What is Transfer Function????

An algebraic expression for the dynamic relation between

the input and output of the process model. It is defined so as to
be independent of the initial conditions and of the particular
choice of forcing function.
Properties: It can be derived only for a linear differential
equation model because Laplace transform can be applied only
to linear equations. If model is non-linear, then it must be
linearized first.
Advantage: It is easy to interpret and use in calculating output
responses for particular input changes.
MERCURY THERMOMETER.
We develop the transfer function for a first-order system by considering the
unsteady-state behavior of an ordinary mercury-in-glass thermometer.
A cross-sectional view of the bulb is shown in Fig
• Consider the thermometer to be located in a flowing stream of fluid for
which the temperature x varies with time. Our problem is to calculate the
response or the time.

• Variation of the thermometer reading y for a particular change in x. (In order

that the result of the analysis of the thermometer be general and therefore
applicable to other first-order systems, the symbols x and y have been selected
to represent surrounding temperature and thermometer reading, respectively.)

The following assumptions will be used in this analysis:

1. All the resistance to heat transfer resides in the film surrounding the bulb (i.e., the
resistance offered by the glass and mercury is neglected).
2. All the thermal capacity is in the mercury. Furthermore, at any instant the
mercury assumes a uniform temperature throughout
3. The glass wall containing the mercury does not expand or contract during the
transient response.
 It is assumed that the thermometer is initially at steady state. This means that,
before time 0, there is no change in temperature with time. At time 0, the
thermometer will be subjected to some change in the surrounding temperature x ( t ).

By applying the unsteady-state energy balance

Input ( rate) - (Output rate) =(Rate of accumulation)

A surface area of bulb for heat transfer, ft 2

C heat capacity of mercury, Btu/(lb m · °F)
m mass of mercury in bulb, lb m
t time, h
h film coefficient of heat transfer, Btu/(ft 2 · h · °F)
the thermometer is at steady state and the derivative
dy/dt is zero. For the steady-state condition

The subscript‘s is used to indicate that the variable is the steady-state

value
Subtracting Eq. (4.2) from Eq. (4.1) gives

If we define the deviation variables to be the differences between the

variables and their steady-state values
Taking the Laplace transform of Eq.

The parameter t is called the time constant of the system and has the units of time.
From above, we have

To summarize the procedure for determining the transfer function for a process:
Step 1. Write the appropriate balance equations (usually mass or energy balances
for a chemical process).
Step 2. Linearize terms if necessary (details on this step are given in Chap. 5).
Step 3. Place balance equations in deviation variable form.
Step 4. Laplace-transform the linear balance equations.
Step 5. Solve the resulting transformed equations for the transfer function, the
output divided by the input.
 Transient Response

Now that the transfer function of a first-order system has been established, we can easily
obtain its transient response to any forcing function. Since this type of system occurs
so frequently in practice, it is worthwhile to study its response to several common forcing
functions: step, impulse, ramp, and sinusoidal.

These forcing functions have been found to be very useful in theoretical and experimental
aspects of process control. They will be used extensively in our studies, so let’s explore each
before we study the transient response of the first-order system to these forcing functions

STEP FUNCTION. Mathematically, the step function of magnitude A can be expressed

as where u ( t ) is the unit-step function
If a step change of magnitude A is introduced into a first-order system, the transform
of X ( t ) is

The transfer function for first order system is

Solving for the constants C 1 and C 2 by the techniques covered in Chap. 3 gives C 1 A
and C 2 - A.
Hereafter, for the sake of brevity, it will be understood that, above Eq. the
response is zero before t = 0. Equation is plotted in Fig. in terms of the
dimensionless quantities Y ( t )/ A and t / t . (Note that if we refer to the
standard form for a first-order system,
Several features of this response are worth
remembering:
1. The value of Y ( t ) reaches 63.2 percent of its
ultimate value when the time elapsed is equal to
one time constant t . When the time elapsed is 2 t
, 3 t , and 4 t , the percent response is 86.5, 95, and
98, respectively. From these facts, one can
consider the response essentially completed in
three to four time constants.
2. One can show from last Eq. that the slope of the
response curve at the origin in Fig. is 1. This
means that if the initial rate of change of Y ( t )
were maintained, the response would be complete
in one time constant. (See the dotted line in Fig. )
3. A consequence of the principle of superposition
is that the response to a step input
of any magnitude A may be obtained
directly from Fig. by multiplying the
ordinate by A. Figure actually gives
the response to a unit-step function input,
from which all other step responses are
derived by superposition.
The impulse response of a first-order system will now be developed. Anticipating the use
of superposition, we consider a unit impulse for which the Laplace transform is

Combining this with the transfer function for a

first-order system, which is given by

The inverse of Y ( s ) can be found directly from the table of transforms and can be written in
the form
• A plot of this response is shown in Fig. in terms of the variables t / t and t Y
( t ). The response to an impulse of magnitude A is obtained, as usual, by
multiplying t Y ( t ) from Fig. by A / t .

Notice that the response rises immediately to 1.0 and then decays exponentially.
Such an abrupt rise is, of course, physically impossible, it is approached by the
response to a finite pulse of narrow width, such as that of shown in last fig.
 For a ramp input of x ( t ) = t, where X ( s ) = 1 / s 2 , the
output is

Rearranging and using partial fractions yield.

To investigate the response of a first-order system to a sinusoidal forcing function, the
example of the mercury thermometer will be considered again. Consider a thermometer
to be in equilibrium with a temperature bath at temperature x s . At some time t 0, the
bath temperature begins to vary according to the relationship

x = xs + A sin wt t > 0

x temperature of bath
x s temperature of bath before sinusoidal
disturbance is applied
A amplitude of variation in temperature
w radian frequency, rad/time
This equation can be solved for Y ( t ) by means of a partial fraction expansion
 1

Equation can be written in another form by using the trigonometric identity

2

Applying the identity of Eq. (2) to Eq. (1) gives

As t →∞ , the first term on the right side of Eq. A vanishes and leaves only
the ultimate periodic solution, which is sometimes called the steady-state
solution
B
By comparing Eq. (1) for the input forcing function with Eq. (B) for the ultimate
periodic response, we see that
1. The output is a sine wave with a frequency w equal to that of the input signal.
2. The ratio of output amplitude to input amplitude is. This ratio is
always smaller than 1. We often state this by saying that the signal is attenuated.
3. The output lags behind the input by an angle f . It is clear that lag occurs, for the
sign of f is always negative
Liquid Level Process System

Consider the system shown in Fig. 5–1 , which consists of a tank of uniform cross sectional
area A to which is attached a flow resistance R such as a valve, a pipe, or a weir. Assume
that q o , the volumetric flow rate (volume/time) through the resistance, is related to the head
h by the linear relationship

• A resistance that has this linear relationship between flow and head is referred to as
a linear resistance. (A pipe is a linear resistance if the flow is in the laminar range.

A time-varying volumetric flow q of liquid of constant density r enters the tank.

Determine the transfer function that relates head to flow.
We can analyze this system by writing a transient mass balance around the tank:
 3

where the subscript s has been used to indicate the steady-state value of the variable

Subtracting Eq. (4) from Eq. (3) gives

 Liquid-Level Process with Constant-
Flow Outlet
An example of a transfer function that often arises in control systems may be
developed by considering the liquid-level system shown in Fig. The resistance
shown in
Last Fig. is replaced by a constant-flow
pump. The same assumptions of constant
cross sectional area and constant density that
were used before also apply here.

q o ( t ) is now a constant; thus

Subtracting and introducing the deviation variables

Q = q -qs and H = h - hs give

Taking the Laplace transform of each side of Eq

Notice that the transfer function 1/ As in above Eq. is equivalent to integration

Clearly, if we increase the inlet flow to the tank, the level will increase because the outlet
flow remains constant. The excess volumetric flow rate into the tank accumulates,
and the level rises. For instance, if a step change Q ( t ) u ( t ) were applied to the system
the result would be
Systems that have a limited change in output for a sustained change in
input are said to have regulation

The step response given by above Eq. is a ramp function that grows without limit.
Such a system that grows without limit for a sustained change in input is said to
have non regulation
 Mixing Process
• Consider the mixing process shown in Fig. in which a stream of
solution containing dissolved salt flows at a constant volumetric
flow rate q into a tank of constant holdup volume V.

• The concentration of the salt in the entering

stream x (mass of salt/volume) varies with time.

• It is desired to determine the transfer function relating the outlet

concentration y to the inlet concentration x. If we assume the
density of the solution to be constant, the flow rate in must equal
the flow rate out, since the holdup volume is fixed. We may analyze
this system by writing a transient mass balance for the salt; thus
Subtracting and introducing the deviation variables

Taking the Laplace transform of this expression and rearranging the result give

where t = V / q.
We now assume that the flow out of the tank
follows a square root relationship

where C is a constant.
For a liquid of constant density and a tank of uniform cross sectional
area A, a material balance around the tank gives

Combining Eqs. (5) and (6) gives the nonlinear

differential equation

By means of a Taylor series expansion, the function q o ( h ) may be expanded

around the steady-state value h s ; thus
where qo (hs ) is the first derivative of q o evaluated at hs , q o (hs ) is the second
derivative, etc. If we keep only the linear term, the result is

Taking the derivative of q o with respect to h in Eq. (5) and evaluating the derivative at h = hs
give

Introducing this into Eq 7

Substituting Eq. (8) into Eq. (6) gives

Introducing deviation variables into above Eq

where