CALCULUS I - AY2022/23

Chapter 4: Integrals and Applications

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Outline

1 Indefinite integral

2 Definition of the definite integral

3 Properties of the definite integral

4 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

5 Methods of Substitution and Integration by Parts

6 Volumes

7 Arc Length and Surface Area

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Summary

We have studied in Chapter 3 antiderivative of a function and the

indefinite integral as its collection of all antiderivatives.

In this section we develop some fundamental results about

antiderivatives and indefinite integrals. The main topics are:
Properties of indefinite integrals.
Two important integration methods.

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From the Antiderivative linearity rules, we also obtain the following.

Theorem (Properties of the Indefinite Integral)

Suppose F (x) and G(x) are antiderivatives of f (x) and g(x)
respectively, and k is a constant. Then
A constant factor can be moved through an integral sign, i.e.
Z Z
kf (x) dx = k f (x) dx = kF (x) + C

An integral of a sum/difference is the sum/difference of integrals,

i.e.
Z Z Z
 
f (x) ± g(x) dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx = F (x) ± G(x) + C.

Here C is an arbitrary constant.

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• Methods of integration

• Integration by Substitution

The chain rule gives the method integration by substitution

Z Z
0


f g(x) g (x) dx = f (u) du

Here we substitute u = g(x) and du = g 0 (x) dx and so this method is

also called the method of u-substitution.

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Example
Z
Find x 3 cos(x 4 + 2) dx.

Solution. We put u = x 4 + 2 which gives du = 4x 3 dx. Then since

1
x 3 dx = du, we have
4
Z Z Z
3 4 1 1
x cos(x + 2) dx = cos u · du = cos u du
4 4
1 1
= sin u + C = sin(x 4 + 2) + C,
4 4
where C is an arbitrary constant.

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• Integration by Parts

The derivative rule for product gives the method of integration by parts
Z Z
0
f (x)g (x) dx = f (x)g(x) − g(x)f 0 (x) dx;

which is easier to remember in the following notation

Z Z
u dv = uv − v du,

with u = f (x) and v = g(x).

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Example
Z
Find x sin x dx.

Solution. We put
 
u = x du = dx
=⇒
dv = sin x dx v = − cos x.

Then we have
Z Z
x sin x dx = −x cos x + cos x dx = −x cos x + sin x + C,

where C is an arbitrary constant.

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From the Table of antiderivative formulas we obtain the following “Table
of Integration Formulas”.

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Outline

1 Indefinite integral

2 Definition of the definite integral

3 Properties of the definite integral

4 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

5 Methods of Substitution and Integration by Parts

6 Volumes

7 Arc Length and Surface Area

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Summary

In this section we study the following.

How to define the value of the area under a curve.
What a Riemann sum is.
What the definite integral of a function is.

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Given a figure bounded by some curve, how can we find its area?

• If it is a “regular” figure, then the answer is easy

• However, what happens if the region is bounded by a curve y = f (x)?

For example, a region is bounded by the curve y = f (x) = 1 − x 2 , the

x-axis, and the lines x = ±1.

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 “Integration", or “integral calculus" is the formal mathematical
method used to define the area of such a region and to develop
methods to help in the calculations.

The idea is to “approximate" the unknown areas using regular figures

(such as rectangles) and then apply the limit.

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We approximate this area with a collection of strips as shown below.

We divide the given interval [a, b] into n equal subintervals. Let

a = x0 < x1 < x2 < · · · < xn−1 < xn = b

In the figure we have 7 strips, so n = 7. The seven intervals are

[a, x1 ], [x1 , x2 ], · · · , [x6 , b].

y
a strip
Y = f(x)

x=a
S1 I S2I S3I S4I S5I S61 871
x=b

0 a X 1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 b X

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The trick is to approximate this area with a rectangular strip.

Let’s consider the area over say interval [x3 , x4 ]. The width of the
rectangle is the same as the width of the strip x4 − x3 .
However we need to specify the height of the approximating
rectangle. For this, we choose a sampling point in the subinterval,
say x4∗ ∈ [x3 , x4 ] and look at the rectangle with height f (x4∗ ).
This is illustrated in the figure below.

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By picking sampling points x1∗ ∈ [a, x1 ], x2∗ ∈ [x1 , x2 ], · · · in each
subinterval, we can approximate the entire area by
n n
X b−a b−a X
f (xi∗ ) · = · f (xi∗ ).
n n
i=1 i=1

Note that as a sampling point, it is most commonly to take

the left-endpoint xi∗ = xi−1 , or
the right-endpoint xi∗ = xi , or
xi−1 + xi
the midpoint xi∗ = .
2

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In general, the larger the n, the smaller the width of each rectangle,
and the better the approximation:

Therefore, it seems reasonable to define the area under the curve as

n
b−a X
the limit of the value · f (xi∗ ) as n → ∞.
n
i=1

Think of this as a process used to define the value of the area under a
curve, rather than a process to compute the area.

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Definition. Let f : [a, b] → R.
n
b−a X
A Riemann sum is the value of · f (xi∗ ), where the
n
i=1
points a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn−1 < xn = b divide up the
interval [a, b] into n equal subintervals, and xi∗ ∈ [xi−1 , xi ]
are sampling points.

The Riemann integral of the function f (x) from a to b is the

limit of the Riemann sums as n → ∞. That is
Z b n
b−a X
f (x) dx = lim · f (xi∗ ).
a n→∞ n
i=1

If this limit exists and is finite, then we say that f (x) is

integrable on the interval [a, b].

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Some remarks.
Z b
The value f (x) dx is a real number (if it exists) and is defined
a
as the limit of the Riemann sums. It is also called the definite
integral of f (x) from a to b.
The definition of the definite integral works for a < b. However if
a = b or a > b we adopt the following convention:
Z a Z b Z a
f (x) dx = 0, f (x) dx = − f (x) dx.
a a b

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The variable of integration is not important. So
Z 5 Z 5 Z 5
f (x) dx = f (t) dt = f (z) dz.
1 1 1
Z b
f (x) dx gives the area of the region below the curve y = f (x)
a
from x = a to x = b, provided that f (x) ≥ 0. (What happens if
f (x) ≤ 0?)
Every integrable function must be bounded on [a, b]. There
are examples of unbounded and hence non-integrable
functions.

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Example
Using the definition of the integral, find
Z 1
x 2 dx.
0

Solution. We are asked to use the definition, which says that

b n
b−a X
Z
f (x) dx = lim · f (xi∗ ).
a n→∞ n
i=1

So we have to find the values of a, b, f (x), and xi∗ .

Clearly a = 0 and b = 1 and f (x) = x 2 . What about the sample point

xi∗ ? We can choose xi∗ to be any point in this interval. We pick the
i
right-endpoint, xi∗ = .
n
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So plugging in, we get
n  
1
1−0 X i 2
Z
2
x dx = lim ·
0 n→∞ n n
i=1
n
X i2 n
1 1 X 2
= lim · = lim · i
n→∞ n n2 n→∞ n3
i=1 i=1
n
!
X n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
= Sum of squares formula i2 =
6
i=1
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
= lim
n→∞ 6n3
1 · (1 + n1 )(2 + n1 ) 1 · (1 + 0)(2 + 0) 1
= lim = = .
n→∞ 6 6 3

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• The definition of the definite integral can also sometimes be applied
“backwards". That is, you are given the expression involving the
Riemann sum and asked to find the exact value of the limit.
Example
n
1 X√
Find the limit lim √ i.
n→∞ n3 i=1

Solution. This limit is quite difficult to evaluate. Let’s use the definition
of the definite integral.
b n
b−a X
Z
f (x) dx = lim · f (xi∗ ).
a n→∞ n
i=1

In the example above, the values of a, b, f are all given in the question.

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Now we have to find a suitable combination of a, b, f , xi∗ so that the
resulting Riemann sum is equal to the given expression, i.e.
n n
b−a X 1 X√
lim · f (xi∗ ) = lim √ i.
n→∞ n n→∞ n3
i=1 i=1

To do this, we start with the given expression and try to simplify:

n n
1 X√ 1 X√
lim √ i = lim √ i
n→∞ n3 i=1 n→∞ n n
i=1
n r n r
1X i 1−0X i
= lim = lim .
n→∞ n n n→∞ n n
i=1 i=1

Now it is clear that we should choose a = 0, b = 1.

What about ∗ ∗
  xi ? We pick xi to be the right-endpoint of the interval
i −1 i
, , i.e. xi∗ = ni .
n n
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 √
Lastly what about f (x)? Clearly we should take f (x) =
x so that
Z b n n r
b−a X ∗ 1−0X i
f (x) dx = lim · f (xi ) = lim .
a n→∞ n n→∞ n n
i=1 i=1

Z b Z 1√
Now to evaluate this expression, we find f (x) dx = x dx
a 0
instead. So we conclude that
n
1 X√
Z 1
√
lim √ i= x dx.
n→∞ n3 i=1 0

Later we’ll see what the value is.

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Outline

1 Indefinite integral

2 Definition of the definite integral

3 Properties of the definite integral

4 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

5 Methods of Substitution and Integration by Parts

6 Volumes

7 Arc Length and Surface Area

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In this section you study the following.
How the area is related to the definite integral.
Basic properties of the definite integral.
Comparison properties of the definite integral.
Mean Value Theorem for the definite integral.

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How is the area under a graph related to the definite integral?
If f ≥ 0 lies above the x-axis from a to b, then the area is simply
Z b
the definite integral f (x) dx:
a

However in the definition of integral, the function f is not restricted to

being positive.
In this case, what value does the definite integral represent?

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 b−aX
The items of the Riemann sum f (xi∗ ) are sometimes positive
n
and sometimes negative.
- It is negative if f (xi∗ ) < 0. As a result, the Riemann sums does not
actually represent the sums of areas of the rectangles (see below: the
Riemann sums are negative if f (xi∗ ) < 0).

- So the Riemann sum represents the sum of the areas of the

rectangles above the x-axis minus the sum of areas of rectangles
below the x-axis.

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Let’s analyze the figure below about the area of region bounded by the
curve y = f (x) and the x-axis

Z b
Clearly, after taking limits, the definite integral f (x) dx represents
a
the quantity obtained by taking the first and third areas minus the
middle area.

So if the question asks you to find the area of region bounded by the
curve y = f (x) and the x-axis, we must first find the roots of the
function f (x) = 0, and then split the integral up accordingly.

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Example
Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y = x 3 − 6x and the
x-axis between x = 0 to x = 3.

Solution. First, we solve for the roots

√
x 3 − 6x = 0 ⇐⇒ x(x 2 − 6) = 0 ⇐⇒ x = 0, ± 6.

The region bounded by the curve y = x 3 − 6x and the x-axis between

x = 0 to x = 3 is as follows

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- If we simply take the definite integral, we get
Z 3
(x 3 − 6x) dx = −6.75, which is negative (is it surprising that we get
0
a negative answer?)

- The correct method is to split the region into A1 and A2 .

* The function is negative in the region A2 , and so
Z √6
A2 = − (x 3 − 6x) dx.
0
* The function is positive in the region A1 , and so
Z 3
A1 = √ (x 3 − 6x) dx.
6

Thus the final area is A1 + A2 .

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Theorem (Basic properties of the definite integral)
Let f (x) and g(x) be integrable function on the interval [a, b], c and d
constants. Then
Z a
1 f (x) dx = 0 (Identical limits)
a
Z b Z a
2 f (x) dx = − f (x) dx (Reversing limits)
a b
Z b
3 c dx = c(b − a) (Area of a rectangle)
a
Z b Z b Z b
4 [cf (x) ± dg(x)] dx = c f (x) dx ± d g(x) dx (Linearity)
a a a
Z b Z c Z b
5 f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
a a c
This holds regardless the order of a, b, c (Additivity)

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We also have some further properties of the definite integral.

Theorem (Comparison properties)

Let f (x) and g(x) be integrable on the interval [a, b]. TFAT:
Z b
1 If f (x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ [a, b], then f (x) dx ≥ 0.
a
Z b Z b
2 If f (x) ≤ g(x) for all x ∈ [a, b], then f (x) dx ≤ g(x) dx.
a a
3 If m ≤ f (x) ≤ M for all x ∈ [a, b], then
Z b
m(b − a) ≤ f (x) dx ≤ M(b − a).
a

This holds even for negative values of m, M.

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The following is a very important theorem.

Theorem (Existence of the definite integral)

Every continuous function on a closed interval [a, b] is integrable.

So if a function f (x) has finitely many discontinuities, say at the points

a1 , a2 , a3 ∈ [a, b], we can still compute the integral by taking
Z b Z a1 Z a2 Z a3 Z b
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx + f (x) dx + f (x) dx.
a a a1 a2 a3

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Mean Value Theorem for Integrals
If f is continuous on [a, b], then there exists some point c ∈ [a, b] such
that Z b
1
f (c) = f (x) dx.
b−a a

The value f (c) is called the average value of f over the interval [a, b].

Think of what happens if f is the graph of speed versus time. Then

Z b
f (x) dx is the total distance traveled over the time interval [a, b],
a Z b
1
and f (x) dx is the average speed over the entire journey.
b−a a
The MVT says that there is some time x = c where the instantaneous
speed f (c) is equal to the average speed over the entire journey.

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The average value of f on an interval [a, b]

Graphically, the MVT says that we can find some c ∈ [a, b] such that
the rectangle has the same area as the area under the graph. This
means that Z b
(b − a)f (c) = f (x) dx,
a
which is the same as in the theorem.

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Example
Show that for any number t > 0 there exists a number 0 ≤ c ≤ t such
that
sin t
cos c = .
t

Solution. Let f (x) = cos x. Then f is continuous and hence integrable

on an interval [0, t].

Applying the MVT for Integrals to f (x) and the interval [0, t], we
conclude that there is some c ∈ [0, t], such that
Z t
1 sin t
cos c = cos x dx = .
t −0 0 t

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Outline

1 Indefinite integral

2 Definition of the definite integral

3 Properties of the definite integral

4 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

5 Methods of Substitution and Integration by Parts

6 Volumes

7 Arc Length and Surface Area

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• FTC - Part 1

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus - 1

Suppose that f is continuous on [a, b], and define the function
Z x
F (x) = f (t) dt.
a

Then F 0 (x) = f (x) for any x ∈ (a, b).

Some remarks. Z x
For each fixed value of x, the quantity f (t) dt is a fixed real
a
number. However if we let x vary then this defines a function of x.
So the role of x and the role of t are very different.

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The FTC-1 is usually written in the form
Z x
d
f (t) dt = f (x).
dx a

It is important that all three occurrences of the variable x are

consistent.

To apply the FTC-1, the lower limit a must be a constant. If it is not

a constant, we must split the integral so that we end up with a
constant. In applying the FTC-1, the value of the constant a is
irrelevant. So, we have
Z x Z x
d d
f (t) dt = f (t) dt = f (x).
dx 0 dx 10

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Example
Find Z x2 Z x
d d
(a) f (t) dt; (b) √ f (t) dt
dx 0 d x 0

Solution.
(a) We use the Chain Rule of differentiation. Let y = x 2 , and we get:
Z x2  Z y 
d d dy
f (t) dt = f (t) dt ·
dx 0 dy 0 dx
= f (y ) · 2x = 2xf (x 2 ).
√
(b) We put z = x and so we have
Z x Z z2
d d
√ f (t) dt = f (t) dt
d x 0 dz 0
√
= 2zf (z 2 ) = 2 xf (x).
|{z}
by part (a)

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Now look back at the FTC-1, we can write
Z x 0
f (t) dt = f (x),
a

and it shows that if you first integrate, then differentiate the result, you
get back f (x).

What happens if you first differentiate, then integrate?

Answer: it is also the same

Z x
f 0 (t) dt = f (x) + C.
a

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FTC - Part 2

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus - 2

If F is an anti-derivative of a continuous function f , then
Z b Z b
f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a) = f (x) dx .
a a

The FTC-2 is very powerful. It tells us that to compute the value of the
definite integral, we do not need to find and use the Riemann sums:
b n
b−a X
Z
f (x) dx = lim · f (xi∗ ).
a n→∞ n
i=1

Instead, we only need to find some function F with F 0 (x) = f (x) and
calculate F (b) − F (a).
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Example
Find the area of a figure bounded by the line y = 0 and the curve
y = (x − 2)2 (x + 2)2 .

Solution. The roots of the equation

(x − 2)2 (x + 2)2 = 0 ⇐⇒ x = ±2,

and since y = (x − 2)2 (x + 2)2 ≥ 0, the curve lies above the x-axis
between x = −2 and x = 2.

Thus, the area is simply the definite integral

Z 2 Z 2
2 2
(x − 2) (x + 2) dx = (x 4 − 8x 2 + 16) dx.
−2 −2

Instead of evaluating the Riemann sums and then taking limits, we use
the FTC-2.
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Clearly, the anti-derivative of x 4 − 8x 2 + 16 is

x5 8 3
F (x) = − x + 16x,
5 3
which, by the FTC-2, gives
Z 2  
4 2 32 64
(x − 8x + 16) dx = F (2) − F (−2) = 2 − + 32 .
−2 5 3

We can also note that the integrand is an even function, and hence
Z 2 Z 2
(x 4 −8x 2 +16) dx = 2 (x 4 −8x 2 +16) dx = 2[F (2)−F (0)] = 2F (2).
−2 0

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Outline

1 Indefinite integral

2 Definition of the definite integral

3 Properties of the definite integral

4 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

5 Methods of Substitution and Integration by Parts

6 Volumes

7 Arc Length and Surface Area

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• Substitution rule for definite integrals
If g 0 (x) is continuous on [a, b] and f is continuous on the range of
u = g(x), then
Z b Z g(b)
0
f (g(x))g (x) dx = f (u) du.
a g(a)

There are two ways we can make a substitution: either u = g(x) or

x = h(u).

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Example
Z 2√
Find x dx.
0

Solution. We can do it directly:

√
2 3 2 2 3
Z 2
√
 
2 8
x dx = x 2 = 22 = .
0 3 0 3 3

Alternatively, we can use the substitution x = u(t) = t 2 . As x ranges

√ √
from 0 to 2, we can pick t from 0 to 2 (or from 0 to − 2). Hence, we
have
Z 2 Z √2 p
√
x dx = t 2 2t dt (t ≥ 0)
0 0
√
2 √ 2 √
2t 3
Z 
2 2 8
= 2t dt = = .
0 3 0 3
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 √
If you want to pick t from 0 to − 2, then it looks as follows.
√
Z 2√ Z − 2p
x dx = t 2 2t dt (t ≤ 0)
0 0
√
− 2 −√2 √
2t 3
Z 
2 8
= − 2t 2 dt = − = .
0 3 0 3

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• Integrals of symmetric functions

From the Substitution rule, we can get the following results.

• Integrals for even and odd functions

Suppose f is continuous on the closed interval [−a, a].
If f is even on [−a, a] (i.e., f (−x) = f (x), for all x ∈ [−a, a]), then
Z a Z a
f (x) dx = 2 f (x) dx.
−a 0

If f is odd on [−a, a] (i.e., f (−x) = −f (x), for all x ∈ [−a, a]), then
Z a
f (x) dx = 0.
−a

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The illustrations for the theorem above:

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• Integration by Parts

• Integration by Parts for definite integrals

If f and g are both differentiable, then
Z b  b Z b
f (x)g 0 (x) dx = f (x)g(x) − f 0 (x)g(x) dx.
a a a

Since the formula is also often written in the compact form

Z Z
u dv = uv − v du,

the Integration by Parts formula does not alwaysZ work, because you
are basically transferring the task of evaluating u dv to the task of
Z
evaluating v du.

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Example
Z 2
Find ln x dx.
1

du = 1 dx
 
u = ln x
Solution. We choose =⇒ x and apply
dv = 1 dx. v = x
the IBP formula
Z 2 Z 2  2 Z 2
 2 1
ln x dx = uv 1 − v du = x ln x − x·
dx
1 1 1 1 x
Z 2
 2
= (2 ln 2 − 1 ln 1) − 1 dx = 2 ln 2 − x 1
1
= 2 ln 2 − 1.

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Outline

1 Indefinite integral

2 Definition of the definite integral

3 Properties of the definite integral

4 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

5 Methods of Substitution and Integration by Parts

6 Volumes

7 Arc Length and Surface Area

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Summary

In this section, our study moves to a 3-dimensional setting (volume)

versus the previous 2-dimensional setting (area).

We use the definite integral to help us to make precise what the

volume of a solid means.

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So, what is the “volume" of a given solid?

Again this is easy to answer for “regular" solids for which we have
standard formulas:

The volumes of cylindrical solids.

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However the volume is not so easy to find for a non-cylindrical case.
A solid S with a cross-section highlighted.

To help us analyze this problem, we consider intersecting the given

solid with a plane Px . This plane Px is perpendicular to the x-axis and
passes through the point x on the x-axis, where a ≤ x ≤ b.

The common region between Px and S is called the cross-section of

S, and the area of the cross section is denoted by A(x).

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 58 / 114

In general, we have
Z b
V = A(x) dx.
a

How to derive this formula? There are two main ways of calculating
volume of a given solid:
Volumes using cross-sections.
Volumes using cylindrical shells.

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• Volumes using cross-sections

We study how to calculate the volume of a given solid using the

cross-sectional method.

There are three types of solids where the cross-sectional method

applies:
1 General solid.
2 Solid of revolution (disk method).
3 Solid of revolution (washer method).

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 60 / 114

 Cross-sectional method I: General solids
This method can be applied to any given solid, as long as the
cross-sectional area A(x) can be easily found.

Let’s consider the solid. We apply the same idea as we previously did
for the area problem - see Appendix !

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 61 / 114

So we have the following definition.

Definition. Let S be a solid that lies between x = a and x = b.

If the cross-sectional area of S in the plane Px through x and
perpendicular to the x-axis is given by the continuous function
A(x), then the volume of the solid S is
n
X Z b
V = lim A(xi∗ ) · ∆x = A(x) dx.
n→∞ a
i=1

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 62 / 114

Some things to remember.
1 It is important to keep in mind that when we use the volume
Z b
formula V = A(x) dx, the area A(x) is the area of the
a
cross-section obtained by slicing through the point x perpendicular
to the x-axis. This is usually not constant and is a function of x.

2 The variable x here refers to the x-coordinate. It can be negative,

but must lie between a and b.

3 A(x) must be positive.

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Example
Show that the volume of a sphere of radius r is

4 3
V = πr .
3

Solution. We place the sphere so that its center is at the origin. So we

have a sphere of radius r , with a cross-section at x.

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 64 / 114

 √
The cross section at x is a circle with radius y = r 2 − x 2 . Therefore,
the cross-sectional area at x is

A(x) = π · y 2 = π · (r 2 − x 2 ).

Note that x refers to the x-coordinate value and may take on negative
values. However the expressions for y and A(x) are always positive.
So we can compute the volume of the sphere using the formula
Z r Z r Z r Z r
2 2 2
A(x) dx = π(r − x ) dx = πr dx − π x 2 dx
−r −r −r −r
 r  3 r
2 x
= πr x −π
|{z}
−r 3 −r
(by the FTC-2)
π  3 4 3
= πr 2 (2r ) − 2r = πr .
3 3

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 Cross-sectional method II: Solid of revolution (disk method)
This method can be applied to a second kind of solid.

The solid generated by rotating (or revolving) a plane region about an

axis in its plane is called a solid of revolution.

The following example demonstrates how to find the volume of such a

solid.

Example
Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the x-axis the
√
region under the curve y = x from 0 to 4.

Solution. Let us try and figure out what the solid described in the
question looks like.

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 66 / 114

 √
- First, we start with the curve y = x in the 2-dimensional xy -plane
√
(the region (shaded) under the curve y = x from x = 0 to x = 4).

- Next, we take this shaded region and rotate it 360◦ around the x-axis
to get the 3-dimensional solid.

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 67 / 114

Now what do we get when we slice the plane Px perpendicular to the
x-axis through this solid to get the cross-section?

The area of the resulting cross-section should be a circle of radius

√
R(x) = x. So,
√
2
A(x) = π[R(x)]2 = π x = πx.

Thus, since the solid lies between x = 0 to x = 4, the volume is

4 4 4
x2
Z Z 
V = A(x) dx = πx dx = π = 8π.
0 0 2 0

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 68 / 114

We can also find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the
y -axis the region bounded.

In this case, to take the cross section, we slice a plane Py at the point
with y -coordinate y , perpendicular to the y -axis, and hence, we
integrate with respect to y .

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In summary for the disk method, we have

• Volume by Disks Rotation about the x-axis:

Z b Z b
V = A(x) dx = π[R(x)]2 dx.
a a

• Volume by Disks Rotation about the y -axis:

Z d Z d
V = A(y ) dy = π[R(y )]2 dy .
c c

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 70 / 114

 Cross-sectional method III: Solid of revolution (washer
method)
We now talk about the third kind of solid you may encounter in the
cross-sectional method.

This kind of solid is usually obtained by rotating around the x- or y -axis

a region bounded between two or more curves. The resulting
cross-sectional area often looks like the region between two concentric
circles and hence this is called the “washer" method.

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 71 / 114

Example
Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the x-axis the
region enclosed by y = x and y = x 2 .

Solution. - First we sketch the 2-dimensional figure described in the

question, and sketch the 3-dimensional solid obtained by rotating the
2-dimensional region about the x-axis.

The region enclosed by y = x and y = x 2 , and the solid of revolution

are below:

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 72 / 114

- Since the solid is obtained by revolving around the x-axis, we
integrate with respect to x. To obtain the cross-section we must slice
perpendicular to the x-axis. It has the shape of a washer with inner
radius x 2 and outer radius x.

The cross-sectional area.

The cross-sectional area is thus

A(x) = πx 2 − π(x 2 )2 = π(x 2 − x 4 ).

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 73 / 114

Since the solid lies between x = 0 and x = 1, so the volume of the
solid of revolution is

x 5 1 2π
Z 1 Z 1  3 
2 4 x
V = A(x) dx = π(x − x ) dx = π − = .
0 0 3 5 0 15

Thus, for the washer method, we have.

• Volume by Washers for Rotation about the x-axis:

Z b Z b  
V = A(x) dx = π [R(x)]2 − [r (x)]2 dx.
a a

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• Volumes using cylindrical shells

After this study you should be able to:

1 Calculate the volume of a given solid using the cylindrical shell
method.
2 Determine which method to use (cross-section versus cylindrical
shells).

Consider the following cylindrical shell. It has inner radius r1 , outer

radius r2 and height h.

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 75 / 114

The volume of such a cylinder is given by

V = π(r2 )2 h − π(r1 )2 h = π(r22 − r12 )h

= π(r2 + r1 )(r2 − r1 )h
r2 + r1
= 2π · · h · (r2 − r1 ).
2
If we let ∆r = r2 − r1 representing the thickness of the shell, and
r2 + r1
r= representing the average radius of the shell, then the
2
formula for the volume of a cylindrical shell becomes

V = 2πr · h · ∆r .

This can be remembered as the product of 2πr (average

circumference), h (height) and ∆r (thickness).

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 76 / 114

A question: How to find the volume of such a solid of revolution?

The solid S is obtained by rotating about the y -axis the region under
the curve y = f (x) from x = a to x = b, where b > a ≥ 0:

We can use the previous method of taking cross-section to find the

volume of the solid S.

How would we do it?

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 77 / 114

There is an alternative method to find volumes using cylindrical shells.
Namely, the same method as before is applied - see Appendix !
The formula to memorize: is as follows.
• Volume of cylindrical shells:

V = 2πr ·h·∆r = Average circumference×(height)×(thickness).

Example
Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the y -axis the
region bounded by y = 2x 2 − x 3 and y = 0.

Solution. The region and the solid are sketched below:

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 78 / 114

As we can see from the diagram, a typical cylindrical shell at
coordinate value x has radius x and height f (x). So the volume of a
typical approximating cylindrical shell is

(2πx) · (2x 2 − x 3 ) · ∆x.

Then the volume of the solid is the definite integral of the above
expression, i.e.
Z 2 Z 2
2 3
(2πx) · (2x − x ) dx = 2π (2x 3 − x 4 ) dx
0 0
2
x4 x5
  
32 16π
= 2π − = 2π 8 − = .
2 5 0 5 5

Question: Can you try to solve the example using cross-sections?

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 79 / 114

So a natural question to ask is: Cross-section versus cylindrical shells,
which one to use?

It really depends on how easy it is to find the cross-sectional area

versus how easy to find the information on the cylindrical shells.

Often both methods are fine (as we have seen in the examples above).

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 80 / 114

However, a general guideline is as follows:
Rotation of a given plane region about the x-axis:
If using cross-sectional method, slice perpendicular to the x-axis,
and integrate w.r.t. x.
If using cylindrical shells, consider typical cylinders parallel to
x-axis, and integrate w.r.t. y .
Rotation of a given plane region about the y -axis:
If using cross-sectional method, slice perpendicular to the y -axis,
and integrate w.r.t. y .
If using cylindrical shells, consider typical cylinders parallel to
y -axis, and integrate w.r.t. x.

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 81 / 114

Outline

1 Indefinite integral

2 Definition of the definite integral

3 Properties of the definite integral

4 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

5 Methods of Substitution and Integration by Parts

6 Volumes

7 Arc Length and Surface Area

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 82 / 114

We now discuss how to find the arc length of a smooth curve on the
xy -plane.

For instance, a smooth curve defined by a differentiable function f (x).

The basic idea is still the same as for finding volumes: divide,
approximate, perform the sum, and take the limit.

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 83 / 114

 Length of straight line segments

Let’s first figure out how to compute the arc length when we are given
the simplest kind of smooth curve, a straight line segment.

Consider the line segment joining two points P1 (x1 , y1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 ).

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 84 / 114

The length of this straight line segment is simply given by the distance
between the two points P1 and P2 :
q
|P1 P2 | = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .

The arc length can be found in another way by using the angle of
elevation of the line segment - see the Appendix !

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 85 / 114

The arc length can be found in another way by using the angle of
elevation of the line segment - see the Appendix !
We try to write this distance in another way.

We use θ as the angle of elevation of the line segment.

As shown in the figure, we may let ∆x = x2 − x1 and ∆y = y2 − y1 .

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 86 / 114

So the distance between the two points can be written as:
q
|P1 P2 | = (∆x)2 + (∆y )2 .

Now consider the triangle in the figure. Since the angle of elevation of
the line segment is θ, we have
∆y y2 − y1
tan θ = = ⇐⇒ ∆y = ∆x · tan θ,
∆x x2 − x1
and so substituting into the expression for |P1 P2 | gives the formula for
the length of a straight line segment
q
|P1 P2 | = (∆x)2 + (∆y )2
q p
= (∆x)2 + (∆x · tan θ)2 = 1 + tan2 θ · ∆x.

∆y
Note that tan θ = is the slope of the line passing through P1 , P2 .
∆x
.......................................................................
CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 87 / 114
 Deriving the formula for the length of an arc

Now consider an arc lying on a curve which is not necessarily a

straight line.

We use the same trick we have used many times before - a self-study.
.......................................................................
- First divide the curved arc C (bounded by x = a and x = b) into many
small parts (tiny arcs) of equal width ∆x (using a partition of [a, b] by n
subintervals [a, x1 ], [x1 , x2 ], [x2 , x3 ], · · · , [xn−1 , b]).

Each tiny arc on C looks roughly like a straight line segment.

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 88 / 114

- Next, to approximate this tiny arc by a straight line segment, we need
to choose a straight line segment close to the tiny arc. But which line
segment should we choose? It turns out that it is easiest to pick a
sample point xi∗ ∈ [xi−1 , xi ] from the interval, and then taking the
tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point xi∗ , f (xi∗ ) .

So we use the segment of the tangent line inside the interval [xi−1 , xi ]
to approximate the tiny arc in the same interval [xi−1 , xi ].

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 89 / 114

To find the length of the approximating segment on the tangent line, we
apply the formula we derived previously
p
1 + tan2 θ · ∆x.

We know the value of ∆x = xi − xi−1 . How do we find θ?

Let’s put in the right angled triangle into the diagram

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 90 / 114

We note that the slope of this tangent is f 0 (xi∗ ), because the
approximating line segment lies on the tangent line to the curve
y = f (x) at the point xi∗ , f (xi∗ ) . This means that

tan θ = f 0 (xi∗ ).

So we can apply the formula we obtained earlier for the length of a

straight line segment:
q
p
2
1 + tan θ · ∆x = 1 + f 0 (xi∗ ) · ∆x.
2

This expression gives us the approximate arc length for each tiny arc.
- To find an approximate value for the arc length L of the entire curve
C, we sum up the lengths to get:
n q
X
2
L≈ 1 + f 0 (xi∗ ) · ∆x.
i=1

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 91 / 114

- Finally, as usual, this approximation gets closer to L as n → ∞, so to
get L we take limit:
n q
X
2
L = lim 1 + f 0 (xi∗ ) · ∆x.
n→∞
i=1

At this point, we should recognize the expression

n q
X
2
1 + f 0 (xi∗ ) · ∆x as the nth Riemann sum of the function
i=1
q
1 + (f 0 (x))2 .

So by the definition of the definite integral, we get

n q Z b q
X
2
L= 0 ∗
1 + f (xi ) · ∆x = 1 + (f 0 (x))2 dx.
i=1 a

......................................................................

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 92 / 114

This gives us the following formula:

Definition (Arc length formula)

If f 0 (x) is continuous on [a, b], then the arc length of the curve y = f (x)
from the point A(a, f (a)) to the point B(b, f (b)) is given by
Z b q
L= 1 + (f 0 (x))2 dx.
a

You may choose to remember the formula in the form

Z b q
L= 1 + (y 0 )2 dx.
a

Note that we require the function f (x) to be not only differentiable, but

to be continuously differentiable, i.e. f 0 (x) is continuous. This ensures

that the limit of the Riemann sum exists.

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 93 / 114

Example
Find the arc length of the semi-cubical parabola y 2 = x 3 between the
points (1, 1) and (4, 8).

Solution. This is sketched in the figure below (the arc is colored in red).

We are only interested in the top half where y ≥ 0 (since this is where
3
the arc is defined). So the equation of the curve is in fact y = x 2 .

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 94 / 114

To apply the formula for the arc length, we must first find the first
derivative: √
0 3 x
y = .
2
Now the arc length is given by the formula:
 √ 2
s
Z 4q Z 4
0 2 3 x
arc length = 1 + (y ) dx = 1+ dx
1 1 2
Z 4 1

9

32 4
9 2 1+ x
= 1+ x dx =  3 49 
1 4 2 · 4
1
"  3 #4
8 9 2 1  √ √ 
= 1+ x = 80 10 − 13 13 .
27 4 27
1

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 95 / 114

 Arc length function
Some applications require a function that measures the arc length of a
curve from a particular starting point to any other point on the curve.

Suppose that a smooth curve has the equation y = f (x) for a ≤ x ≤ b.

Let s(x) be the length of the arc along the curve y = f (x) from the
point (a, f (a)) to the point (x, f (x)). Then we can view s(x) as a
function (what is the input and what is the output of s(x)?)

By the arc length formula, we have

Z xq
s(x) = 1 + (f 0 (t))2 dt.
a

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 96 / 114

Example
ln x
Find the arc length function for the curve y = x 2 − by taking (1, 1)
8
as the starting point.

1
Solution. First we compute the first derivative y 0 = 2x − . Then
8x
s
x
1 2
Z  
s(x) = 1 + 2t − dt
1 8t
Z xr
1 1
= 4t 2 + + 2
dt
1 2 64t
s
Z x  2
1 1
= (2t)2 + + dt
1 2 8t
s
Z x    2
2
1 1
= (2t) + 2(2t) + dt.
1 8t 8t

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 97 / 114

We note that the expression inside the square root as of the form

1 2 1 2
     
2 1
(2t) + 2(2t) + = 2t + .
| {z } 8t 8t 8t
p2 | {z } | {z } | {z }
2pq q2 (p+q)2

Then we continue
s
x
1 2
Z   Z x 
 1 
s(x) = 2t + dt = 2t +  dt.
1 8t 1
 8t 

1
Since t ranges from 1 to x, we have 2t + > 0 and so
8t
ln t x
Z x  
1 2 ln x
s(x) = 2t + dt = t + = x2 + − 1.
1 8t 8 1 8

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 98 / 114

 ln x
So the curve of the function y = x 2 − and the curve of its arc
8
ln x
length function s(x) = x 2 + − 1 are plotted in figures below.
8

(Why do you think that s(1) = 0? Why is it that s(x) < 0 for
0 < x < 1?)

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 99 / 114

 Surface area
We have already discussed the problem of finding the volume of a
solid of revolution. How do we find the surface area of a solid of
revolution? The key lies in using the arc length.

Consider the following solid of revolution given in the figure.

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 100 / 114

To derive the formula for the surface area of such a solid, we adopt the
same strategy as before: divide, approximate, sum, and take limit. We
skip the derivation here (refer to the textbook if you are interested to
see the derivation). We instead give the intuitive idea - a self-study.
.......................................................................
The idea is that the surface area of the solid in the figure can be
obtained by summing up the surface areas of small pieces of the solid.
Each small piece is called a frustum as shown in the figure below.

The surface area of a typical frustum is given by:

q

2
Circumference × height of frustum = 2πf (xi∗ ) × 1 + f 0 (xi∗ ) · ∆x.

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 101 / 114

Here the height of the frustum is the arc length of the straight line
segment at the side of the frustum.

So the surface area of the whole solid of revolution is approximated by

summing up the surface areas of all these approximating frustums:
n q
X
2
2πf (xi∗ ) 1 + f 0 (xi∗ ) · ∆x.
i=1

To get the exact surface area of the whole solid we take limits. Then
X Z b
the summation symbol becomes the integration symbol while
a
the ∆x symbol becomes the differential symbol dx:
Z b q
2πf (x) 1 + (f 0 (x))2 dx.
a

......................................................................

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 102 / 114

Theorem (Surface Area)
If the function f (x) ≥ 0 has a continuous first derivative (i.e. f 0 (x) is
continuous) on the interval [a, b], then the surface area generated by
rotating the curve y = f (x) about the x-axis is given by
Z b q
S= 2πf (x) 1 + (f 0 (x))2 dx.
a
s
Z b  2
dy
This is sometimes written as 2πy 1+ dx.
a dx
We can also remember
q the formula in the following way: 2πf (x) is the
circumference and 1 + (f 0 (x))2 dx is the arc length.

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 103 / 114

Example
Find the surface area generated by rotating the parabola y = x 2 from
(1, 1) to (2, 4) about the y -axis.

Solution. The solid is sketched in the figure below.

We need to apply the formula, except with the role of x and y reversed.

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 104 / 114

So we have
√ 1
x= y =⇒ x0 = √ .
2 y
The formula Z b q
S= 2πf (x) 1 + (f 0 (x))2 dx
a
now becomes Z d q
S= 2πg(y ) 1 + (x 0 )2 dy ,
c
where [c, d] is the range of y , and g(y ) is the radius of each frustum.

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 105 / 114

We thus get
s 2
Z 4 √

1
S= 2π y · 1+ √ dy
1 2 y
s
Z 4 √ 1
= 2π y · dy 1+
1 4y
Z 4p Z 4 1
=π 4y + 1 dy = π (4y + 1) 2 dy
1 1
" 3
#4
(4y + 1) π 3
2 3

=π = 17 2 − 52
3 6
2 ·4 1
π  √ √ 
= 17 17 − 5 5 .
6

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 106 / 114

END OF CHAPTER 4

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 107 / 114

 Appendix to Chapter 4

In this Appendix, the following explanations are given:

Cross-sectional method I: General solids
An alternative method to find volumes using cylindrical shells.

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 108 / 114

 Cross-sectional method I: General solids
This method can be applied to any given solid, as long as the
cross-sectional area A(x) can be easily found.

The same idea as we previously did for the area problem is applied.

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 109 / 114

- The first step is to divide the given solid S into n “slabs" of equal
width ∆x. Each slab is divided by using the planes Px1 , Px2 , · · · , Pxn .
To do this, we need to first divide the interval [a, b] into n equal
subintervals [a, x1 ], [x1 , x2 ], · · · , [xn−1 , b].

- Let’s zoom in on the i th interval [xi−1 , xi ]. The i th slab looks as follows.

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 110 / 114

- This portion of the solid S is not necessarily a cylinder, and so it is
still not easy for us to calculate the area of this slab easily.

- Instead we approximate this slab with a cylinder. To do so we pick a

sample point xi∗ from the i th interval [xi−1 , xi ]. This sample point can
again be any point in the i th interval, including the left endpoint,
right endpoint, or the midpoint of the interval.

- Using the sample point xi∗ we look at the cylinder with constant
cross-section area A(xi∗ ) and cylinder height ∆x. This cylinder has
roughly the same volume as the volume of the i th slab. The volume of
this cylinder is

Cross-sectional area × Height = A(xi∗ ) · ∆x.

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 111 / 114

- So it is reasonable to approximate the volume of the entire solid S by
n
X
V ≈ A(xi∗ ) · ∆x.
i=1

- To turn this into the exact volume, we proceed as before. We take

limit on the sum of volumes of approximating cylinders by letting
n → ∞. At the end, we get
n
X
V = lim A(xi∗ ) · ∆x.
n→∞
i=1

- Comparing this with the definition of the definite integral, we can

recognize the expression A(xi∗ ) · ∆x as the nth Riemann sum of the
function A(x). So, we have
Xn Z b
∗
V = lim A(xi ) · ∆x = A(x) dx.
n→∞ a
i=1

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 112 / 114

 An alternative method to find volumes using cylindrical shells
The same method as before is applied.
- First divide [a, b] into n subintervals [a, x1 ], [x1 , x2 ], · · · , [xn−1 , b].
- Then divide the region under the curve y = f (x) and approximate it
by n strips.
- By rotating each strip about the y -axis we obtain a small circular
piece of the solid. Putting each small circular piece together gives an
approximation to the solid S.

CALCULUS I - AY2022/23 113 / 114

As we have observed above the volume of the i th cylindrical shell is
given by

(Average circumference) × (height) × (thickness) = (2π x̄i ) · f (x̄i ) · ∆x.

Summing up the volumes of all the cylindrical shells gives

n
X
V ≈ (2π x̄i ) · f (x̄i ) · ∆x.
i=1

Finally, taking limit as n → ∞ to get the actual volume:

n
X Z b
V = lim (2π x̄i ) · f (x̄i ) · ∆x = 2πxf (x) dx.
n→∞ a
i=1

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