I UNIT Part -1

Mercury thermometer
• Consider the thermometer to be located in a flowing stream of fluid
for which the temperature “x” varies with time.
• Our problem is to calculate the response or the time variation of the
thermometer reading “y” for a particular change in “x*”.
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Mercury thermometer
Mercury thermometer
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Mercury thermometer
• Equation 5.1 is first order differential equation. Before applying
Laplace transform, deviation variables will be introduced.
• Prior to the change in x, the thermometer is at steady state and the
derivative dy/dt is zero.
• For the steady-state condition, Eq. (5.1) may be written

• The subscript “s” is used to indicate that the variable is the steady-
state value.
• Equation (5.2) simply states that yS = xs, or the thermometer reads the
true bath temperature.
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Mercury thermometer
• Subtracting Eq. (5.2) from Eq. (5.1) gives
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Mercury thermometer

• The expression on the right side of Eq. (5.7) is called the transfer
function of the system.
• It is the ratio of the Laplace transform of the deviation in thermometer
reading to the Laplace transform of the deviation in the surrounding
temperature.
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Mercury thermometer
• Any physical system for which the relation between Laplace
transforms of input and output deviation variables is of the form given
by Eq. (5.7) is called a first-order system.
• Deviation variable & its importance
 The introduction of deviation variables prior to taking the Laplace
transform of the differential equation results in a transfer function that
is free of initial conditions because the initial values of X and Y are
zero.
In control system engineering, we are primarily concerned with the
deviations of system variables from their steady-state values.
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Properties of Transfer Function

• A transfer function relates two variables in a physical process; one of
these is the cause (forcing function or input variable) and the other
is the effect (response or output variable).
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Properties of Transfer Function

• The transfer function results from a linear differential equation;
therefore, the principle of superposition is applicable.
• This means that the transformed response of a system with transfer
function G(s) to a forcing function X(S).

• Y1(s) and Y2(s) are the responses to X1 and X2 alone, respectively

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Properties of Transfer Function

• The functional relationship contained in a transfer function is often
expressed by a block-diagram representation.
• The arrow entering the box is the forcing function or input variable,
and the arrow leaving the box is the response or output variable.
Forcing Functions

• It is defined as how the system react to produce output for any change
in the input with time.
• It shows the variation of output of the system for any change in the
input which is a forcing function of time.
Step input
Impulse input
Ramp Input
Sinusoidal Input.
Forcing Functions

Step Input
Forcing Functions

Impulse input

L{x(t)} = A
Forcing Functions

Ramp Input
F(t) = {0 t<0; At t ≥ 0}

L{F(t)} = A/S2
Forcing Functions

Sinusoidal Input
F(t) = {0, t < 0; A sint, t ≥ 0}

L{F(t)} = A/(S2 + 2)
Transient Response
• If a step change of magnitude A is introduced into a first-order
system,
X(S) = A/S
Y(S)/X(s) = 1/(
X(s) = A/s.(
X(s) =
Above equation can be expanded by partial fraction to give:
= + (1)
Transient Response
On solving, we get
B= A
And C= -A
On putting these values in equation 1 we get,
Y(s) = +
On taking inverse laplace transform we get
y(t) = A- A
Transient Response
Problem

Ans = 0.161 min

Impulse Input

Unit impulse is given as input

Sinusoidal Response

Above equation can be written in another form by using the trigonometric

identity.
Sinusoidal Response

Applying the identity

Sinusoidal Response

• On comparing input signal and steady state output response, we see

that

• Output sinusoid lags behind the input by an angle if is negative. It

means the input peak occurs before the output peak.
Physical Example of First Order System

Liquid Level System:

Consider the system shown in below Fig. , which consists of a tank of
uniform cross-sectional area A to which is attached a flow resistance R
such as a valve, a pipe, or a weir.

Assume that qO, the volumetric flow rate (volume/time) through the
resistance, is related to the head h by the linear relationship.
Physical Example of First Order System

Liquid Level System:

Assume that qO, the volumetric flow rate (volume/time) through the
resistance, is related to the head h by the linear relationship.

A time-varying volumetric flow “q” of liquid of constant density enters

the tank. Determine the transfer function that relates head to flow.
Physical Example of First Order System

Liquid Level System:

Transient mass balance around the tank:

.
Physical Example of First Order System

Liquid Level System:

At steady state equation (6.3) becomes,

.
Physical Example of First Order System

Liquid Level System:

.
Physical Example of First Order System

Liquid Level System:

• The term R is simply the conversion factor that relates h(t) to q(t) when the
system is at steady state.
• For this reason, a factor K in the transfer function K/(s + 1) is often called the
steady-state gain.

.
Physical Example of First Order System

Liquid Level System:

• The term R is simply the conversion factor that relates h(t) to q(t) when the
system is at steady state.
• For this reason, a factor K in the transfer function K/(s + 1) is often called the
steady-state gain.

.
Physical Example of First Order System

Liquid-Level Process with Constant-flow Outlet:

• Similar to the previous problem, resistance is replaced by a constant-
flow pump.
• The same assumptions of constant cross-sectional area and constant
density that were used before also apply here.
• Output volumetric flow rate is constant.

.
Physical Example of First Order System

Liquid-Level Process with Constant-flow Outlet:

.
Physical Example of First Order System

Mixing Process:
• Consider the mixing process shown in below Fig. in which a stream of
solution containing dissolved salt flows at a constant volumetric flow rate q
into a tank of constant holdup volume V.
• The concentration of the salt in the entering stream, x (mass of salt/volume),
varies with time.
• It is desired to determine the transfer function relating the outlet
concentration y to the inlet concentration x.
• Assuming the density of the solution to be constant, the flow rate in must
equal the flow rate out, since the holdup volume is fixed.

.
Physical Example of First Order System

Mixing Process:
Transient mass balance for the salt
Flow rate of salt in - Flow rate of salt out = Rate of accumulation of salt
in the tank

.
Physical Example of First Order System

Mixing Process:

.
LINEARIZATION

• All physical systems, including the liquid-level system of have been

linear. Actually, most physical systems of practical importance are
nonlinear.
• Characterization of a dynamic system by a transfer function can be done
only for linear systems (those described by linear differential equations).
• The convenience of using transfer functions for dynamic analysis,
provides significant motivation for approximating nonlinear systems by
linear ones.

.
LINEARIZATION
LINEARIZATION
LINEARIZATION
LINEARIZATION

R1
Response of First Order System in Series

• A physical system can be represented by several first-order processes

connected in series.
• Two possible piping arrangements are shown in below Figure:
Response of First Order System in Series

• Non-Interacting system: Outlet flow from tank 1 discharges directly

into the atmosphere before spilling into tank 2 and the flow through R1
depends only on h1. The variation in h2 in tank 2 does not affect the
transient response occurring in tank 1. This type of system is referred
to as a noninteracting system.
Transfer Function of Non-Interacting tanks
Transfer Function of Non-Interacting tanks

The overall transfer function is the product of two first-order transfer

functions, each one of which is the transfer function of a single tank
operating independently of the other.

If “N” non-interacting tanks are connected in series, then overall transfer

function is the product of transfer function of each tank.
Transfer Function of Interacting Tanks in Series