FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Module 1
(Lecture 2)
GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL AND OF
REINFORCED SOIL

Topics

1.1 SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

1.2 AASHTO System
 Unified System
 Examples and Solutions

1.3 HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY OF SOIL

1.4 STEADY-STATE SEEPAGE

1.5 FILTER DESIGN CRITERIA

1.6 EFFECTIVE STRESS CONCEPT

FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

Soil classification systems divide soils into groups and subgroups based on common
engineering properties such as grain-size distribution, liquid limit, and plastic limit.
The two major classification systems presently in use are (1) the AASHTO
(American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials) Systems and
(2) the Unified Soil Classification System (also ASTM), the AASHTO classification
system is used mainly for classification of highway subgrades. It is not used in
foundation construction.

AASHTO System

The AASHTO Soil Classification System was originally proposed by the Highway
Research Board’s Committee on Classification of Materials for Subgrades and
Granular Type Roads (1945). According to the present form of this system, soils can
be classified according to eight major groups, A-1 through A-8, based on their grain-
size distribution, liquid limit, and plasticity indices. Soils listed in groups A-1, A-2,
and A-3 are coarse-grained materials, and those in groups A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7 are
fine-grained materials. Peat, muck, and other highly organic soils are classified under
A-8. They are identified by visual inspection.

The AASHTO classification system (for soils A-1 through A-7) is presented in table
8. Note that group A-7 includes two types of soil. For the A-7-5 type, the plasticity
index of the soil is less than or equal to the liquid limit minus 30. For the A-7-6 type,
the plasticity index is greater than the liquid limit minus 30.

For qualitative evaluation of the desirability of a soil as a highway subgrade material,

a number referred to as the group index has also been developed. The higher the value
of the group index for a given soil, the weaker will be the soil’s performance as a
subgrade. A group index of 20 or more indicates a very poor subgrade material. The
formula for group index, 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺, is

𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = (𝐹𝐹200 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005(𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 − 40)] + 0.01(𝐹𝐹200 − 15)(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 − 10)

[1.23]

Where

𝐹𝐹200 = percent passing no 200 sieve, expressed as a whole number

𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = liquid limit

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = plasticity index

FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Table 8 AASHTO Soil Classification System

General Granular materials (35% or less of total samples passing no. 200
classification sieve)

A-1 A-2

Group A-1-a A-1-b A-3 A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6

classification

Sieve analysis
(%) passing)

No. 10 sieve 50
max

No. 40 sieve 30 50 max 51 max

max

No. 200 sieve 15 25 max 10 max 35 max 35 max 35 max

max

For fraction
passing No. 40
sieve

Liquid limit (LL) 40 max 41 min 40 max

Plasticity index 6 max Nonplastic 10 max 10 max 11 min

(PI)

Usual type of Stone fragments, Fine sand Silty or clayey gravel and sand
material gravel, and sand

Subgrade rating Excellent to good

General Silt-clay materials (More than 35% of total sample passing no.
classification 200 sieve)

Group A-4 A-5 A-6 A-7

classification

A-7-5a

A-7b
FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Sieve analysis (%
passing)

No. 10 sieve

No. 40 sieve

No. 200 sieve 36 36 min 36 min 36 min

min

For fraction
passing No. 40
sieve

Liquid limit (LL) 40 41 min 40 max 41 min

max

Plasticity index 10 10 max 11 min 11 min

(PI) max

Usual types of Mostly silty soils Mostly clayey soils

material

Subgrade rating Fair to poor

a
If PI≤LL-30, it
is A-7-5.
b
If PI>LL-30, it
is A-7-6.

When calculating the group index for a soil belonging to groups A-2-6 or A-2-7, us
only the partial group index equation relating to the plasticity index:

𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = 0.01(𝐹𝐹200 − 15)(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 − 10) [1.24]

The group index is rounded to the nearest whole number and written next to the soil
group in parentheses; for example,

���
𝐴𝐴 −4 (5)
�
|
Soil group Group index
FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Unified System

The Unified Soil Classification System was originally proposed by A. Casagrande in

1942 and was later revised and adopted by the United States Bureau of Reclamation
and the Corps of Engineers. This system is presently used in practically all
geotechnical work.

In the Unified System, the following symbols are used for identification.

Symbol 𝐺𝐺 𝑆𝑆 𝑀𝑀 𝐶𝐶 𝑂𝑂 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝐻𝐻 𝐿𝐿 𝑊𝑊 𝑃𝑃

Descripti Grav San Sil Cla Organ Peat High Low Well Poorl
on el d t y ic silts and plastici plastici grad y
and highl ty ty ed grad
clay y ed
organ
ic
soils

The plasticity chart (figure 1.7) and table 9 shows the procedure for determining the
group symbols for various types of soil. When classifying a soil be sure to provide the
group name that generally describes the soil, along with the group symbol. Tables 10,
11 and 12, respectively, give the criteria for obtaining the group names for coarse-
grained soil, inorganic fine-grained soil, and organic fine-grained soil. These tables
are based on ASTM Designation D-2487.

Table 9 Group Symbol for Soil According to the Unified Classification System
[Based on Material Passing 3-in. (75-mm) Sieve]

Major division Criteria Group symbol

Coarse-grained soil 𝐹𝐹200 < 5, 𝐶𝐶𝑢𝑢 ≥ 4, 1 ≤ 𝐶𝐶𝑧𝑧 GW

≤3

𝑅𝑅200 > 50 𝐹𝐹200 < 5, 𝐶𝐶𝑢𝑢 GP

< 4, and
/or 𝐶𝐶𝑧𝑧 not between 1 and 3

Gravelly soil 𝑅𝑅4 > 0.5𝑅𝑅200 𝐹𝐹200 > 12, 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 < 4, or GM
Atterberg limits plot be low
A line (figure 1.7)

𝐹𝐹200 > 12, 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 < 7, and GC

Atterberg limits plot on or
above A line (figure 1.7)
FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

𝐹𝐹200 > 12, 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 < 50, 4 ≤ GC-GM a

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 ≤ 7 and Atterberg limits
plot on or above A line

5 ≤ 𝐹𝐹200 ≤ 12; meets the GW-GM a

gradation criteria of GW and
the plasticity criteria of GM

5 ≤ 𝐹𝐹200 ≤ 12; meets the GW-GC a

gradation criteria of GW and
the plasticity criteria of GC

5 ≤ 𝐹𝐹200 ≤ 12; meets the GP-GC a

gradation criteria of GP and
the plasticity criteria of GM

5 ≤ 𝐹𝐹200 ≤ 12; meets the GP-GC a

gradation criteria of GP and
the plasticity criteria of GC

Sandy soil 𝐹𝐹200 < 5, 𝐶𝐶𝑢𝑢 ≥ 6, 1 ≤ 𝐶𝐶𝑧𝑧 SW

≤3

𝑅𝑅4 ≤ 0.5𝑅𝑅200 𝐹𝐹200 < 5, 𝐶𝐶𝑢𝑢 < 6, and/or 𝐶𝐶𝑧𝑧 SP

not between 1 and 3

𝐹𝐹200 > 12, 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 > 4, or SM

Atterberg limits plot below A
line (figure 1.7)

𝐹𝐹200 > 12, 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 > 7, and SC

Atterberg limits plot on or
above A line (figure 1.7)

𝐹𝐹200 > 12, 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 > 50, 4 ≤ SC-SM a

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 ≤ 7 And Atterberg limits
plot on or above A line
(figure 1.7)

5 ≤ 𝐹𝐹200 ≤ 12; meets the SW-SM a

gradation criteria of SW and
the plasticity criteria of SM

5 ≤ 𝐹𝐹200 ≤ 12; meets the SW-SC a

gradation criteria of SW and
FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

the plasticity criteria of SC

5 ≤ 𝐹𝐹200 ≤ 12; meets the SP-SM a

gradation criteria of SP and
the plasticity criteria of SM

5 ≤ 𝐹𝐹200 ≤ 12; meets the SP-SC a

gradation criteria of SP and
the plasticity criteria of SC

Fine-grained soil (inorganic), 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 < 4, or Atterberg limits ML

𝑅𝑅200 ≤ 50 plot below A line (figure 1.7)

Silty and clayey soil 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 < 50 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 > 7 or Atterberg limits CL
plot on or above A line
(figure 1.7)

4 ≤ 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 > 7, and Atterberg CL-ML a

limits plot above A line
(figure 1.7)

Silty and clayey soil 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 ≤ 50 Atterberg limits plot on or MH

above A line (figure 1.7)

Atterberg limits plot on or CH

above A line (figure 1.7)

Fine-grained soil (organic) Organic 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿not oven dry OL

silt and clay) 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 < 50 < 0.75
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿oven dry

Organic silt and clay 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 ≥ 50 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿not oven dry OH

< 0.75
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿oven dry

Note:
𝐹𝐹200 = percent finer than no. 200 sieve; R 200 =
percent retained on no. 200 sieve; R 4 = perent retained on no. 4 sieve; Cu =
uniformity coefficient; Cz = coefficient of gradation; 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = liquid limit; 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 =
plasticity index Atterberg limits based on minus no. 40 fraction

Borderline case; dual classification

FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Example 4

Classify the following soil by the AASHTO classification system:

Percent passing no. 4 sieve = 82

Percent passing no. 10 sieve = 71

Percent passing no. 40 sieve = 64

Percent passing no. 200 sieve = 41

Liquid limit = 31

Plasticity index = 12

Solution

Refer to table 8. More than 35% passes through a no. 200 sieve, so it is a silt-clay
material. It could be A-4, A-5, A-6, or A-7. Because LL = 31 (that is, less than 40)
and PI = 12 (that is, greater than 11) this soil falls in group A-6. From equation (23),

𝐺𝐺𝑖𝑖 = (𝐹𝐹200 − 35)[0.02 + 0.005(𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 − 40)] + 0.01(𝐹𝐹200 − 15)(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 − 10)

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = (41 − 35)[0.02 + 0.005(31 − 40)] + 0.01(41 − 15)(12 − 10) = 0.37 ≈ 0

Thus the soil is A-6(0).

Example 5

Classify the following soil by the AASHTO classification system.

Percent passing no. 4 sieve = 92

Percent passing no. 10 sieve = 87

Percent passing no. 40 sieve = 65

Percent passing no. 200 sieve = 30

Liquid limit = 22

Plasticity index = 8
FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Solution

Table 8 shows that it is granular material because less than 35% is passing a no. 200
sieve. With 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 22 (that is, less than 40) and 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 8 (that is, less than 10), the soil
alls in group A-2-4. From equation (24),

𝐺𝐺𝑖𝑖 = 0.01(𝐹𝐹200 − 15)(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 − 10) = 0.01(30 − 15)(8 − 10) = −0.3 ≈ 0

The soil is A-2-4(0).

Table 10 Group Names for Coarse-Grained Soils (Based on ASTM D-2487)

Criteria

Group symbol Gravel fraction (%) Sand fraction (%) Group name

GW < 15 Well-graded gravel

≥ 15 Well-graded gravel
with sand

GP < 15 Poorly graded

gravel

≥ 15 Poorly graded
gravel with sand

GM < 15 Silty gravel

≥ 15 Silty gravel with

sand

GC < 15 Clayey gravel

≥ 15 Clayey gravel with

sand

GC-GM < 15 Silty clayey gravel

≥ 15 Silty clayey gravel

with sand

GW-GM < 15 Well-graded gravel

with silt

≥ 15 Well-graded gravel
with silt and sand
FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

GW-GC < 15 Well-graded gravel

with clay

≥ 15 Well-graded gravel
with clay and sand

GP-GM < 15 Poorly graded

gravel with silt

≥ 15 Poorly graded
gravel with silt and
sand

GP-GC < 15 Poorly graded

gravel with clay

≥ 15 Poorly graded
gravel with clay
and sand

SW < 15 Well graded sand

≥ 15 Well-graded sand
with gravel

SP < 15 Poorly graded sand

≥ 15 Poorly graded sand

with gravel

SM < 15 Silty sand

≥ 15 Silty sand with

gravel

SC < 15 Clayey sand

≥ 15 Clayey sand with

gravel

SM-SC < 15 Silty clayey sand

≥ 15 Silty clayey sand

with gravel

SW-SM < 15 Well-graded sand

with silt
FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

≥ 15 Well-graded sand
with silt and gravel

SW-SC < 15 Well-graded sand

with clay

≥ 15 Well-graded sand
with lay and gravel

SP-SM < 15 Poorly graded sand

with silt

≥ 15 Poorly graded sand

with silt and gravel

SP-SC < 15 Poorly graded sand

with clay

≥ 15 Poorly graded sand

with clay and
gravel

Note: sand fraction = percent of soil passing no. 4 sieve but retained on no. 200
sieve= 𝑅𝑅200 − 𝑅𝑅4 ; gravel fraction = percent of soil passing 3-in. sieve but retained on
no. 4 sieve = 𝑅𝑅4

Table 11 Group Names for Inorganic Fine-Grained Soils (Based on ASTM D-

2487)

Criteria

Group 𝑅𝑅200 Sand fraction Gravel Sand Group name

symbol Gravel fraction fraction fraction

CL < 15 Lean clay

15 to 29 ≥1 Lean clay
with sand

<1 Lean clay

with gravel

≥ 30 ≥1 < 15 Sandy lean

clay

≥1 ≥ 15 Sandy lean
clay with
FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

gravel

<1 < 15 Gravelly

lean clay

<1 ≥ 15 Gravelly
lean clay
with sand

ML < 15 Silt

15 to 29 ≥1 Silt with
sand

<1 Silt with

gravel

≥ 30 ≥1 < 15 Sandy silt

≥1 ≥ 15 Sandy silt
with gravel

<1 < 15 Gravelly silt

<1 ≥ 15 Gravelly silt

with sand

CL-ML < 15 Silty clay

15 to 29 ≥1 Silty clay
with sand

<1 Silty clay

with gravel

≥ 30 ≥1 < 15 Sandy silty

clay

≥1 ≥ 15 Sandy silty
clay with
gravel

<1 < 15 Gravelly

silty clay

<1 ≥ 15 Gravelly
silty clay
with sand
FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

CH < 15 Fat clay

15 to 29 ≥1 Fat clay
with sand

<1 Fat clay

with gravel

≥ 30 ≥1 < 15 Sandy fat

clay

≥1 ≥ 15 Sandy fat
clay with
gravel

<1 < 15 Gravelly fat

clay

<1 ≥ 15 Gravelly fat

clay with
sand

MH < 15 Elastic silt

15 to 29 ≥1 Elastic silt
with sand

<1 Elastic silt

with gravel

≥ 30 ≥1 < 15 Sandy
elastic silt

≥1 ≥ 15 Sandy
elastic silt
with gravel

<1 < 15 Gravelly

elastic silt

<1 ≥ 15 Gravelly
elastic silt
with sand

Note: 𝑅𝑅200 =percent of soil retained on o. 200 sieve; sand fraction = percent of soil
passing no. 4 sieve but retained on no. 200 sieve = 𝑅𝑅200 − 𝑅𝑅4 ; gravel fraction =
percent of soil passing 3-in. sieve but retained on no. sieve = 𝑅𝑅4 .
FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Table 12 Group Names for Organic Fine-Grained Soils (Based on ASTM D-

2487)

Criteria

Group Plasticity 𝑅𝑅200 Gravel Sand Group name

symbol Sand fraction fraction fraction
Gravel fraction

Organic
clay

OL 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 ≥ 4, <15 ≥1 Organic

and clay with
Atterberg 15 to 29 sand
limits on
or above <1 Organic
A line clay with
≥1 < 15 gravel
≥ 30 ≥1 ≥ 15 Sandy
organic clay
<1 < 15
Gravelly
organic clay
<1 ≥ 15 Gravelly
organic clay
with sand

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 ≥ 4, <15 ≥1 Organic silt

and
Atterberg 15 to 29 Organic silt
limits plot with sand
below A <1
line Organic silt
≥1 < 15 with gravel

≥ 30 ≥1 ≥ 15 Sandy
organic silt
<1 < 15
Sandy
organic silt
with gravel
<1 ≥ 15
Gravelly
organic silt

Gravelly
FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

organic silt
with sand

OH Atterberg <15 ≥1 Organic

limits plot clay
on or 15 to 29
above A Organic
line <1 clay with
sand
≥1 < 15
Organic
≥ 30 ≥1 ≥ 15 clay with
gravel
<1 < 15
Sandy
organic clay
<1 ≥ 15 Sandy
organic clay
with gravel

Gravelly
organic clay

Gravelly
organic clay
with gravel

Atterberg <15 ≥1 Organic silt

limits plot
below A 15 to 29 Organic silt
line with sand
<1
Organic silt
≥1 < 15 with gravel

≥ 30 ≥1 ≥ 15 Sandy
organic silt
<1 < 15
Sandy
organic silt
with gravel
<1 ≥ 15
Gravelly
FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

organic silt

Gravelly
organic silt
with sand

Note: 𝑅𝑅200 = percent of soil retained on no. 200 sieve; sand fraction = percent of soil
passing no. 4 sieve but retained on o. 200 sieve 𝑅𝑅200 − 𝑅𝑅4 ; gravel fraction = percent
of soil passing 3-in. sieve but retained on bo. 4 sieve = 𝑅𝑅4

Example 6

Classify the soil described in example 5 according to the Unified Soil Classification
System.

Solution

For 𝐹𝐹200 = 30

𝑅𝑅200 = 100 − 𝐹𝐹200 = 100 − 30 = 70

As 𝑅𝑅200 > 50, it is a coarse-grained soil.

𝑅𝑅4 = 100 − percent passing no. 4 sieve

= 100 − 92 = 8

As 𝑅𝑅4 = 8 < 0.5𝑅𝑅200 = 35, it is a sandy soil. Now, refer to table 9. Because 𝐹𝐹200 is
greater than 12, the group symbol would be SM or SC. As the PI is greater than 7 and
the Atterberg limits plot above the A line in figure 1.7 it is SC.
For the group name, refer to table 10. The gravel fraction is less than 15%, so the
group name is clayey sand.

HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY OF SOIL

The soil spaces or pores between soil grains allow water to flow through them. In soil
mechanics and foundation, engineering, you must know how much water is flowing
through a soil in unit time. This knowledge is required to design earth dams,
determine the quantity of seepage under hydraulic structures, and dewater before and
during the construction of foundations. Darcy (1856) proposed the following equation
(figure 1.8) for calculating the velocity of flow of water through a soil.
FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Figure 1.7 Plasticity chart

Figure 1.8 Definition of Darcy’s law

𝑣𝑣 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 [1.25]

Where

𝑣𝑣 = Darcy velocity (unit: cm/sec)

𝑘𝑘 = hydraulic conductivity of soil (unit: cm/sec)

FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

𝑖𝑖 = hydraulic gradient

The hydraulic gradient, 𝑖𝑖, is defined as

∆ℎ
𝑖𝑖 = [1.26]
𝐿𝐿

Where

∆ℎ = piezometric head difference between the sections at 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵

𝐿𝐿 = distance between the sections at 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵

(Note: Sections AA and BB are perpendicular to the direction of flow).

Darcy’s law [equation (25)] is valid for a wide range of soil types. However, materials
like clean gravel and open-graded rockfills, Darcy’s law breaks because of the turbulent
nature of flow through them.

The value of the hydraulic conductivity of soils varies greatly. In the laboratory it can be
determined by means of constant head or falling head permeability testing. The constant
head test is more suitable for granular soils. Table 13, provides the general range for the
values of k for various soils. In granular the value primarily depends on the void ratio. In
the past, several equations have been proposed to relate the value of k with the void ratio
in the granular soil:

𝑘𝑘 1 𝑒𝑒 1
= 𝑒𝑒22 [1.27]
𝑘𝑘 2 2

𝑒𝑒 2
1 �
�
𝑘𝑘 1 1+𝑒𝑒 1
= 𝑒𝑒 2
[1.28]
𝑘𝑘 2 2 �
�
1+𝑒𝑒 2

𝑒𝑒 3
1 �
�
𝑘𝑘 1 1+𝑒𝑒 1
= 𝑒𝑒 3
[1.29]
𝑘𝑘 2 2 �
�
1+𝑒𝑒 2

where 𝑘𝑘1 and 𝑘𝑘2 are the hydraulic conductivities of a given soil at void ratios 𝑒𝑒1 at 𝑒𝑒2 ,
respectively

Hazen (1930) proposed an equation for the hydraulic conductivity of fairly us from sand
as
2
𝑘𝑘 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴10 [1.30]
FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Table 13 Range of the Hydraulic Conductivity for Various Soils

Type of soil Hydraulic conductivity, 𝑘𝑘 (cm/sec)

Medium to coarse gravel Greater than 10−1

Coarse to fine sand 10−1 to 10−3

Fine sand, silty sand 10−3 to 10−5

Silt, clayey silt, silty clay 10−4 to 10−6

Clays 10−7 or less

where k is in mm/sec

𝐴𝐴 = a constant that varies between 10 and 15

𝐷𝐷10 = effective soil size, in mm

For clayey soils in the field, a practical relationship for estimating the hydraulic
conductivity (Tavenas et al., 1983) is
𝑒𝑒0 −𝑒𝑒
log 𝑘𝑘 = log 𝑘𝑘0 − [1.31]
𝐶𝐶𝑘𝑘

Where

𝑘𝑘 = hydraulic conductivity at a void ratio 𝑒𝑒

𝑘𝑘0 = 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 hydraulic conductivity at a void ratio 𝑒𝑒0

𝐶𝐶𝑘𝑘 = conductivity change index ≈ 0.5𝑒𝑒0

For clayey soils, the hydraulic conductivity for flow in the vertical and horizontal
directions may vary substantially. The hydraulic conductivity for flow in the vertical
direction (𝑘𝑘𝑣𝑣 ) for in situ soils can be estimated from figure 1.9. For marine and other
massive clay deposits
𝑘𝑘 ℎ
< 1.5 [1.32]
𝑘𝑘 𝑣𝑣

Where

𝑘𝑘ℎ = hydraulic conductivity for flow in the horizontal direction

For varved clays, the ratio of 𝑘𝑘ℎ /𝑘𝑘𝑣𝑣 may exceed 10.
FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Figure 1.9 Variaton of in situ 𝑘𝑘𝑣𝑣 for clay soils (after Tavenas et al. 1983)

Example 7

For a fine sand, the following are given:

Dry unit weight = 15.1 kN/m3

𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠 = 2.67

Hydraulic conductivity = 0.14 cm/sec

If the sand is compacted to a dry unit weight of 16.3 kN/m3 , estimate its hydraulic
conductivity. Use equation (29).

Solution
𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤
𝛾𝛾𝑑𝑑 = 1+𝑒𝑒

For 𝛾𝛾𝑑𝑑 = 15.1 kN/m3 ,

𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 (2.67)(9.81)
𝑒𝑒 = −1= − 1 = 0.735
𝛾𝛾 𝑑𝑑 15.1
FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

For 𝛾𝛾𝑑𝑑 = 16.3 kN/m3 ,

(2.67)(9.81)
𝑒𝑒 = − 1 = 0.607
16.3

From equation (29),

𝑒𝑒 3
1
𝑘𝑘 1 1+𝑒𝑒 1
= 𝑒𝑒 3
𝑘𝑘 2 2
1+𝑒𝑒 2

0.14 (0.735)3 1+0.607

= �1+0.735 � �(0.607)3 �
𝑘𝑘 2

𝑘𝑘2 = 0.085 cm/sec

STEADY-STATE SEEPAGE

For most cases of seepage under hydraulic structures, the flow path changes direction and
is not uniform over the entire area. In such cases, one of the ways determining the rate of
seepage is by a graphical construction referred to as net. The flow net is based on
Laplace’s theory of continuity. According to this those for a steady flow condition, the
flow at any point A (figure 1.10) can be represent by the equation.

Figure 1.10 Steady-state seepage

FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

𝜕𝜕 2 ℎ 𝜕𝜕 2 ℎ 𝜕𝜕 2 ℎ
𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2 + 𝑘𝑘𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2 + 𝑘𝑘𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2 = 0

Where

𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥 , 𝑘𝑘𝑦𝑦 , 𝑘𝑘𝑧𝑧 = hydraulic conductivity of the soil in the 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, and 𝑧𝑧, direction spectively

ℎ = Hydraulic head at point A (that is, the head of water the piezometer placed at A
would show with the downstream level as datum as shown in figure 1.10.

For a two-dimensional flow condition as shown in figure 1.10.

𝜕𝜕 2 ℎ
=0
𝜕𝜕 2 𝑦𝑦

So equation (33) takes the form

𝜕𝜕 2 ℎ 𝜕𝜕 2 ℎ
𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2 + 𝑘𝑘𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2 = 0
[1.34]

If the soil is isotropic with respect to hydraulic conductivity, 𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥 = 𝑘𝑘𝑧𝑧 = 𝑘𝑘, and

𝜕𝜕 2 ℎ 𝜕𝜕 2 ℎ
+ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2 = 0 [1.35]
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2

Equation (35), which is referred to as Laplace’s equation and is valid for confined flow,
represents two orthogonal sets of curves that are known as flow lines and equipotential
lines. A flow net is a combination of numerous equipotential lines and flow lines. A flow
line is a path that a water particle would follow in travelling from the upstream side to the
downstream side. An equipotential line is a line along which water in piezometers would
rise to the same elevation (see figure 1.10).

In drawing a flow net, you need to establish the boundary conditions. For example, in
figure 1.10 the ground surfaces on the upstream (OO’) and downstream (DD’) sides are
equipotential lines. The base of the dam below the ground surface, O’BCD, is a flow line.
The top of the rock surface, EF, is also a flow line. Once the boundary conditions are
established, a number of flow lines and equipotential lines are drawn by trial and error so
that all the flow elements in the net have the same length the width ratio (L/B). In most
cases, the L/B ratio is kept as 1-that is, the flow elements are drawn as curvilinear
“squares”. This method is illustrated by the flow net shown in figure 1.11. Note that all
flow lines must intersect all equipotential lines at right angles.

Once the flow net is drawn, the seepage in unit time per unit length of the structure can
be calculated as
FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

𝑁𝑁f
𝑞𝑞 = 𝑘𝑘ℎmax 𝑛𝑛 [1.36]
𝑁𝑁d

Figure 1.11 flow net

Where

𝑁𝑁𝑓𝑓 = number of flow channels

𝑁𝑁𝑑𝑑 = number of drops

𝑛𝑛 = width − to − length ratio of the flow element in the flow net (𝐵𝐵/𝐿𝐿)

ℎmax = difference in water level between the upstream and downstream side

The space between two consecutive flow lines is defined as a flow channel, and the space
between two consecutive equipotential lines is called a drop. In figure 1.11 𝑁𝑁𝑓𝑓 = 1, 𝑁𝑁𝑑𝑑 =
7, and 𝑛𝑛 = 1. When square elements are drawn in a flow net,
𝑁𝑁f
𝑞𝑞 = 𝑘𝑘ℎmax [1.37]
𝑁𝑁d

FILTER DESIGN CRITERIA

In the design of earth structures the engineer often encounters problems cause by the flow
of water, such as soil erosion, which may result in structural instability.

Erosion is generally prevented by building soil zones that are referred to as filters (see
figure 1.12). Two main factors influence the choice of filter materials: The grained size
FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

distribution of the filter materials should be such that (a) the soil to be protected is not
washed into the filter and (b) excessive hydrostatic pressure head is not created in the soil
that has a lower coefficient of permeability.

Figure 1.12 Filter design

The preceding conditions can be satisfied if the following requirements are met (Terzaghi
and Peck, 1967):
𝐷𝐷15 (𝐹𝐹)
<5 [to satisfy condition (a)] [1.38]
𝐷𝐷85 (𝐵𝐵 )

𝐷𝐷15 (𝐹𝐹)
>4 [to satisfy condition (b)] [1.39]
𝐷𝐷15 (𝐵𝐵 )

In these relations, the subscripts F and B refer to the filter and the base material (that is,
the soil to be protected). Also 𝐷𝐷15 and 𝐷𝐷85 refer to the diameters through which 15% and
85% of the soil (filter or base, as the case may be) will pass.

The U. S. Department of the Navy (1971) provides some additional requirements for
filter design to satisfy condition (a):
𝐷𝐷50 (𝐹𝐹)
< 25 [1.40]
𝐷𝐷50 (𝐵𝐵 )

𝐷𝐷15 (𝐹𝐹)
< 20 [1.41]
𝐷𝐷15 (𝐵𝐵 )

Currently, geotextiles are also used as filter materials.

FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

EFFECTIVE STRESS CONCEPT

Consider the vertical stress at a point A located at a depth ℎ1 + ℎ2 below the grout
surface, as shown in figure 1.13a. The total vertical stress, 𝜎𝜎, at 𝐴𝐴 is

Figure 1.13 Effective stress calculations

𝜎𝜎 = ℎ1 𝛾𝛾 + ℎ2 𝛾𝛾sat [1.42]

where 𝛾𝛾 and 𝛾𝛾sat are unit weights of soil above and below the water table, respectively.

The total stress is carried partially by the pore water in the void spaces at partially by the
soil solids at their points of contact. For example, consider a wave plane AB drawn
through point A (see figure 1.13a) that passes through the point of contact of soil grains.
The plan of this section is shown in figure 1.13b. The small dots in figure 1.13b
represent the areas in which there is solid-to-solid contact. If the sum of these areas equal
A’, the area filled by water equals XY-A. The force carried by the pore water over the area
shown in figure 1.13b then is
FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

𝐹𝐹𝑤𝑤 = (𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 𝐴𝐴")𝑢𝑢 [1.43]

where 𝑢𝑢 = pore water pressure = 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 ℎ2 [1.44]

Now let 𝐹𝐹1 , 𝐹𝐹2 , … be the forces at the contact points of the soil solids as shown in figure
1.13a. The sum of the vertical components of these forces over a horizontal area XY is

𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠 = Σ𝐹𝐹1(𝑣𝑣) + 𝐹𝐹2(𝑦𝑦 ) + ⋯ [1.45]

where 𝐹𝐹1(𝑣𝑣) + 𝐹𝐹2(𝑦𝑦 ) , … are vertical components of forces 𝐹𝐹1 , 𝐹𝐹2 , …, respectibvely

Based on the principles of statics,

(𝜎𝜎)𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = 𝐹𝐹𝑤𝑤 + 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠

Or

(𝜎𝜎)𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = (𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 𝐴𝐴′ )𝑢𝑢 + 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠

So

𝜎𝜎 = (1 − 𝑎𝑎)𝑢𝑢 + 𝜎𝜎′ [1.46]

Where

𝑎𝑎 = 𝐴𝐴′ /𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = Fraction of the unit cross-sectional area occupied by solid-to-solid contact

𝜎𝜎 ′ = 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠 /(𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋) = Vertical component of forces at solid-to-solid contact points over a unit
cross-sectional area

The term 𝜎𝜎′ in equation (46) is generally referred to as the vertical effective stress. Also,
the quantity a in equation (46) is very small. Thus

𝜎𝜎 = 𝑢𝑢 + 𝜎𝜎′ [1.47]

Note that the effective stress is a derived quantity. Also, because the effective stress 𝜎𝜎′ is
related to the contact between the soil solids, changes in effective stress will induce
volume changes. It is also responsible for producing frictional resistance in soils and
rocks. For dry soils, 𝑢𝑢 = 0; hence, 𝜎𝜎 = 𝜎𝜎′.

For the problem under consideration in figure 1.13a,

𝑢𝑢 = ℎ2 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 (𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 = unit weight of water). Thus the effective stress at point A is

𝜎𝜎 ′ = 𝜎𝜎 − 𝑢𝑢 = (ℎ1 𝛾𝛾 + ℎ2 𝛾𝛾sat ) − ℎ2 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤

= ℎ1 𝛾𝛾 + ℎ2 (𝛾𝛾sat − 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 ) = ℎ1 𝛾𝛾 + ℎ2 𝛾𝛾′ [1.48]

FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Where

𝛾𝛾 ′ = effective or the submerged unit weight of soil

= 𝛾𝛾sat − 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤

From equation (15),

𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 +𝑒𝑒𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤
𝛾𝛾sat = 1+𝑒𝑒

So
𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 +𝑒𝑒𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 (𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠 −1)
𝛾𝛾 ′ = 𝛾𝛾sat − 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 = − 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 = [1.49]
1+𝑒𝑒 1+𝑒𝑒

For the problem in figure 1.13a and 1.13b, there was no seepage of water in soil. Figure
1.13c shows a simple condition in a soil profile where there is upward seepage. For this
case, at point A

𝜎𝜎 = ℎ1 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 + ℎ2 𝛾𝛾sat

𝑢𝑢 = (ℎ1 + ℎ2 + ℎ)𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤

Thus from equation (47),

𝜎𝜎 ′ = 𝜎𝜎 − 𝑢𝑢(ℎ1 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 + ℎ2 𝛾𝛾sat ) − (ℎ1 + ℎ2 + ℎ)𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤

= ℎ2 (𝛾𝛾sat − 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 ) − ℎ𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 = ℎ2 𝛾𝛾 ′ − ℎ𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤

Or
ℎ
𝜎𝜎 ′ = ℎ2 �𝛾𝛾 ′ − ℎ 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 � = ℎ2 (𝛾𝛾 ′ − 𝑖𝑖𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 ) [1.50]
2

Note in equation (50) that ℎ/ℎ2 is the hydraulic gradient, 𝑖𝑖. If the hydraulic gradient very
high, so that 𝛾𝛾 ′ − 𝑖𝑖𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 becomes zero, the effective stress will become zero, other words,
there is no contact stress between the soil particles, and the structure will break up. This
situation is referred to as the quick condition or failure by heave. So, for heave,
𝛾𝛾′ 𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠 −1
𝑖𝑖 = 𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝛾𝛾 = [1.51]
𝑤𝑤 1+𝑒𝑒

For most sandy soils, 𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ranges from 0.9 to 1.1, with an average of about 1.
FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Example 8

For the soil profile in figure 1.14, determine the total vertical stress, pore water pressure,
and effective vertical stress at A, B and C.

Figure 1.14 Solution

The following table can now be prepared.

Point 𝜎𝜎(kN/m2 ) 𝑢𝑢(kN/m2 𝜎𝜎 ′ = 𝜎𝜎 − 𝑢𝑢 (kN

/m2

A 0 0 0

B (4)(𝛾𝛾𝑑𝑑 ) = (4)(14.5) 0 58
= 58

C 58 + (𝛾𝛾sat )(5) (5)(𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 ) 94.95

= 58 + (17.2)(5) = (5)(9.81)
= 144 = 49.05