Cooling Tower

8-1-01
 Cooling Tower

Introduction

Many chemical processes require utility cooling water to lower the temperature of process
streams. As it passes through a heat exchanger, the temperature of the cooling water is elevated.
Before this water can be used as cooling utility again, its temperature must be lowered. The most
common unit used to accomplish this goal is a cooling tower.
.
In counter-current cooling towers the liquid water stream is introduced at the top of the
tower and falls over packing material and is exposed to air that is flowing upward through the
tower. Once in contact, the water at the gas-liquid interface evaporates into the air stream. Latent
heat of evaporation is carried into the bulk air by the water vapor. Thus, the temperature of the
water is lowered. Therefore, the water flow rate and the water temperature decreases as the
humidity of the air increases. This process also known as humidification involves the
simultaneous transfer of mass and heat.

The cooling tower in the lab provides an excellent tool for studying this process. The tall
tower is equipped with several thermocouples strategically located along the column. These
thermocouples measure the temperature of the water and the dry and wet bulb temperatures of
the air at specific heights in the column. The humidity of the air can than be determined from the
recorded wet and dry bulb air temperatures using a humidity chart.
Graphical Representation of Countercurrent Air/Water Cooling Towers

Humidity vs Temperature Graph - Figure 1

The entire humidification process can be represented graphically. This is done by plotting
humidity vs. gas temperature. There are several different situations that can occur during the
countercurrent contact of air and water, each is shown in Figure 1. The curves on this diagram
illustrate the conditions of the gas as it flows from the bottom of the tower (A) to the top of the
tower (Q,R,E,S or P depending on the condition) . Although the relative humidity increases in
each scenario, the processes are dramatically different.

AQ liquid cooling with gas heating and humidification

AR liquid cooling with gas cooling and humidification
AE adiabatic cooling of water and gas humidification (Figure 2a for T profiles)
AS gas cooling and humidification, but less humidification than adiabatic cooling
AP liquid heating and gas dehumidification

Remember, Figure 1 illustrates the changes in the air as it rises through the column. Although the
conditions of the water are not shown on this diagram, the following descriptions discuss the
temperature and heating requirements for the water stream.

AQ: Liquid cooling with gas heating and humidification

The water that enters the column is very hot and exits at a lower temperature. This
is a result of the evaporation of water by the air stream. The air, which exits the column at a
higher temperature then which it entered, will also exit at a higher humidity. In this case, the
temperature of the entering water will be higher than the temperature of the entering air.
Therefore, the water must be heated (by process streams in a plant or by the heater in your
experiment) prior to it being reintroduced at the top of the column. Figure 2b illustrates the
conditions at the top of an AQ cooling tower. Water vapor diffuses from the interface to the bulk
air phase with humidity as the driving force in the air phase (Hi-Hg). The temperature driving
force is (Tx-Ti) in the water phase and (Ti-Ty) in the air phase. Sensible heat flows from the bulk
water to the interface since the temperature of the water is higher than the temperature of the
interface. Latent heat in the water vapor diffuses into the bulk air and the sensible heat in the air at
the interface diffuses to the bulk air since the temperature of the interface is higher than the
temperature of the bulk air.

AR: Liquid cooling with gas cooling and humidification

Once again, hot water is cooled in this column and the water must be heated prior
to its reintroduction at the top of the column. Unlike the last situation, the air entering the column
must be at a higher temperature than the entering water in order for the gas humidification and
cooling to occur. Can you draw a figure like in Figure 2b for a position in this column where the
air is hotter than the water?
Systems AQ and AR are representative of the way industrial cooling towers operate, and
you will be asked to operate the column in either mode during your experiments.
 AE: Gas humidification with adiabatic cooling
In this process, the primary function of the column is for air humidification. The
water is recycled through the column without being heated or cooled. Since adiabatic cooling
occurs when no heat is gained or lost by the liquid(Figure 2a), the water temperature reaches a
steady state value throughout the column. The air follows the adiabatic saturation line, which
intersects the equilibrium line at the wet bulb temperature. This is the simplest case to model,
and you can do so using only a calculator or spreadsheet. You may want to try to run the
experiment in this mode, and model it using these simple equations. This is the objective of the
wetted wall experiment, however, so it is not advisable to do adiabatic cooling with this
equipment!

AS and AP are not viable for liquid cooling. Further, dehumidification occurs in AP. With
respect to the dry bulb, wet-bulb or dew point temperature of the entering air, what can you say
about the temperature of the water entering the column for these cases? In other words, how
would you modify the experiment to simulate these processes?

Enthalpy- Temperature Diagram - Figure 3

Several lines can be plotted on an enthalpy versus temperature diagram. The two most
common lines plotted are the equilibrium curve and the operating line. The equilibrium curve is
not linear, but its graph produces a nice polynomial fit. On the other hand the operating line
usually produces a linear line with a positive slope.
The equilibrium line of this experiment is defined by the enthalpy and temperature of the
air at the air-water contact area. The enthalpy at a specific air temperature can be acquired from
the simulation ran during the experimentation or from a psychometric chart.
The operating line can be determined from an energy balance on a differential section of
the tower. This balance is depicted in Figure 4. The governing equation for the operating line is:

dHy = (Gx/Gy')CldTx (1)

where Hy is the gas enthalpy, Gx is the mass flux of the liquid, Gy’ is the mass flux of air on a dry
air basis, Cl is the heat capacity of liquid and Tx is the temperature of the water. This equation
will produce a straight line with a slope of (Gx/Gy')Cl. (This line can be assumed linear only if one
assumes what about the flow rates in the column?)
The following equation is used to create a gas profile.

(Hi-Hy)/(Ti-Tx)=-(hx/hy)Cs (2)

This is depicted as a line from the operating line to the equilibrium curve. It is common practice
to assume that hx is much greater than hy, hence the slope approaches infinity. This assumption
allows the interfacial line to be straight and vertical as indicated in Figure 3.
 A very common term used in describing the performance of a cooling tower is ‘Approach
to Wet Bulb’(ATWB). ATWB is equal to (the exiting water temperature) - (the wet bulb
temperature of the incoming air). To find the wet-bulb temperature of the inlet air on Figure 3,
move horiziontaly (adiabatically) from the bottom of the operating line (Hy of inlet air) to the
equilibrium curve (the interface is saturated). At this temperature, air saturated with water has the
same enthalpy as the air entering the column. The minimum possible approach to wet bulb is
governed by how close the equilibrium and operating lines are. Remember, the equilibrium and
operating lines cannot intersect! If the operating line is not steep, the minimum ATWB
approaches 0 (and the height of the column approaches infinity). If the operating line is steep,
the minimum ATWB can be very large. Figure 3b illustrates this concept.

One can also plot the air properties on this same figure (Ty - Hy curve), Figure 4. Start at
the point corresponding to the entering air, A. Go horizontally to point B on the operating line,
which corresponds to Tx-Hy at the bottom of the column. Go vertically to point C, which
corresponds to the interface conditions at the bottom of the column. Now connect points A and
C. Because the bulk air (A) is in contact with the interfacial air (C), the properties of the bulk air
will change slightly by moving a small distance along line AC to point D. Repeat this procedure
until you reach the top of the operating line. The smooth curve that is generated shows the

Column Height vs. Temperatures Column Height vs. Temperature

Simulation Run #1 Experimental Run #1
1.000 1.000
0.900 0.900
Column Height

0.800 0.800
Column Height

Air Temperature Water Temperature

0.700 0.700
0.600 0.600
0.500 Air Temperature 0.500
Water Temperature
0.400 0.400
0.300 0.300
0.200 0.200
0.100 0.100
0.000 0.000
60.0 65.0 70.0 75.0 80.0 85.0 90.0 60.00 65.00 70.00 75.00 80.00 85.00 90.00

Temperature (oF) Temperature ( oF)

Column Height vs. Temperatures Column Height vs. Temperatures

Simulation Run #2 Experimental Run #2
1.000 1.000
0.900 0.900
Column Height

Column Height

0.800 0.800
Air Temperature Water Temperature
0.700 0.700
0.600 Water Temperature Air Temperature 0.600
0.500 0.500
0.400 0.400
0.300 0.300
0.200 0.200
0.100 0.100
0.000 0.000
60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0 110.0 60.00 70.00 80.00 90.00 100.00 110.00

Temperature (oF) Temperature (oF)

enthalpy-temperature profile of the air as it passes through the column. You must generate this
figure and compare it with the experimental profiles, as shown in Figures 5 and 6.
Figure 5 : Temperature profiles for the water and the air as a function of column height

Figures 5 and 6 show the temperature and humidity profiles for the water and the air as a function
of column height. The temperature of the water decreases as it passes down the column for both
experimental runs and for the simulated runs. The humidity in Figure 6 for the experimental run
at a column height of 1 is incorrect. How do you know that they are incorrect? Why are they
incorrect?

Column Height vs. Air Humididty

1.000

Simulation #2
0.900

Simulation #1

0.800

0.700

Experimental #1
0.600
Column Height

0.500

0.400

0.300

Experimental #2

0.200

0.100

0.000
0.00000 0.00500 0.01000 0.01500 0.02000 0.02500
Air Humidity
(lbH2O/lbdry air)

Figure 6. Air Humidity Profiles

Once the equilibrium and operating lines are plotted, the column characteristic can be determined
graphically by plotting 1/(Hi-Hy) vs. Tx and determining the area under the curve, Figure 7. The
tower characteristic, which is dimensionless, can then be found using:

CH' = kyMbaZ/Gx = Cl∫dTx/(Hi-Hy) (3)

where ky is the mass transfer coefficient of the gas, Mb is the molecular weight of the gas, a is the
area of transfer/volume packing, and Z is the column height. This characteristic can be used to
determine the mass transfer coefficient for the column.

Once the mass transfer coefficient is determined the Lewis Relation, Equation 4, can be used to
determine the heat transfer coefficient for the tower.

hy = Cs * Mb * ky (4)

where hy is the heat transfer coefficient of the gas, ky is the mass transfer coefficient of the gas, Mb
is the molecular weight of the gas and cs is defined as the humid heat. The humid heat is the
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 Kg of dry air plus the water vapor present
one degree C or K. (See Equation 5)

Cs = Cp air + (Cp water * Humidity (abs)) (5)

When evaluating this integral, record the value of the integral as a function of Tx from the
exiting temperature of the water to the entering temperature. The relative position in the
column that corresponds to Tx will correlate to: (the value of the integral from the exiting
temperature of the water to the temperature of interest)/(the total integral from the exiting
temperature to the entering temperature). This permits you to plot Tx as a function of Z. At
Z’=0=the bottom of column, Tx=exiting water temp; at Z’=1= the top of column, Tx=entering
water temperature.

Z/Ztotal =Z’ = CH’ evaluated between Tx,exiting and Tx (6)

CH’ evaluated between Tx, exiting and Tx, entering

Z’ is a normalized height (0-1 in magniture, dimensionless). If you are asked to derive any of the
governing equations, you may find it useful to start with the differential equation provided in
Figure 8. The McGraw Hill text entitled Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering by McCabe,
Smith and Harriott is also an excellent resource.

You may need to calculate humid air enthalpy. The appropriate equation, with a basis of To =
32F, and with humidity H in (lb H2O/lb dry air) is

Hy (BTU/lbm dry air)=(0.24+0.45H)(ToF -32) + 1075.4H (7)

Experimental Apparatus

Water Circuit

Water, which is regulated by a flowmeter, is pumped from the load tank up to the
distribution cap where the temperature is taken and the water is evenly distributed over the
packing. The water flows over the plates which increases the surface area exposed to the air
stream. The water is then cooled by evaporation into the air stream as stated above. The
temperature of the water can be taken at various points along the length of the column using the
thermocouples attached. At the bottom of the column the water falls past one last thermometer
and into the load tank where it can be reheated and recirculated through the column.

The make-up tank is equipped with a float operated needle valve that will open and
transfer water into the load tank as required. This happens as a result of the evaporation of water
across the column. When the column is running in a steady state, the rate of the water being
evaporated is the same as the rate at which water is being transferred into the load tank. Also the
wattage of the heater should correspond to the sensible heat change of the water, Figure 9.

Air Circuit

Air, which can be pre-heated using a hair dryer, is pulled from the atmosphere and passes
through a fan into the column. A damper can be adjusted to change the flow rate of the air. The
wet and dry bulb temperatures of the air are taken at various points along the length of the
column. The air then passes through a droplet arrestor and the temperatures are taken again
before exiting to the atmosphere through an orifice. The pressure drop through the orifice can be
used to estimate the air flow rate.

EXPERIMENT - Figure 10

1. Perform one gas cooling/humidification experiment and/or one gas heating/humidification

experiment using the tall tower. Collect all of the appropriate data. Good results are usually
obtained when the air is flowing as fast as possible, and the water is flowing as fast as possible
and is as hot as possible. Best results are often obtained when the entering air is as hot as possible
(the gas cooling/humidification experiment). Use the smaller columns only if you are asked to do
so by your instructor.
Experimental Procedure

Procedure for Apparatus Shown in Figure 10

1. Determine the temperature corrections for each of the thermocouples.

(room temperature - actual reading with no air or water flow)
2. Following the start-up procedures, make sure your column is running normally.
3. Choose the "process cooling load" at which the column will run. i.e. 0.5, 1.0, or 1.5 kW.
4. Choose the inlet air conditions at which the column will run.
i.e. damper position, air heating.
5. Allow the column to stabilize.
6. Record all of the temperature readings, the water flow rate, and the corresponding orifice
pressure differential.
7. Measure the rate of make-up water from the make-up tank.
8. Tests can be repeated with other water and/or air flow rates, air heat, and cooling loads.

Start-up

1. Check that all power is off and that the drain cocks are closed.
2. Make sure the unit is level and the manometer is zeroed.
3. Fill the wet-bulb thermometer reservoirs with distilled water.
4. Remove the make-up tank and pour 2.5 L of distilled water into the basin.
note: make sure that distilled water is used.
5. Moisten the sides of the water distribution troughs at the top of the packing with
distilled water. This ensures even distribution. (Optional)
6. Fit the cap to the top of the column and lightly tighten the four nuts. (Optional)
7. Fit the make-up tank to the base unit and lightly tighten the four screws, then fill with
distilled water up to the gauge mark.
8. Switch on the mains, then at intervals of 5 to 10 seconds switch the pump on and off until
all the air has been eliminated. You will know the air has been eliminated when
the pump runs almost silently and the water flow rate exceeds 40 g/s.
note: do not allow the pump to run if the air has not been eliminated.
9. Switch on the fan and check that the manometer is operating correctly. (The differential
pressure should be about 16 mm H2O).
10. Allow the unit to run for a few minutes for the float valve to correctly adjust the level in
the load tank, topping up the make-up tank as required.
11. Check that the 0.5 and 1.0 kW water heater switch neon indicators illuminate.
12. Check that the air heater switch illuminated and that the heater produces warm air
when the appropriate switch in the handle is operated.
13. Plug in the temperature display

Shut-down

1. Switch off all heaters.

2. After about two minutes switch off all power supplies.
3. Drain the make-up tank and the load tank if the unit is not going to be used again
within two hours.

Safety Precautions

1. Distilled or demineralized water must always be used for filling and topping up of this
unit. (this eliminates problems with scale and stains resulting from water impurities.)
2. The water and air stream temperatures must not be allowed to exceed 50oC.
3. The make-up tank must always be refilled before the water level falls below 50 mm.
4. The make-up and load tanks should be drained whenever the unit is inoperative for more
than two hours.
5. The system should be completely drained and refilled after approximately 20 hours of
operation.
6. The pump must not be switched on unless the system is filled with water.
7. The air flow through the air heater must not be obstructed, and the air heater must not be
switched on unless the fan damper is open and the fan is running.

Protection Devices

Water Level
 In the even of an unacceptably low water level in the load tank, a float operated switch
will prevent the water heaters from operating and their neon indicating lamps on the switched will
not illuminate

Water Temperature
A thermostat is fitted in the load tank to switch off the heaters should the maximum
allowable temperature of 50oC be exceeded.
Heating Elements
All heating elements are provided with automatically re-set thermal protection devices
which will operate in the unlikely event of the element overheating.

Data Collection

In order to run the simulation or to perform the graphical analysis you must make the
following measurements at steady state. In order to eliminate error, check the removable
thermometers to ensure whether or not you are making dry bulb temperature
measurements or wet-bulb temperature measurements. Also, the thermocouples on the
digital readout display are as follows:

Thermocouple Column Height Z’ Temperature reading

1 .75 wet-bulb of the air
2 .75 dry-bulb of the air
3 .75 Temperature of the water
4 .5 wet-bulb of the air
5 .5 dry-bulb of the air
6 .5 Temperature of the water
7 .25 wet-bulb of the air
8 .25 dry-bulb of the air
9 .25 Temperature of the water

1. Entering water temperature (and wattage of heater)

2. Entering water flowrate

3. Entering air humidity, from entering air wet and dry bulb temperatures

4. Entering air temperature

5. Entering air flowrate (via material balance and pressure drop across orifice). The orifice
 is the circular hole at the top of the column. Pressure drop across it is determined by
attaching the right hand-side of the manometer to the fitting 2" below the top of the column,
and the left hand side of the manometer is left open to the atmosphere. The equation
relating pressure drop across the orifice to flow rate of air is on the column and is presented
below:

mair = 0.0137(X/Vb)0.5 = 0.0137(X/(1+ùb)Vab)0.5

mair = dry air mass flow rate (kg/s)

X = orifice differential (mm H2O)
Vb = specific volume of exiting air (humid air basis) (m3/kg)
Vab = specific volume of exiting air (dry air basis) (m3/kg)
ùb = specific humidity (mass of water vapor/mass of dry air)(kg water/kg dry air)

6. ATWB, (exiting water temperature-wet bulb temperature of entering air)

7. Column pressure - assume atmospheric; but measure pressure drop across packing to
substantiate that the average pressure in the column is only slightly above atmospheric

To compare the results of the simulation or your graphical analysis with the data, you must
also collect at positions (Z’ = 0 (bottom), 0.25, 0.50, 0.75 and 1.0 (top))

8. Water temperature as function of height

9. Air temperature as a function of height

10. Air humidity as a function of height (wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures)

Before you turn off the column, plot this data quickly to determine if you obtain smooth
curves when these variables are plotted as a function of column height.

Because you specified ATWB (6 above), the program will determine the column
characteristic. From the characteristic, you can determine the mass or heat transfer
coefficient for the column if you know the interfacial area per volume of the tower. So,

11. Determine the interfacial area per volume for the tower by counting the number of
pieces of wood in the column, determining the area per piece of wood, and measuring the
column volume. Compare your result with the a value listed on the smaller column ‘C’ of
200 m2/m3, which has a similar packing. How do you properly account for the volume
between the sections of the packing on the tall column? Remember that when doing the
tower characteristic calculations.....
CH' = kyMbaZ/Gx = Cl∫ dTx/(Hi-Hy) (3)
kyMbaZ/Gx = kyMbaZ/(mH2O/A) = kyMb(aZA)/mH2O = kyMb(total surface area of wood)/mH2O

12. This experiment can be completed in several hours. Use the remaining time to complete
the graphical analysis and computer simulation.

EXPERIMENTAL PROBLEMS

1. Your analysis should provide an obvious indication of any thermocouples that are not working
correctly. Please report these problems to Ron Bartlett.
Computer Simulation

There is no longer a process simulation model of this experiment.

ANALYSIS - YOU MUST DO EACH OF THE FOLLOWING TO COMPLETE THE
EXPERIMENT

1.Perform a mass balance (the rate of evaporation = the flow rate of air * the change in
humidity= the rate of make-up water addition) to determine the air flow rate. Does it agree with
the air flow rate from the pressure drop across the orifice? Perform a water energy balance (does
the wattage on the heater correspond to mCp dT of the water flowing past it). Determine a, V,
and Z for the column.

2. Graph the Enthalpy vs. Temperature plot with the equilibrium curve, operating line, and gas
profile curve calculated graphically. A water-air humidity chart at one atmosphere is included
in the Appendix along with an example result of the graphical representation of the
operating line and the gas profile. Now, using this plot, graph the “predicted” water
temperature, air temperature and humidity as a function of height.

3. Graph the experimental data for profiles of water temperature, air temperature and
humidity as a function of column height. Compare these experimental results with your
“predictions’ from step 2.

4. Determine the tower characteristic, and from this value determine the mass and heat
transfer coefficients. Do they agree with literature values?
Optional Report Items

1. Derive equations (1), (2), and (3) for the system using a differential element of the
column.(Figure 8) . What is the Lewis Relation? Explain the effect of the Lewis Relation on
these derivations. Refer to McCabe, Smith and Harriott, Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering, for help.

2. What can you say about the temperature of the water entering a countercurrent column if you
wanted processes AS or AP of Figure 1 to occur?

3. Draw a figure like those in figure 2 that corresponds to a position in the column where the bulk
air is hotter than the liquid. Discuss ATWB in Figure 3. What governs the smallest ATWB
possible? Is it always possible to have ATWB = 0, even if the column is infinite in height?

4. Read the references. (1 and 4) detail the graphical technique for the gas profile, (2 and 4)
provide an excellent review of humidification, but do not show how to generate the gas profile,
and (3) details a PC simulator algorithm that was previously used in this course.
Nomenclature

Symbols and Units

Symbol Quantity Units*

A Cross sectional area of tower m2

a Area of mass or heat transfer/vol m2 of wood m-3 of column
ATWB Approach to wet bulb K
Cp Specific heat capacity J kg-1 K-1
Cl Heat capacity of water(liquid) J kg-1 K-1
Cs Humid heat J kg-1 K-1
CH’ Column(Tower) characteristic dimension less
Gx Liquid flux kg s-1 A-1
Gy’ Dry air flux kg s-1 A-1
hy Gas heat transfer coefficient J m-2 s-1 K-1
hx Liquid heat transfer coefficient J m-2 s-1 K-1
H Enthalpy J kg-1
Hi Enthalpy of air at interface J kg-1
Hy Enthalpy of bulk air J kg-1
ky mass transfer coefficient kgmol m-2 s-1
mair Mass flow rate of air kg s-1
mH2O Mass flow rate of water kg s-1
Mb Molecular mass kg (kg mole)-1
p Pressure N m-2
P Power W
q Heat transfer per unit mass J kg-1
Q Heat transfer rate W
R Specific Gas Constant J kg-1 K-1
Ti Temperature at interface K
Tx Temperature of liquid K
Ty Temperature of gas K
V Volume of Column m3
Vb specific volume of exiting air (humid air basis) m3/kg
Vab specific volume of exiting air (dry air basis) m3/kg
X orifice differential mm H2O
Z Column height m
ùb specific humidity kg water vapor/kg dry air

* you can use English units if you like, except for the orifice equation, which is dimensional
References

1. Foust, Alan S., Principles of Unit Operations, 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, NY,
NY(1980), Chapter 17.

2. McCabe, Warren L. and Smith, Julian C., Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, 3rd
Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, NY, NY(1976), Humidification Operations
Section.

3. Enick, R.M., Klara, S.M. and Marano, J.J., High Pressure Humidification
Columns:Design Equations, Algorithm, and Computer Code, Pittsburgh Energy
Technology Center, Pittsburgh, PA.

4. Geankoplis, J., Christie, Transport Processes and Unit Operations, 3rd Edition, Prentice-
Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey (1993)
Appendix