Transfer Function Models

of Dynamical Processes

Process Dynamics and Control

1
 Linear SISO Control Systems
 General form of a linear SISO control system:

 this is a underdetermined higher order differential

equation
 the function must be specified for this ODE to
admit a well defined solution

2
 Transfer Function
 Heated stirred-tank model (constant flow, )

 Taking the Laplace transform yields:

or letting

Transfer functions

3
 Transfer Function
 Heated stirred tank example

+
+

e.g. The block is called the transfer function relating Q(s) to T(s)

4
 Process Control

Time Domain Laplace Domain

Process Modeling, Transfer function

Experimentation and Modeling, Controller
Implementation Design and Analysis

Ability to understand dynamics in Laplace and

time domains is extremely important in the
study of process control

5
 Transfer functions
 Transfer functions are generally expressed as a ratio of
polynomials

Where

 The polynomial is called the characteristic polynomial of

 Roots of are the zeroes of

 Roots of are the poles of

6
 Transfer function
 Order of underlying ODE is given by degree of
characteristic polynomial
e.g. First order processes

Second order processes

 Order of the process is the degree of the characteristic

(denominator) polynomial
 The relative order is the difference between the degree of the
denominator polynomial and the degree of the numerator
polynomial

7
 Transfer Function
 Steady state behavior of the process obtained form the
final value theorem
e.g. First order process

For a unit-step input,

From the final value theorem, the ultimate value of is

 This implies that the limit exists, i.e. that the system is stable.

8
 Transfer function
 Transfer function is the unit impulse response

e.g. First order process,

Unit impulse response is given by

In the time domain,

9
 Transfer Function
 Unit impulse response of a 1st order process

10
 Deviation Variables
 To remove dependence on initial condition
e.g.

Compute equilibrium condition for a given and

Define deviation variables

Rewrite linear ODE 0

or

11
 Deviation Variables
Assume that we start at equilibrium

Transfer functions express extent of deviation from a given

steady-state

 Procedure
 Find steady-state
 Write steady-state equation
 Subtract from linear ODE
 Define deviation variables and their derivatives if required
 Substitute to re-express ODE in terms of deviation variables

12
 Process Modeling
 Gravity tank

Fo

h F

Objectives: height of liquid in tank L

Fundamental quantity: Mass, momentum
Assumptions:
 Outlet flow is driven by head of liquid in the tank
 Incompressible flow
 Plug flow in outlet pipe
 Turbulent flow

13
 Transfer Functions
From mass balance and Newton’s law,

A system of simultaneous ordinary differential equations results

Linear or nonlinear?

14
 Nonlinear ODEs
Q: If the model of the process is nonlinear, how do we
express it in terms of a transfer function?

A: We have to approximate it by a linear one (i.e.Linearize)

in order to take the Laplace.

f(x)

f(x0) !f
( x0 )
!x

x0
x
15
 Nonlinear systems
 First order Taylor series expansion

1. Function of one variable

2. Function of two variables

3. ODEs

16
 Transfer Function
 Procedure to obtain transfer function from nonlinear
process models
 Find an equilibrium point of the system
 Linearize about the steady-state
 Express in terms of deviations variables about the steady-state
 Take Laplace transform
 Isolate outputs in Laplace domain

 Express effect of inputs in terms of transfer functions

17
 Block Diagrams
 Transfer functions of complex systems can be represented
in block diagram form.

 3 basic arrangements of transfer functions:

1. Transfer functions in series

2. Transfer functions in parallel

3. Transfer functions in feedback form

18
 Block Diagrams
 Transfer functions in series

 Overall operation is the multiplication of transfer functions

 Resulting overall transfer function

19
 Block Diagrams
 Transfer functions in series (two first order systems)

 Overall operation is the multiplication of transfer functions

 Resulting overall transfer function

20
 Transfer Functions
 DC Motor example:
 In terms of angular velocity

 In terms of the angle

21
 Transfer Functions
 Transfer function in parallel

 Overall transfer function is the addition of TFs in parallel

22
 Transfer Functions
 Transfer function in parallel

 Overall transfer function is the addition of TFs in parallel

23
 Transfer Functions
 Transfer functions in (negative) feedback form

 Overall transfer function

24
 Transfer Functions
 Transfer functions in (positive) feedback form

 Overall transfer function

25
 Transfer Function
 Example 3.20

26
 Transfer Function
 Example

 A positive feedback loop

27
 Transfer Function
 Example 3.20

 Two systems in parallel

 Replace by

28
 Transfer Function
 Example 3.20

 Two systems in parallel

29
 Transfer Function
 Example 3.20

 A negative feedback loop

30
 Transfer Function
 Example 3.20

 Two process in series

31
 First Order Systems
 First order systems are systems whose dynamics are
described by the transfer function

where

 is the system’s (steady-state) gain

 is the time constant

 First order systems are the most common behaviour

encountered in practice

32
 First Order Systems
Examples,
Examples Liquid storage

 Assume:
 Incompressible flow
 Outlet flow due to gravity
 Balance equation:
 Total
 Flow In
 Flow Out

33
 First Order Systems
 Balance equation:

 Deviation variables about the equilibrium

 Laplace transform

 First order system with

34
 First Order Systems
Examples:
Examples Cruise control

DC Motor

35
 First Order Systems

Liquid Storage Tank

Speed of a car

DC Motor

First order processes are characterized by:

1. Their capacity to store material, momentum

and energy
2. The resistance associated with the flow of
mass, momentum or energy in reaching their
capacity 36
 First Order Systems
 Step response of first order process

Step input signal of magnitude M

 The ultimate change in is given by

37
 First Order Systems
 Step response

38
 First Order Systems

 What do we look for?

 System’s Gain: Steady-State Response

 Process Time Constant:

Time Required to Reach

63.2% of final value

 What do we need?
 System initially at equilibrium
 Step input of magnitude M
 Measure process gain from new steady-state
 Measure time constant
39
 First Order Systems
 First order systems are also called systems with finite
settling time
 The settling time is the time required for the system comes
within 5% of the total change and stays 5% for all times

 Consider the step response

 The overall change is



40
 First Order Systems
 Settling time

41
 First Order Systems
 Process initially at equilibrium subject to a step of
magnitude 1

42
 First order process
Ramp response:

Ramp input of slope a

5

4.5
4

3.5

2.5

1.5
1

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

43
 First Order Systems
Sinusoidal response

Sinusoidal
2 input Asin(ωt)
1.5

0.5
AR
0

-0.5

-1 φ
-1.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

44
 First Order Systems

0
Bode Plots
10
High Frequency
Corner Frequency Asymptote
-1
10

-2
10 -2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10

0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100 -2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10

Amplitude Ratio Phase Shift

45
 Integrating Systems
Example: Liquid storage tank

Fi

F
Laplace domain dynamics

If there is no outlet flow,

46
 Integrating Systems
 Example
 Capacitor

 Dynamics of both systems is equivalent

47
 Integrating Systems
 Step input of magnitude M

Output
Slope =
Input

Time Time

48
 Integrating Systems

 Unit impulse response

Output
Input

Time Time

49
 Integrating Systems
 Rectangular pulse response

Output
Input

Time Time

50
 Second order Systems
 Second order process:
 Assume the general form

where = Process steady-state gain

= Process time constant
= Damping Coefficient

 Three families of processes

Underdamped
Critically Damped
Overdamped

51
 Second Order Systems
Three types of second order process:

1. Two First Order Systems in series or in parallel

e.g. Two holding tanks in series

2. Inherently second order processes: Mechanical systems

possessing inertia and subjected to some external force
e.g. A pneumatic valve

3. Processing system with a controller: Presence of a

controller induces oscillatory behavior
e.g. Feedback control system

52
 Second order Systems
 Multicapacity Second Order Processes
 Naturally arise from two first order processes in series

 By multiplicative property of transfer functions

53
 Transfer Functions
 First order systems in parallel

 Overall transfer function a second order process (with one zero)

54
 Second Order Systems
 Inherently second order process:
e.g. Pneumatic Valve

By Newton’s law

55
 Second Order Systems
 Feedback Control Systems

56
 Second order Systems
 Second order process:
 Assume the general form

where = Process steady-state gain

= Process time constant
= Damping Coefficient

 Three families of processes

Underdamped
Critically Damped
Overdamped

57
 Second Order Systems
 Roots of the characteristic polynomial

Case 1) Two distinct real roots

System has an exponential behavior

Case 2) One multiple real root

Exponential behavior

Case 3) Two complex roots

System has an oscillatory behavior

58
 Second Order Systems
 Step response of magnitude M

2
ξ=0
1.8
1.6 ξ=0.2
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
ξ=2
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 59 10
 Second Order Systems
Observations

 Responses exhibit overshoot when

 Large yield a slow sluggish response

 Systems with yield the fastest response without overshoot

 As (with ) becomes smaller, system becomes more

oscillatory

60
 Second Order Systems
Characteristics of underdamped second order process

1. Rise time,
2. Time to first peak,
3. Settling time,
4. Overshoot:

5. Decay ratio:

61
 Second Order Systems
 Step response

62
 Second Order Systems
 Sinusoidal Response

where

63
Second Order Systems

64
 More Complicated Systems
Transfer function typically written as rational function of polynomials

where and can be factored following the discussion on partial

fraction expansion

s.t.

where and appear as real numbers or complex conjuguate pairs

65
 Poles and zeroes
Definitions:
 the roots of are called the zeros of G(s)

 the roots of are called the poles of G(s)

Poles: Directly related to the underlying differential equation

If , then there are terms of the form in

 vanishes to a unique point

If any then there is at least one term of the form

 does not vanish
66
 Poles
e.g. A transfer function of the form

with can factored to a sum of

 A constant term from

A from the term
 A function that includes terms of the form

Poles can help us to describe the qualitative behavior of a complex system

(degree>2)
The sign of the poles gives an idea of the stability of the system 67
 Poles
 Calculation performed easily in MATLAB
 Function POLE, PZMAP

e.g.
» s=tf(‘s’);
» sys=1/s/(s+1)/(4*s^2+2*s+1);
Transfer function:
1
-------------------------
4 s^4 + 6 s^3 + 3 s^2 + s
» pole(sys)
ans =
0
-1.0000
-0.2500 + 0.4330i
MATLAB
-0.2500 - 0.4330i
68
 Poles
 Function PZMAP
» pzmap(sys) MATLAB

69
 Poles

 One constant pole

 integrating feature

 One real negative pole

 decaying exponential

 A pair of complex roots with negative real part

 decaying sinusoidal

What is the dominant feature?

70
 Poles
 Step Response

 Integrating factor dominates the dynamic behaviour

71
 Poles
 Example

 Poles
 -1.0000
-0.0000 + 1.0000i
-0.0000 - 1.0000i

 One negative real pole

 Two purely complex poles

What is the dominant feature?

72
 Poles
 Step Response

 Purely complex poles dominate the dynamics

73
 Poles
 Example

 Poles
 -8.1569
-0.6564
-0.1868

 Three negative real poles

What is the dominant dynamic feature?

74
 Poles
 Step Response

 Slowest exponential ( ) dominates the dynamic

feature (yields a time constant of 1/0.1868= 5.35 s

75
 Poles
 Example

 Poles
-4.6858
0.3429 + 0.3096i
0.3429 - 0.3096i

 One negative real root

 Complex conjuguate roots with positive real part

 The system is unstable (grows without bound)

76
 Poles
 Step Response

77
 Poles
 Two types of poles

 Slow (or dominant) poles

 Poles that are closer to the imaginary axis
 Smaller real part means smaller exponential term and

slower decay
 Fast poles
 Poles that are further from the imaginary axis
 Larger real part means larger exponential term and faster

decay

78
 Poles
 Poles dictate the stability of the process

 Stable poles
 Poles with negative real parts
 Decaying exponential
 Unstable poles
 Poles with positive real parts
 Increasing exponential
 Marginally stable poles
 Purely complex poles
 Pure sinusoidal

79
 Poles

Oscillatory Integrating
Behaviour Behaviour

Pure Exponential

Stable Unstable

Marginally
Stable
80
 Poles
 Example

Stable Poles

Unstable Poles

Fast Poles
Slow Poles

81
 Poles and zeroes
Definitions:
 the roots of are called the zeros of G(s)

 the roots of are called the poles of G(s)

Zeros:
 Do not affect the stability of the system but can modify the dynamical
behaviour

82
 Zeros
 Types of zeros:

 Slow zeros are closer to the imaginary axis than the dominant poles of the
transfer function
 Affect the behaviour
 Results in overshoot (or undershoot)
 Fast zeros are further away to the imaginary axis
 have a negligible impact on dynamics

 Zeros with negative real parts, , are stable zeros

 Slow stable zeros lead to overshoot

 Zeros with positive real parts, , are unstable zeros

 Slow unstable zeros lead to undershoot (or inverse response)

83
 Zeros
Can result from two processes in parallel

If gains are of opposite signs and time constants are different then a right half
plane zero occurs

84
 Zeros
 Example

 Poles
 -8.1569
-0.6564
-0.1868

 Zeros
 -10.000

What is the effect of the zero on the dynamic behaviour?

85
 Zeros
 Poles and zeros

Dominant
Fast, Stable
Pole
Zero

86
 Zeros
 Unit step response:

 Effect of zero is negligible

87
 Zeros
 Example

 Poles
 -8.1569
-0.6564
-0.1868

 Zeros
 -0.1000

What is the effect of the zero on the dynamic behaviour?

88
 Zeros
 Poles and zeros:

Slow (dominant)
Stable zero

89
 Zeros
 Unit step response:

 Slow dominant zero yields an overshoot.

90
 Zeros
 Example

 Poles
 -8.1569
-0.6564
-0.1868

 Zeros
 10.000

What is the effect of the zero on the dynamic behaviour?

91
 Zeros
 Poles and Zeros

Dominant Fast Unstable

Pole Zero

92
 Zeros
 Unit Step Response:

 Effect of unstable zero is negligible

93
 Zeros
 Example

 Poles
 -8.1569
-0.6564
-0.1868

 Zeros
 0.1000

What is the effect of the zero on the dynamic behaviour?

94
 Zeros
 Poles and zeros:

Slow
Unstable Zero

95
 Zeros
 Unit step response:

 Slow unstable zero causes undershoot (inverse reponse)

96
 Zeros
Observations:

 Adding a stable zero to an overdamped system yields overshoot

 Adding an unstable zero to an overdamped system yields

undershoot (inverse response)

 Inverse response is observed when the zeros lie in right half

complex plane,

 Overshoot or undershoot are observed when the zero is dominant

(closer to the imaginary axis than dominant poles)

97
 Zeros
 Example: System with complex zeros

Dominant
Pole

Slow
Stable Zeros

98
 Zeros
 Poles and zeros

 Poles have negative real parts: The system is stable

 Dominant poles are real: yields an overdamped behaviour

 A pair of slow complex stable poles: yields overshoot

99
 Zeros
 Unit step response:

 Effect of slow zero is significant and yields oscillatory behaviour

100
 Zeros
 Example: System with zero at the origin

Zero at
Origin

101
 Zeros
 Unit step response

 Zero at the origin: eliminates the effect of the step

102
 Zeros

 Observations:

 Complex (stable/unstable) zero that is dominant yields an

(overshoot/undershoot)

 Complex slow zero can introduce oscillatory behaviour

 Zero at the origin eliminates (or zeroes out) the system response

103
 Delay

Fi

Control loop

Time required for the

fluid to reach the valve
usually approximated as
dead time

Manipulation of valve does not lead to immediate

change in level
104
 Delay
Delayed transfer functions

e.g. First order plus dead-time

Second order plus dead-time

105
 Delay
 Dead time (delay)

 Most processes will display some type of lag time

 Dead time is the moment that lapses between input changes and
process response

106
Step response of a first order plus dead time process
 Delay
 Delayed step response:

107
 Delay
 Problem
 use of the dead time approximation makes analysis (poles and
zeros) more difficult

 Approximate dead-time by a rational (polynomial)

function
 Most common is Pade approximation

108
 Pade Approximations
 In general Pade approximations do not approximate dead-time very
well

 Pade approximations are better when one approximates a first order

plus dead time process

 Pade approximations introduce inverse response (right half plane

zeros) in the transfer function

109
 Pade Approximations
 Step response of Pade Approximation

 Pade approximation introduces inverse response

110