5 3y 4
84. lim 2
y→ y 1
6
57. f 共x兲
冤共x 2兲 3冥
x4 x
85. lim 2
x→
1
58. f 共x兲
lim 冤 2
共x 1兲冥
2
3x 2x
86. 2
x→
Finding the Limit of a Sequence In Exercises 87–92, Finding the Area of a Region In Exercises 99–104, use
write the first five terms of the sequence and find the the limit process to find the area of the region bounded
limit of the sequence (if it exists). If the limit does not by the graph of the function and the x-axis over the
exist, explain why. Assume n begins with 1. specified interval.
2n 3 2n Function Interval
87. an 88. an
5n 4 n2 1 99. f 共x兲 10 x 关0, 10兴
共1兲n 共1兲n1 100. f 共x兲 2x 6 关3, 6兴
89. an 3 90. an
n n 101. f 共x兲 x 2 4 关0, 3兴
1 f 共x兲 6共x x 2兲关0, 1兴
91. an 2 关3 2n共n 1兲兴 102.
2n
103. f 共x兲 x3 1 关0, 4兴
2 n共n 1兲
冢冣冦冤冥冧
2
92. an n n 104. f 共x兲 8 x3 关0, 2兴
n n 2
105. Civil Engineering The table shows the measurements
11.5
(in feet) of a lot bounded by a stream and two straight
Finding the Limit of a Summation In Exercises 93 and roads that meet at right angles (see figure).
94, (a) use the summation formulas and properties to
rewrite the sum as a rational function S冇n冈. (b) Use S冇n冈 x 0 100 200 300 400 500
to complete the table. (c) Find lim S冇n冈.
n→ y 125 125 120 112 90 90
n 10 0 101 10 2 10 3 10 4
x 600 700 800 900 1000
S共n兲
y 95 88 75 35 0
兺冢冣冢冣兺冤 4 冢 n 冣冥冢 n 冣
n n
4i 2 i 1 3i 2 3i
93. 2
94. 2
y
i1 n n n i1
125 Stream
100
Approximating the Area of a Region In Exercises 95 75
and 96, approximate the area of the region using the Road
50
indicated number of rectangles of equal width. 25 Road
95. f 共x兲 4 x 96. f 共x兲 4 x 2
200 400 600 800 1000
x
y y
4
(a) Use the regression feature of a graphing utility to
3 3 find a model of the form
2 2 y ax3 bx2 cx d.
1 1
x x (b) Use the graphing utility to plot the data and graph
1 2 3 4 −1 1 the model in the same viewing window.
(c) Use the model in part (a) to estimate the area of the
Approximating the Area of a Region In Exercises 97 lot.
and 98, complete the table to show the approximate area
of the region using the indicated numbers n of rectangles Conclusions
of equal width.
True or False? In Exercises 106 and 107, determine
n 4 8 20 50 whether the statement is true or false. Justify your answer.
Approximate area 106. If the degree of the numerator N共x兲 of a rational
function f 共x兲 N共x兲兾D共x兲 is greater than the degree
of its denominator D共x兲, then the limit of the rational
97. f 共x兲 4x2
1
98. f 共x兲 4x x 2 function as x approaches is 0.
y y
107. The expression f
共z兲 gives the slope of the tangent line
4 4 to the graph of f at the point 共z, f 共z兲兲.
3 3
2 2 108. Writing Write a short paragraph explaining several
1 1 reasons why the limit of a function may not exist.
x x
1 2 3 4 1 2 3
Chapter Test 801

11 Chapter Test For instructions on how to use a graphing utility, see Appendix A.
Take this test as you would take a test in class. After you are finished, check your
work against the answers in the back of the book.
In Exercises 1–3, use a graphing utility to graph the function and approximate
the limit (if it exists). Then find the limit (if it exists) algebraically by using
appropriate techniques.
x2 1 x2 5x 3 冪x 2
1. lim 2. lim 3. lim
x→2 2x x→1 1x x→5 x5
In Exercises 4 and 5, use a graphing utility to graph the function and approximate
the limit. Write an approximation that is accurate to four decimal places. Then
create a table to verify your limit numerically.
sin 3x e2x 1
4. lim 5. lim
x→0 x x→0 x
6. Find a formula for the slope of the graph of f at the point 共x, f 共x兲兲. Then use it to
find the slope at the specified point.
(a) f 共x兲 3x2 5x 2, 共2, 0兲 (b) f 共x兲 2x3 6x, 共1, 8兲
In Exercises 7–9, find the derivative of the function.

2 1
7. f 共x兲 3 x 8. f 共x兲 2x2 4x 1 9. f 共x兲
5 x1
In Exercises 10–12, find the limit (if it exists). If the limit does not exist, explain
why. Use a graphing utility to verify your result graphically.
y
6 1 3x2 x2
10. lim 11. lim 12. lim
x→ 5x 1 x→ x2 5 x→ 3x 2 10
In Exercises 13 and 14, write the first five terms of the sequence and find the limit
6
of the sequence (if it exists). If the limit does not exist, explain why. Assume n
begins with 1. 4
n2 3n 4 1 共1兲n 2
13. an 14. an
2n2 n 2 n x
1 2
−2
15. Approximate the area of the region bounded by the graph of f 共x兲 8 2x2 shown
at the right using the indicated number of rectangles of equal width. Figure for 15
In Exercises 16 and 17, use the limit process to find the area of the region bounded
by the graph of the function and the x-axis over the specified interval.
Time Height
16. f 共x兲 x 2; interval: 关2, 2兴
(seconds), x (feet), y
17. f 共x兲 7 x2; interval: 关0, 2兴
0 0
18. The table shows the height of a space shuttle during its first 5 seconds of motion. 1 1
(a) Use the regression feature of a graphing utility to find a quadratic model 2 23
y ax2 bx c for the data. 3 60
4 115
(b) The value of the derivative of the model is the rate of change of height with
respect to time, or the velocity, at that instant. Find the velocity of the shuttle 5 188
after 5 seconds. Table for 18

10–11 Cumulative Test For instructions on how to use a graphing utility, see Appendix A.
Take this test to review the material in Chapters 10 and 11. After you are finished,
check your work against the answers in the back of the book.
In Exercises 1 and 2, find the coordinates of the point.
z
1. The point is located six units behind the yz-plane, one unit to the right of the
xz-plane, and two units above the xy-plane.
4
2. The point is located on the y-axis, five units to the left of the xz-plane. (0, 0, 3) (0, 4, 3)
3. Find the distance between the points 共2, 3, 6兲 and 共4, 5, 1兲. 2
4. Find the lengths of the sides of the right triangle at the right. Show that these
lengths satisfy the Pythagorean Theorem. (0, 0, 0)
y
5. Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment joining 共3, 4, 1兲 and 2
4
2
共5, 0, 2兲.
6. Find an equation of the sphere for which the endpoints of a diameter are 共0, 0, 0兲 4
and 共4, 4, 8兲. x
7. Sketch the graph of the equation 共x 2兲2 共 y 1兲2 z2 4, and then sketch Figure for 4
the xy-trace and the yz-trace.
8. For the vectors u 具2, 6, 0典 and v 具4, 5, 3典, find u v and u v.
In Exercises 9–11, determine whether u and v are orthogonal, parallel, or neither.

9. u 具4, 4, 0典 10. u 具4, 2, 10典 11. u 具1, 6, 3典
v 具0, 8, 6典 v 具2, 6, 2典 v 具3, 18, 9典
12. Find the volume of the parallelepiped with the vertices A共1, 3, 2兲, B共3, 4, 2兲,
C共3, 2, 2兲, D共1, 1, 2兲, E共1, 3, 5兲, F共3, 4, 5兲, G共3, 2, 5兲, and H共1, 1, 5兲.
13. Find sets of (a) parametric equations and (b) symmetric equations for the line
passing through the points 共2, 3, 0兲 and 共5, 8, 25兲. z
14. Find the parametric form of the equation of the line passing through the point
共1, 2, 0兲 and perpendicular to 2x 4y z 8. 6
(− 1, − 1, 3) (− 1, 3, 3)
15. Find an equation of the plane passing through the points 共0, 0, 0兲, 共2, 3, 0兲, and (0, 0, 0)
共5, 8, 25兲.
(3, − 1, 3) (3, 3, 3)
16. Label the intercepts and sketch the graph of the plane given by 3x 6y 12z 24.
−4
y
17. Find the distance between the point 共0, 0, 25兲 and the plane 2x 5y z 10. (2, 0, 0) 4
18. A plastic wastebasket has the shape and dimensions shown in the figure. In 4 (2, 2, 0) (0, 2, 0)
fabricating a mold for making the wastebasket, it is necessary to know the angle x
between two adjacent sides. Find the angle. Figure for 18
x2 x7
19. lim 共5x x 2兲 20. lim 21. lim
x→4 x2 x 2
x→2 x→7 x2 49
22. lim
冪x 4 2
23. lim
x4 ⱍ ⱍ 24. lim sin 冢x 冣
x→0 x x→4 x4 x→0
1 1

x3 3 冪x 16 4 x2
25. lim 26. lim 27. lim
x→0 x x→0 x x→2 x2 4
Cumulative Test for Chapters 10–11 803
In Exercises 28–31, find a formula for the slope of the graph of f at the point
冇x, f 冇x冈冈. Then use it to find the slope at the specified point.
28. f 共x兲 4 x 2, 共2, 0兲
29. f 共x兲冪x 3, 共2, 1兲
冢冣
1 1
30. f 共x兲 , 1,
x3 4
31. f 共x兲 x2 x, 共1, 0兲
x3 3 7x
32. lim 33. lim
x→
x2 9 x→ x 4
3x2 1 2x
34. lim 2 35. lim 2
x→ x 4 x→ x 3x 2
3x 3 4x x3
36. lim 37. lim
x→ x2 1 x→ 2x2 3
In Exercises 38– 40, evaluate the sum using the summation formulas and properties.
50 20 40
38. 兺
i1
共1 i2兲 39. 兺
k1
共3k 2 2k兲 40. 兺共12 i 兲
i1
3
In Exercises 41– 44, approximate the area of the region using the indicated
number of rectangles of equal width.
41. y 42. y
7 y = 5 − 12 x 2
6
4
5 y = 2x
4 3
3 2
2
1 1
x x
1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5
43. y 44. y
2 2 1
y=
y= 1
(x + 1)2 x2 + 1
4
1
x
x
1 2
−1 1
In Exercises 45–48, use the limit process to find the area of the region bounded by
the graph of the function and the x-axis over the specified interval.
45. f 共x兲 x 2 46. f 共x兲 x2 1
Interval: 关0, 1兴 Interval: 关0, 4兴
47. f 共x兲 4 x2 48. f 共x兲 1 x3
Interval: 关0, 2兴 Interval: 关0, 1兴
Proofs in Mathematics
Many of the proofs of the definitions and properties presented in this chapter are beyond
the scope of this text. Included below are simple proofs for the limit of a power
function and the limit of a polynomial function.
Limit of a Power Function (p. 755) Proving Limits

lim x n cn, c is a real number and n is a positive integer.
x→c To prove most of the definitions
and properties from this chapter,
you must use the formal
Proof definition of a limit. This
definition is called the epsilon-
lim xn lim共x x x . . . x兲
x→c x→c delta definition and was first
introduced by Karl Weierstrass
n factors
(1815–1897). If you go on to
lim x lim x lim x . . . x→c
lim x Product Property of Limits take a course in calculus, you
x→c x→c x→c
will use this definition of a limit
n factors extensively.
c c c . . . c Limit of the identity function
n factors
cn Exponential form
Limit of a Polynomial Function (p. 756)

If p is a polynomial function and c is a real number, then
lim p共x兲 p共c兲.
x→c
Proof
Let p be a polynomial function such that
p共x兲 an x n an1 x n1 . . . a2 x 2 a1x a0.
Because a polynomial function is the sum of monomial functions, you can write the
following.
lim p共x兲 lim 共an x n an1 x n1 . . . a2 x 2 a1x a0兲
x→c x→c
lim an x n lim an1x n1 . . . lim a2 x 2 lim a1x lim a0

x→c x→c x→c x→c x→c
Scalar Multiple Property of
ancn an1cn1 . . . a2c2 a1c a0 Limits and limit of a power
function
p共c兲 p evaluated at c

Limits and An Introduction To Calculus

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Limits and An Introduction To Calculus

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Limits and an Introduction

Section 11.4, Example 3

11.1 Introduction to Limits

The Limit Concept What you should learn

共12 w兲w Substitute 12 w for l.

Width, w 5.0 5.5 5.9 6.0 6.1 6.5 7.0

Now try Exercise 5.

Example 2 Estimating a Limit Numerically

In Figure 11.2, note that the graph of

Example 3 Estimating a Limit Numerically

x 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0 0.0001 0.001 0.01 f is undefined

Now try Exercise 9.

Example 4 Using a Graphing Utility to Estimate a Limit

Numerical Solution Graphical Solution

Create a table that shows values

5.1 Use the trace feature to

because the value of f 共3兲 is immaterial, it follows 2, x ≠ 3

The fact that f 共3兲 0 has no bearing on the 1

Limits That Fail to Exist

Show that the limit does not exist. x3 1

ⱍxⱍ 1, x < 0. f(x) = − 1

Similarly, you can force f 共x兲 to be larger than 1,000,000, as follows. 1

Example 8 Oscillating Behavior

as indicated in the table. Figure 11.10

Now try Exercise 39.

Conditions Under Which Limits Do Not Exist

Properties of Limits and Direct Substitution

Let b and c be real numbers and let n be a positive integer.

Trigonometric functions can also be included in this list.

By combining the basic limits with the following operations,

1. Scalar multiple: lim 关b f 共x兲兴 bL

2. Sum or difference: lim 关 f 共x兲 ± g共x兲兴 L ± K

3. Product: lim 关 f 共x兲 g共x兲兴 LK

Example 9 Direct Substitution and Properties of Limits

a. lim x 2 共4兲2 16 Direct Substitution

Limits of Polynomial and Rational Functions

2. If r is a rational function given by r共x兲 p共x兲兾q共x兲, and c is a real number

Example 10 Evaluating Limits by Direct Substitution

See www.CalcChat.com for worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

Vocabulary and Concept Check

3. Find the limit: lim 3.

Procedures and Problem Solving

behavior of the function as x approaches 4. Use the

(d) Use the graphing utility to graph the area function.

tan x Using a Graph to Find a Limit In Exercises 33–40, use

冪x 3 1 69. The limit of a function as x approaches c does not exist

53. lim 共10 x 兲

55. lim 共2x2 4x 1兲 56. lim 共x3 6x 5兲

63. lim ex 64. lim ln x 15x2 7x 4 x2 12x 36

11.2 Techniques for Evaluating Limits

Dividing Out Technique What you should learn

Now try Exercise 11.

Example 2 Dividing Out Technique

x1 Study Tip

Now try Exercise 15.

Example 3 Rationalizing Technique

x 0.1 0.01 0.001 0 0.001 0.01 0.1

Now try Exercise 23.

The rationalizing technique for evaluating limits is based on multiplication by a

Example 5 Approximating a Limit Graphically

Approximate the limit: lim sin x.

So, the limit from the left is

lim ⱍ2xⱍ 2. Limit from the left

56. lim f 共x兲 where f 共x兲冦

4 h, h0 Simplify. Tangent 4

200 200共200 1兲兺 a1r i1 a1