Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

Al-Nahrain University

college of information engineering

Systems Department
Mathematics research entitled

integration
by
The Area Bounded by a Curve

tabark jihad ismail

Introduction
When you were first introduced to integration as the reverse of
differentiation, the integrals you dealt
with were indefinite integrals. The result of finding an indefinite integral
is usually a function plus a
constant of integration. In this search we introduce definite integrals, so
called because the result
will be a definite answer, usually a number, with no constant of
integration. Definite integrals have
many applications, for example in finding areas bounded by curves, and
.finding volumes of solids

prerequisites before starting search should understand integration as the

reverse of differentiation and be able to use a table of integral.
learning outcomes on completion you should be able to find simple
definite integral and handle some integrals involving an infinite limit of
integration.
so definite integrals We saw in the previous Section that
∫ f ( x ) dx=F ( x ) +C
where F(x) is that function which, when
dF
differentiated, gives f(x). That is, dX =f(x).
Integrals are used extensively in many areas of mathematics as well as in
many other areas that rely on mathematics.

For example, in probability theory, integrals are used to determine the

probability of some random variable falling within a certain range.
Moreover, the integral under an entire probability density function must
equal 1, which provides a test of whether a function with no negative
values could be a density function or not.

Integrals can be used for computing the area of a two-dimensional region

that has a curved boundary, as well as computing the volume of a three-
dimensional object that has a curved boundary. The area of a two-
dimensional region can be calculated using the aforementioned definite
integral.[ 6 ]

The aim
The branch of mathematics in which the notion of an integral, its
properties and methods of calculation are studied. Integral calculus is
intimately related to differential calculus, and together with it constitutes
the foundation of mathematical analysis. The origin of integral calculus
goes back to the early period of development of mathematics and it is
related to the method of exhaustion developed by the mathematicians of
Ancient Greece . This method arose in the solution of problems on
calculating areas of plane figures and surfaces, volumes of solid bodies,
and in the solution of certain problems in statistics and hydrodynamics. It
is based on the approximation of the objects under consideration by
stepped figures or bodies, composed of simplest planar figures or special
bodies (rectangles, parallelo pipeds, cylinders, etc.).[ 7 ]

integration the area bounded by a curve

One of the important applications of integration is to find the area

bounded by a curve. Often such
an area can have a physical significance like the work done by a motor, or
the distance travelled by

a vehicle. In this Section we explain how such an area is calculated.

prerequisites before starting this Section you should, • understand
integration as the reverse of differentiation , be able to evaluate definite
integrals , be able to sketch graphs of common functions including
polynomials, simple rational functions, exponential functions and
trigonometric function

learning outcomes, on completion you should be able to find the area

bounded by acu rve and the x-axis and find the area between two cures
[ 8]
01[ ] calculating the area under a curve
Let us denote the area under y = f(x) between a fixed point a and a
:variable point x by A(x)

A(x) is clearly a function of x since as the upper limit changes so does the
area. How does the area

change if we change the upper limit by a very small amount δ x

:To a good approximation the change in the area is

A(x+δ x)-A(x)≅ f ( x )δx

[This is because the shaded area is approximately a rectangle with base

_x and height f(x).] This

approximation gets better and better as _x gets smaller and smaller.

:Rearranging gives
A ( x +δx )− A( x )
f(x)≈
δx
Clearly, in the limit asδx → 0 we have
A ( x +δx )− A(x )
f(x)= lim
δx → 0 δx
But this limit on the right-hand side is the derivative of A(x) with respect
to x so
dA ( x)
f(x)=
dx
Thus A(x) is an indefinite integral of f(x) and we can therefore write
A(x)=∫ f ( x ) dx
Now the area under the curve from a to b is clearly A(b) − A(a). But
remembering our shorthand notation for this difference, introduced in the
last Section we have, finally

A(b)-A(a)≡ [ A (x) ]=∫ f ( x )dx

a

We conclude that the area under the curve y = f(x) from a to b is given by
the definite integral of
f(x) from a to b.
The area bounded by a curve lying above the x-axis
Consider the graph of the function y = f(x) shown in Figure. Suppose we
are interested in
calculating the area underneath the graph and above the x-axis, between
the points where x = a
and x = b. When such an area lies entirely above the x-axis, as is clearly
the case here, this area is
b

given by the definite integral∫ f ( x ) dx

a

The area under the curve y = f(x), between x = a and x = b is given by

b

∫ f ( x ) dx
a

when the curve lies entirely above the x-axis between a and b.

Example
1
Calculate the area bounded y = x and the x-axis, between x = 1 and x = 4

solution
 4

area=∫
1
( 1x ) dx= [lnx ]=ln 4−ln 1=ln 4−0=ln 4=1.386
Example
Find the area bounded by the curve y = sin x and the x-axis between x = 0
and x = π (The required area is shown in the figure. Note that it lies
entirely above the x-axis)

solution
π

∫ sinx dx= [−cos x ] π0

0

=¿ =2

Example
Find the area under f(x) =e 2 x from x = 1 to x = 3 given that the exponential
functione 2 x is always positive.

solution
1
grphs intersect at the point where x= 4 π . Find the shaded area.

3
1 3
[ ] 2x
area=∫ e2 x dx= 2 e 1 =201.7-3.69=198.01
1

Example
 1
The figure shows the graphs of y = sin x and y = cos x for0 ≤ x ≤ 2 π . The
1
two graphs intersect at the point where x= 4 π . Find the shaded area.

solution
To find the shaded area we could calculate the area under the graph of y =
1
sin x for x between 0 and 4 π ,∧¿ subtract this from the area under the
graph of y = cos x between the same limits.
Alternatively the two processes can be combined into one and we can
write

π /4

shaded area= ∫ ( cos x−sin x ) dx

0

π /4
¿ [ sin x+ cos x ]
0

π π
=(sin 4 +cos 4 ¿−(sin 0+ cos o)

1 1 2
=( + ¿−( 0+1 ) = -1=√ 2−1=1. 414−1=0 . 414
√2 √ 2 √2
The area bounded by a curve, not entirely above the
x-axis[ 8 ]
Figure shows a graph of y = − x 2 + 1.

The shaded area is bounded by the x-axis and the curve, but lies entirely
below the x-axis. Let us
2

evaluate the integral ∫ ( −x2 +1 ) dx

1

2 3

[
∫ ( −x2 +1 ) dx= −x3
1
]
+x 2
1
3
2
=(- +2 ¿−¿+1)
3

7 4
=- 3 +1=- 3

The evaluation of the area yields a negative quantity. There is, of course,
4
no such thing as a negative area. The area is actually 3
, and the negative sign is an indication that the area lies below the x-axis.
(However, in applications of integration such as work/energy or distance
travelled in a given direction
negative values can be meaningful.)
If an area contains parts both above and below the horizontal axis, care
must be taken when calculating
this area. It is necessary to determine which parts of the graph lie above
the horizontal axis
and which lie below. Separate integrals need to be calculated for each
‘piece’ of the graph. This idea
is illustrated in the next Example.

Example

Find the total area enclosed by the curve y = x 3-5 x 2+ 4 x and the x-axis
between x = 0 and x = 3.

solution

We need to determine which parts of the graph lie above and which lie
below the x-axis. To do this
it is helpful to consider where the graph cuts the x-axis. So we consider
the function x 3−5 x 2+ 4 x and look for its zeros

x 3−5 x 2+ 4 x=x ( x 2−5 x + 4 ) =x ( x−1 ) ( x−4)

So the graph cuts the x-axis when x = 0, x = 1 and x = 4. Also, when x is

large and positive, y is large and positive since the term involving x 3
dominates. When x is large and negative, y is large and negative for the
same reason. With this information we can sketch a graph showing the
required area:
From the graph we see that the required area lies partly above the x-
axis(when0 ≤ x ≤ 1¿ partly below ( when 0≤ x ≤ 3 ¿ So we evaluate the
integral in two parts: Firstly:
1
x4 x3 x2 1 1 1 1 7
∫ ¿ ¿-5 x 2+ 4 x ¿ dx=
0
[ 4
−5 + 4
3 ] =( −5 +4 ) - 0 =
2 0 4 3 2 12

This is the part of the required area which lies above the x-axis. Secondly
3
x4 x3 x 2 3 81 135 5 22
∫ ( x 3−5 x 2 +4 x ) dx =
1
[ 4
−5 +4
3 ]
2 1
=( −
4 3
+18 ¿−¿ - +2)= -
3 3

This represents the part of the required area which lies below the x-axis.
22
The actual area is 3 Combining the results of the two separate
calculations we can find the total area bounded by the curve
7 22 95
area= 12 + 3 = 12

integration methods[ 6 ]
1-By parts
2-Susbstitution
3-Inevers function
4-Changing order
5-Trigonometric substitution
6-Euler substitution
7-Weierstrass substitution
8-Partial fraction
9-Reduction formulas
10-Parametric derivation
11-Eulers formula
12-Differentitation under the integral sign
13-Contour integration
14-Numerical integration

We will briefly explain each of it

1-By parts
In calculus, and more generally in mathematical analysis, integration by
parts or partial integration is a process that finds the integral of a product
of functions in terms of the integral of the product of their derivative and
antiderivative. It is frequently used to transform the antiderivative of a
product of functions into an antiderivative for which a solution can be
more easily found. The rule can be thought of as an integral version of the
product rule of differentiation

if u=u ( x )∧du=u ( x ) dx w hile v=v ( x )∧dv=v' dx .  then the integration by parts

formula states that
b b

∫ u (x) v ( x ) dx=[ u ( x ) v ( x) ] ba−∫ u ' ( x ) v ( x ) dx

'

a a

More compactly =u ( b ) v ( b ) −u ( a ) v ( a )−∫ u ' ( x ) v ( x ) dx

a

∫ u dv =uv−∫ v du
2-Susbstitution

In calculus, integration by substitution, also known as u-substitution or

change of variables is a method for evaluating integrals. Direct
application of the fundamental theorem of calculus to find an
antiderivative can be quite difficult, and integration by substitution can
help simplify that task. It is the counterpart to the chain rule for
differentiation, in fact, it can loosely be thought of as using the chain rule
"backwards." When evaluating a definite integral, it may be simpler to
completely deduce the antiderivative before applying the boundaries of
integration. This becomes especially handy when multiple substitutions
are used.

EX

∫ ¿ ¿+1¿7 ( x 2 ) dx
3 du
set u=22 x +1 t h is mean dx =6 x 2 or du=6 x 2 dx

1
∫ ¿ ¿+1¿7 ( x 2 ) dx= 6 ∫ ¿ ¿+1¿7 ( x 2 ) (6 ) dx
8
1 1
=6 ∫ u 7du = 6 . u8
1
= 48 (2 x 3+1¿8 + c

3-Inevers function

In mathematics, integrals of inverse functions can be computed by means

of a formula that expresses the antiderivatives of the inverse f − 1 of a
continuous and invertible function f , in terms of f − 1 and an
antiderivative of f. This formula was published in 1905 by Charles-Ange
Laisant

let I 1∧I 2 be two intervais of R assume that f : I 1→I2 is a continuous and

invertible function .and let f −1 denote its inverse

I2→ I . t h en f ∧f −1 have antiderivatives .and if F is an antiderivative of f.

the possible antiderivatives of f −1 are:

∫ f −1(y)dy=y f −1(y) -F O f −1 (y) +c

4-Changing order
In calculus, interchange of the order of integration is a methodology that
transforms iterated integrals (or multiple integrals through the use of
Fubini's theorem) of functions into other, hopefully simpler, integrals by
changing the order in which the integrations are performed. In some
cases, the order of integration can be validly interchanged; in others it
cannot.

5-Trigonometric substitution

In mathematics, trigonometric substitution is the substitution of

trigonometric functions for other expressions. In calculus, trigonometric
substitution is a technique for evaluating integrals. Moreover, one may
use the trigonometric identities to simplify certain integrals containing
radical expressions Like other methods of integration by substitution,
when evaluating a definite integral, it may be simpler to completely
deduce the antiderivative before applying the boundaries of integration

case1 integrands containing a 2−x 2

case2 integrands containing a 2 + x 2

case3 integrands containing x 2−a 2

6-Euler substitution
is a method for evaluating integrals of the form

∫ R ( x , √ a x 2 +bx +c ) dx
where R  is a rational function of X  and √ a x 2+ bx+ c. In such cases, the
integrand can be changed to a rational function by using the substitutions
of Euler.
7-Weierstrass substitution
In integral calculus, the Weierstrass substitution or tangent half-angle
substitution is a method for evaluating integrals, which converts a rational
function of trigonometric functions of x into an ordinary rational
function of t by setting t = tan ⁡( x / 2 No generality is lost by taking
these to be rational functions of the sine and cosine. The general
transformation formula is
2 1−t 2
∫ f ( sin ( x ) , cos ( x ) ) dx=∫ 1+ t2 f¿ , ) dt
1+t 2

8-Partial fraction

In algebra, the partial fraction decomposition or partial fraction expansion

of a rational function (that is, a fraction such that the numerator and the
denominator are both polynomials) is an operation that consists of
expressing the fraction as a sum of a polynomial (possibly zero) and one
or several fractions with a simpler denominator.[1]

The importance of the partial fraction decomposition lies in the fact that it
provides algorithms for various computations with rational functions,
including the explicit computation of antiderivatives,[2] Taylor series
expansions, inverse Z-transforms, inverse Laplace transforms. The
concept was discovered independently in 1702 by both Johann Bernoulli
and Gottfried Leibniz.[3]

In symbols, one can use partial fraction expansion to change a rational

fraction in the form

 Example 
3 x +5 = A
¿¿ ¿¿

3x+5=A+B(1-2x)

5=A+B and 3x=-2Bx

A=13/2 and B=-3/2

 13
3 x +5
¿¿
=2
¿¿

9-Reduction formulas

In integral calculus, integration by reduction formulae is method relying

on recurrence relations. It is used when an expression containing an
integer parameter, usually in the form of powers of elementary functions,
or products of transcendental functions and polynomials of arbitrary
degree, can't be integrated directly. But using other methods of
integration a reduction formula can be set up to obtain the integral of the
same or similar expression with a lower integer parameter, progressively
simplifying the integral until it can be evaluated. [1] This method of
integration is one of the earliest used.

10-Parametric derivation
In calculus, integration by parametric derivatives, also called parametric
integration,[1] is a method of integrating certain functions. It is often used
in Physics, and is similar to integration by substitution

11-Eulers formula
In integral calculus, Euler's formula for complex numbers may be used to
evaluate integrals involving trigonometric functions. Using Euler's
formula, any trigonometric function may be written in terms of complex
exponential functions, namely e ixand e−ix and then integrated. This
technique is often simpler and faster than using trigonometric identities or
integration by parts, and is sufficiently powerful to integrate any rational
expression involving trigonometric functions.

e ix= cos x+ i sin x

e−ix = cos x- i sin x

because cosine is an even function and sine is odd. These two equations
can be solved for the sine and cosine to give

eix +e−ix eix −e−ix

cos x= and sin x=
2 2

12-Differentitation under the integral sign

In calculus, Leibniz's rule for differentiation under the integral sign,

named after Gottfried Leibniz, states that for an integral of the form
b (x)

∫ f ( x , t ) dt
a (x)

where -∞¿ a ( x ) ,b ( x ) <∞ . 

13-Contour integration
In the mathematical field of complex analysis, contour integration is a
method of evaluating certain integrals along paths in the complex plane.
[1][2][3]

Contour integration is closely related to the calculus of residues,[4] a

method of complex analysis.

One use for contour integrals is the evaluation of integrals along the real
line that are not readily found by using only real variable methods.[5]

14-Numerical integration

In analysis, numerical integration comprises a broad family of algorithms

for calculating the numerical value of a definite integral, and by
extension, the term is also sometimes used to describe the numerical
solution of differential equations. This article focuses on calculation of
definite integrals. The term numerical quadrature (often abbreviated to
quadrature) is more or less a synonym for numerical integration,
especially as applied to one-dimensional integrals. Some authors refer to
numerical integration over more than one dimension as cubature;[1]
others take quadrature to include higher-dimensional integration.

The basic problem in numerical integration is to compute an approximate

solution to a definite integral

∫ f ( x ) dx
a

to a given degree of accuracy. If f(x) is a smooth function integrated over

a small number of dimensions, and the domain of integration is bounded,
there are many methods for approximating the integral to the desired
precision.

conclusion

We have seen that in situations where it is impossible to know the

function governing some phenomenon exactly, it is still possible to derive
a reasonable estimate for the integral of the function based on data points.
The idea is to choose a model function going through the data points and
integrate the model function. The definition of an integral as a limit of
Reimann sums shows that if you chose enough data points, the integral of
the model function converges to the integral of the unkown function, so
theoretically, numerical integration is on solid ground.
We have also seen that there are many practical factors that influence
how well numerical integration works. Simple model functions may not
emulate the behavior of the unkown function well. Complicated model
functions are hard to work with. Problems with the number of data points,
or the way in which the data was collected can have a major impact, and
while we have explored some simple ways of estimating how accurate a
particular numerical integral will be, this can be quite complicated in
general.

Nonetheless, by using common sense, together with a solid grasp of what

the integral means and how it is related to the geometry of the function
being integrated, a creative scientist, mathematician or engineer can
accomplish a great deal with numerical integration.

Discussion

When a function f(x) is known we can differentiate it to obtain its

df
derivative dx
. The reverse process
is to obtain the function f(x) from knowledge of its derivative. This
process is called integration.
Applications of integration are numerous and some of these will be
explored in subsequent Sections.
First, what is important is to practise basic techniques and learn a variety
of methods for integrating functions.

References

1. -  Heath, Thomas Little (1897). The Works of Archimedes.

England: Cambridge University Publications.
2. - Katz, V.J. 1995. "Ideas of Calculus in Islam and
India." Mathematics Magazine (Mathematical Association of
America), 68(3):163–174.
3. - In the 20th century,nonstandard analysis was developed as a new
approach to calculus that incorporates a rigorous concept of
infinitesimals by using an expanded number system called
the hyperreal numbers
4. W 3C 2006
5. - Weisstein ,Eric W "Riemann Sum" MathWorld
6. Wikipedia
7. - encyclopedia of mathematic
8. Helm (2008) work book 13:integration