Bio U1 Model Ans JAN SPOORENBERG
Daphnia Experiment Set Up
Lung Adaptations for Diffusion
1. Alveoli are one cell thick; capillary walls one cell thick
2. walls are made of flattened epithelial cells; short diff. dis.
2. alveoli are covered in capillaries [network - increase SA]
3. reduces diffusion distance (short diffusion distance)
4. large SA provided by alveoli (air sacs)
5. concentration gradient is maintained by breathing
6. also maintained by blood flow
7. large numbers of red blood cells; O2 combines w haemoglobin
8. Fick’s law - diffusion rate proportional to surface area
Why circulatory system is important for gas exchange
1. Mass flow generated by heart;blood flow maintains conc. grad.
2. Network of capillaries means all cells are close to blood
3. Double circulatory system leads to efficient gas exchange
4. Network of capillaries; large SA - fast diffusion (Fick’s law)
5. Capillaries have thin cell walls; small diffusion distance
How gas exchange occurs in cells
1. Gas exchange occurs via diffusion through cell membrane
2. O2 enters cell, CO2 leaves cells } both are small/non-polar
3. Move down the concentration gradient
4. Large SA to V ratio
Why double circulatory system is advantageous (compared to single)
1. Blood flows at a higher pressure
2. Blood can flow at a lower pressure/slower into the lungs
3. Less damage to the lungs
4. Ref. to more efficient gas exchange/transport of gases
Why double circulatory system is good for diffusion
1. one side of heart transports blood; other to lungs
2. separation of oxygenated/deoxygenated blood
3. good for maintaining concentration gradient
4. b.p lower to lungs, higher to body
5. need for good supply of O2; v. high metabolism, v active
Why insect does not need blood vessels
1. Large surface area to volume ratio
2. Low metabolic rate/low metabolism
3. Diffusion is fast enough for exchange of gases/waste
4. Movement of blood back into heart is fast enough
5. All cells are very close to heart
Describe the structure of the heart
1. idea that there are four chambers
2. correct ref to relative position of atria and ventricles
3. idea of left and right sides separate/septum
4. ref to the muscular nature of the walls
5. ref to the cardiac muscle
6. idea of relative thickness of ventricle walls
7. correct ref to position of semilunar valves
8. correct ref to semilunar valves
9. ref to position of tendons/cords/papillary muscles
10. correct ref to position of aorta/pulmonary artery
11. correct ref to position of vena cava/pulmonary vein
12. correct ref. to coronary arteries; ref to SAN
Arteries vs Capillaries
1. Arteries have thick walls; capillary walls one cell thick
2. Arteries - lots of collagen; capillaries - no collagen
3. Arteries - muscle cells; capillaries - no muscle cells
4. Arteries - elastic tissue (allows for recoil); collagen - none
5. Arteries - narrow lumen; capillaries - even narrower
How structure of arteries make it suited to its function
1. Elastic tissue - recoil/stretch; maintain press. w/ no damage
2. Smooth muscle - can exert pressure/contract
3. Smooth lining - reduces friction/smooth blood flow
4. Collagen - helps avoid damage or rupture
5. Narrow lumen - helps maintain high blood pressure
How structure of capillary is linked with its function
1. Capillary has thin wall (one cell thick, no collagen)
2. So, has a short diffusion distance, ensuring fast diffusion rate
How veins structure helps to maintain blood flow
1. They have semi-lunar valves; help prevent back flow of blood
2. They are fitted inbetween muscles; muscles contract & pump
3. Wider lumen and thinner walls than arteries
What is Cardiovascular Disease?
1. Disease of heart; atherosclerosis leads to narrowing of lumen
1. Transfer Daphnia to slide; observe heart under microscope
2. Count heart rate in 20s, multiply value by 3 to get bpm
3. Add drops of heated/caffeinated solution; allow acclimatization
5. Count heart rate again; repeat experiment 3x, take avg.
6. Control temperature (waterbath) pH (buffer) age of Daphnia..
7. Control volume of solution (same no. of drops each time)
Risk factors for CVD and their effects
1. Smoking; platelets sticky & reduces O2 cap. of haemoglobin
2. Inactivity; leads to energy imbalance, weight gain, obesity, b.p.
3. Diet high in salt - high b.p. (or diet high sat. fats. - LDL:HDL)
4. ! important to maintain LDL;HDL ratio as it controls chol.
How diet of high fat and inactivity leads to risk of CVD
1. leads to energy imbalance; can cause weight gain/obesity
2. leads to diabetes; risk factor for CVD
3. increase of blood pressure; increases risk of damage/rupture
4. higher chance of atherosclerosis; narrowing of lumen
4. higher LDL;HDL level; linked with CVD
Why a diet high in carbohydrates can lead to obesity (2)
1. carbohydrates a source of a high amount of energy
2. if the energy input (carbohydrates) is greater than the output
3. weight is gained/energy imbalance
4. excess carbohydrates are converted into fat
Blood clot leading to stroke/heart attack
1. blood clot leads to reduced blood flow
2. less/no oxygen reaches heart/brain
3. less aerobic respiration; no ATP produced
4. brain/heart needs a lot of ATP to function
5. lactic acid produced from anaerobic
6. lactic acid inhibits enzymes/is toxic
Blood Clotting Mechanism
1. Events lead up to clot; e.g. damage to endothelial cells/lining
2. Release of thromboplastin; converts prothrombin to thrombin
3. Thrombin is an enzyme (globular protein)
4. Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin
5. Fibrin (fibrous protein) forms a mesh of fibres
6. Platelets & red blood cells get trapped; form blood clot
7. Stickier platelets form blood clots faster
8. Blood clot restricts blood flow; lack of O2; heart attack/stroke
Atherosclerosis
1. Damage to endothelial cells/rupture
2. Triggers an inflammatory response
3. WBC accumulate in the area; build up of choles./platelets
5. Harden to form plaque (atheroma) (build up of fibres/Ca2+)
6. Narrowing of lumen/ less elasticity/high b.p less blood flow
7. Process is self perpetuating (high bp leads to more damage)
Structure of Cell Membrane
1. ref to phospholipid bilayer; and phospholipids in bilayer
3. hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail
4. hydrophilic attracted to H2O, hydrophobic moves away
5. proteins (channel protein and carrier protein)
6. different locations of proteins (extrinsic, intrinsic..)
7. glycoproteins - for cell recognition; cholesterol within memb.
Describe what is meant by term fluid mosaic
1. Fluid refers to the flexibility and fluidity brought about by the
phospholipids that are able to move (in similar manner to fluid)
2. Mosaic refers to the random distribution of proteins in the
bilayer (both extrinsic and intrinsic)
Effect of ethanol of cell membrane
1. Ethanol causes the membrane to be disrupted
2. Lipids dissolve in ethanol; proteins denatured by ethanol
3. This disrupts the vacuole membrane; escape of pigment
Effect of temperature on the cell membrane
1. Increase in temperature increases the Ek; disrupts membrane
2. Phospholipids move more; cell membrane more permeable
3. Proteins denature above certain temp. ; increase permeability
4. Pigment escapes when disrupted; disruption of vac. membrane
Active Transport
1. Active transport uses ATP (requires energy)
2. Uses only carrier proteins; bind to molecule & change shape
3. Transports molecules against the conc. gradient
Facilitated Diffusion
1. Uses protein channels (open/close) and carriers (change shape)
2. Can carry large/polar molecules down concentration gradient
DNA Replication Recessive allele - needs to be homozygous to be expressed in phenotype
1. DNA Helicase [named enzyme] unravels the DNA strand Dominant allele - will be expressed in phenotype independent of pair
2. Replication is semiconservative; one new strand made Describe the structure of an enzyme
3. Mononucleotides line up along the strand 1. Enzyme is a globular protein
4. Via complementary base pairing; form H bonds between them 2. It has an active site which is specific to its substrate
5. Phosphodiester bonds form between mononucleotides 3. It forms an enzyme-substrate complex by binding to substrate
6. Via condensation reaction 4. Form bonds between R groups; such as disulphide bridges
DNA Polymerase attaches nucleotides; DNA Ligase connects fragments Define 1o seq. of prot. - sequence of amino acids; joined by peptide bonds
Role of mRNA and tRNA in protein synthesis (4) Difference: monosaccharides and disaccharides
mRNA 1. mRNA transcribe DNA template; is copy of genetic code 1. monosaccharides made of 1 sugar/disaccharide made up of 2
2. mRNA is made up of codons that code for specific amino acids 2. monosaccharide has no glycosidic bonds/disaccharide does
3. the mRNA contains the code for the new protein/polypeptide 3. monosaccharide (CnH2nOn) disaccharide CnH2n-2On-1
3. the mRNA moves out of the nucleus, & binds to the ribosomes Difference: amylose and amylopectin
5. and is used in translation [acts as template for translation] 1. amylose is straight chain/unbranched; amylopectin is branched
tRNA 1. tRNA attaches to one specific amino acid (one) 2. amylose is coiled/spiral; amylopectin is not
2. amino acids line up on mRNA via complementary base pairing 3. amylose 1,4 glyc. bonds; amylopectin 1,4 & 1,6 glyc bonds
3. peptide bonds form via condensation); released by tRNA Why glycerol is suitable energy storage in animals
2. tRNA then binds to mRNA 1. Insoluble - no osmotic effect, will not dissolve
3. amino acids join via peptide bonds 2. Large molecule - will not move out of cell
Protein Synthesis (Translation) 3. Large molecule - it can store large amounts of energy
1. mRNA binds to ribosome 4. Compact - can store large amounts of energy in small space
2. tRNA attaches to one specific amino acid each 5. Very branched - easily hydrolysed (to release glucose)
3. codon/anticodon interaction/complementary base pairing - made of alpha glucose and held by 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds
4. formation of hydrogen bonds between the bases Why water is suitable in transport of substances
5. peptide bonds form between the amino acids; released tRNA 1. Water is a solvent and can dissolve non-polar/ions
6. peptide bonds formed via condensation reactions 2. Water has a dipole nature; can form weak H bonds
Describe why mutation alters enzymes 3. This makes it adhesive and cohesive
1. gene is seq. of bases 3. Water is fluid and can assist mass flow
2. that code for seq. of amino acids in protein Describe graph of rate of reaction of enzyme/uptake of channel protein
3. gene mutation alters the DNA triplet codon 1. Initially; concentration increases, rate of reaction also increases
4. therefore can change amino acid sequence 2. Concentration increases the concentration gradient (protein)
5. STOP codon can be coded for 3. The substrate/protein channel becomes saturated; plateaus
6. this may change the shape of the protein/enzymes 4. ref. to number of channel proteins/substrate s limiting factor
7. therefore causing change of the active site; a.s is specific 5. No more than one can bind/go through at once
How gene mutation leads to thick mucus in cystic fibrosis Rate of reaction experiment - using enzyme
1. Change in base sequence changes the amino acid structure 1. Substrate converted in certain time (measure time taken for..)
2. Changes the shape of the protein; alters its function 2. How to measure change; e.g. gas produced or stain colour gone
3. CFTR protein (channel) cannot transport Cl- ions into cells 3. Need to control volume/conc of substate & vol. of enzyme
4. The protein channel is open for Na+; absorbed by mucus 4. Control other factor e.g temp (waterbath), pH (buffer)
4. Water doesn’t move out of cells/ doesn't dilute; via osmosis 5. Repeat each reading 3 times; take average
5. Sticky mucus which cannot be removed by cilia in lung
How gene mutation results in non functioning enzyme
1. Gene mutation changes the DNA base sequence
2. Alters the primary structure; sequence of amino acids
3. Changes the position of R groups on amino acid
4. Affects how it is folded, what tertiary bonds form (name one)
5. This changes final 3D shape of the protein; changes active site
6. Active site is specific; binds to substrate to form complex
Somatic Cell Therapy vs Germ Line
1. somatic involves body cells; germ line involves gametes
2. somatic can’t be inherited/germ line can be inherited
3. somatic legal; germ line is illegal
4. somatic is temp. treatment/germ line could be cure
Gene Therapy - Replacement of CFTR gene
1. ref. to virus; e.g. liposome, virus and plasmid
2. idea of inserting functional gene that codes for CFTR protein
3. method of getting into longs; e.g. nebuliser
4. CFTR protein made via transcription/translation
5. allows chloride ions to leave cells
6. water moves out of cells via osmosis
7. mucus becomes less sticky
Gene Therapy
1. Use named vector (e.g. liposome or altered virus or plasmid)
2. Introduce healthy gene into body cells (name,e.g. cells in lung)
3. Normal gene is transcribed & translated; healthy protein made
4. Instead of faulty protein
3. Suitable delivery method (e.g. injection or nebuliser)
4. Treatment needs to be repeated (due to cell replacement)
How cystic fibrosis leads to infertility
1. Thick mucus builds in reproductive system; blocks cervix
2. Prevents sperm from reaching egg, fertilization impaired
Ethics of Genetic Screening/Prenatal Testing
1. Right of life; abortion is murder
2. False +ve/-ve; abortion of healthy fetus/birth of disorder
3. Stress to parents - increased change of miscarriage