Control Systems

Module: Modelling of Systems

Modelling of System
• An elemental or mathematical representation of a system which helps in the
analysis (input-output) of the system.
• A model Captures the dynamics of the system.
• Dynamics refers to evolution of system variables:
– Change in room temperature when an AC is switched ON
– Change in speed of car when accelerator is pushed by certain angle
– Change in the current flowing through an inductor when an AC voltage is
applied

Plant/ Equivalent
System/ Mathematical
Process Model
 Types of Mathematical Modelling
Differential Transfer Signal flow graph State
equation function Space
model model Block Diagram Model

• Dynamics of the system represented
in terms of differential equations
• Time domain representation of the
system
• Dynamics represented in terms of
a Laplace transform expression
• Frequency domain
representation of the system
• State is a set of variables that describes
the system behavior in conjunction
with the system inputs
• Dynamics are represented by a set of
first order differential equations using
these state variables

do the multiplications to
understand the purpose
Analysis & Design Objectives:
Requirements:
• Passenger Comfort & Patience:​
Elevator moving slower or faster​
• Passenger Safety & Convenience:
Elevator level properly
Specifications:
• Transient response​
• Steady state response​
• Stability
 Approaches for Analysis and design of Control systems
• Classical or Frequency-domain Approach:
-- Converts a system’s differential equation to a transfer function.
-- Simplifies the representation of individual & interconnected subsystems.
-- Disadvantage: Limited applicability: Applied only to SISO LTI systems Linear to make sure there is no (dx/dt)^2 and time invariant is
constant coefficients.

-- Advantage: Easy to obtain stability and transient response information. We can immediately see the
effects of varying system parameters until an acceptable design is met.
• Modern or Time-domain Approach:
-- Modern control theory (State-space approach) is applicable to SISO/MIMO systems, which may be
linear or nonlinear, time invariant or time varying.
-- The state of a system is a set of variables whose values, together with the input signals and the
equations describing the dynamics, will provide the future state and output of the system.
-- Disadvantage: Designer has to engage in several calculations before the physical interpretation of the
model becomes apparent.
-- Advantage: Attractive because of the availability of numerous state-space software packages for the
personal computer.
Obvious topics of interest:
• Systems (Useful class of systems to study)
• Test inputs
• Laplace transform review
• Transfer function & Differential equations
• T.F. of Electrical, Electronic, Mechanical systems
• State-space representation
• Linearization
• Block Diagram Reduction & Signal Flow Graph
• Time-response
• Stability analysis
• Steady-state error
 Linear & Non-linear Systems
Linear: Output of the system varies linearly
with input and system satisfies additivity
and homogeneity properties (combinedly
Superposition principle). Ex:

y(t) = x(t) sin(t)

Non-linear: Output of the system does

not vary linearly with input and system do not
satisfy Superposition principle. Ex:

y(t) = a x(t) + b
Static & Dynamic Systems:
Static: Output of system depends only one present values of input -- also known as Memory-less
system. Ex: I(t) through Resistor,
y(t) = 5 x(t), y(t) = 3x(t) + 2x2(t)
(or) future inputs
Dynamic: Output of system depends on present as well as past inputs and presence of memory
can be observed. Ex: V(t) across capacitor,
y(t) = x(t) +2x(t-1), y(t) = x(2t+5)

SISO & MIMO Systems:

SISO System (Single Input, Single Output): Ex: A room thermostat: The temperature setting serves as the
single input, adjusting the heating or cooling output to maintain the room temperature at the desired
level.
MIMO System (Multiple Inputs, Multiple Outputs): Ex: Quadcopter drone: Rotor speeds act as multiple
inputs, influencing various outputs such as pitch, roll, yaw, and altitude. Adjusting each rotor's speed
(input) allows control over the drone's movement in different directions
 Time-Invariant & Time-Variant Systems
Time-Invariant System: A dynamic system is time-invariant if shifting the input on the time axis leads to an
equivalent shifting of the output along the time axis, with no other changes. Ex: y(t) = 2+x(t)

Time-variant System: A system is said to be a time-variant system if its input /output characteristics change
with time. Ex: Mass of aircraft/Rocket changes as fuel is consumed, y(t)=tx(t).
Causal & Non-causal Systems
Causal: A causal system is one in which the output at any given time depends only on past and
present values of the input, also called as Non-anticipatory system. Ex: Motor, Thermostat based
AC, y(t) = x(t-2), y(t) = sin(x(t))

Non-causal: A non-causal system is one where the output depends on future values of the
input. System anticipates future inputs based on past. Ex: Weather forecasting system, Missile
guidance system, y(t) = x(3t), y(t) = x(t+2)

Deterministic & Stochastic Systems

Deterministic: Output is completely determined by the input, and there is no randomness involved. The
response to input is predictable and repeatable. Ex: Car ignition

Stochastic: Uncertainty is inherent in the system's behavior. The response to the input is not predictable
and non-repeatable. Ex: Stock Market, Patient flows in Hospital.
Standard Test Inputs
• In most cases, the input signals to a control system are not known prior to design of control
system
• Hence to analyze the performance of a control system, it is excited with standard test signals
• In general, control system design specifications are also based on the response of the system to
such test signals.
• We use test signals such as step, ramp, acceleration and impulse signals
• Which of these typical input signals to use for analyzing system characteristics may be determined
by the form of the input that the system will be subjected to most frequently under normal
operation.
• If the inputs to a control system are gradually changing functions of time, then a ramp function of
time may be a good test signal.
• If a system is subjected to sudden disturbances, a step function of time may be a good test signal.
• If a system is subjected to shock inputs, an impulse function may be best.
Test waveforms used in Control Systems:
Laplace Transform Review

where
Properties
Problems: Laplace Transform
 Problems: Laplace Transform
Solve for y(t) if all initial conditions are zero. Denominator Roots
Are Real and Repeated

Denominator Roots Are

Real and Distinct
Problems: Laplace Transform

Denominator Roots
of F (s) Are Complex
or Imaginary
 Transfer function

If we assume that all initial

conditions are zero
Problems: System representation
Find the transfer function, G(s)=C(s)/R(s)

Find the response, c(t) to an input, r(t) = u(t), a Find the differential equation corresponding to the
unit step, assuming zero initial conditions transfer function