1.

When any pressure is detected above the absolute zero of pressure, it is labeled
as absolute pressure. It is measured using barometer, and it is equal to measuring
pressure plus the atmospheric pressure.

Diagram showing absolute pressure, vacuum and gauge

Absolute pressure formula (p a b s ) is given by,
P a b s =P a t m +P g au g e
where p g a u g e is gauge pressure and p a t m is atmospheric pressure.
The vacuum pressure is articulated as,
Vacuum Pressure=Atmospheric Pressure-Absolute Pressure
At sea level it is around 14.7 pounds per square inch.

2. Acceleration Formula
One may have perceived that pushing a terminally ill bus can give it a sudden start.
That’s because lift provides upward push when it starts. Here Velocity changes and
this is acceleration! Henceforth, the frame accelerates. Acceleration is described as
the rate of change of velocity of an object. A body’s acceleration is the final result of
all the forces being applied on the body, as defined by Newton’s Second Law.
Acceleration is a vector quantity that is described as the frequency at which a body’s
velocity changes.

Acceleration is the rate of change in velocity to the change in time. It is denoted

by symbol a and is articulated as-

meter per second squared or m/s 2 is the S.I unit for Acceleration,
If t (time taken), v (final velocity) and u (initial velocity) are provided. Then the
acceleration is given by formula

Where,
Final Velocity = v
Initial velocity = u
acceleration = a
time taken = t
distance traveled = s

3. Angle between Two Vectors Formula

If the two vectors are assumed as a⃗ and b⃗ then the dot created is articulated as a.b.
Let’s suppose these two vectors are separated by angle θ. To know what’s the
angle measurement we solve with the below formula

The angle between two vectors formula is given by

where θ is the angle between a⃗ a→ and b⃗ b→.

4. Average Force Formula

The force applied by a body that’s traveling at a definite velocity (rate of speed) for a
definite period of time is the average force. The wo rd ‘average’ is made use of to
specify that this velocity is not an accurately measured or ‘instantaneous’ velocity.
Therefore, the mass of the body multiplied by the average velocity over the definite
time is equivalent to average force.
For a particular interval of time t, the force is described as the frequency of change of
momentum. It is hard to compute the rate of change if the time interval is minor.
There the term, average force makes an entrance.
Over a period of intervals (Δ t) the rate of change of momentum is Average force. It is
given by

Where,
the mass of the body is m,
the final momentum is v f ,
the initial momentum is v i ,
the change in time is Δ t.
The Average Force Formula aids one in getting the rate of change of momentum for
any number of time intervals (Δ t). Expressed in Newton (N).
5. A variables amplitude is a measure of its change over a single period. The
maximum height perceived in the wave is termed as Amplitude. It is represented by A
and is known in decibels (dB).

Where the distance covered by the wave is D and

The frequency of the wave is F.
Amplitude Formula is made use of in computing the amplitude of the specified wave if
its frequency and distance are provided.

6. DEFINITION
Any object placed in the field of the gravitational pull of the Earth experiences the
gravitational force. Acceleration due to gravity is defined as the acceleration gained
by an object because of the force of gravity acting on it. It is represented by ‘g’ and is
measured in terms of m/s2. Acceleration due to gravity is a vector quantity, that is, it
possesses both magnitude as well as direction.

FORMULA
The acceleration due to gravity acting on any object can be given using the following
equation:

Here, G is the universal gravitational constant whose value is fixed and is equal to
6.673 × 10-11 N.m2/Kg2. M is the mass of the body whose gravitational pull is acting
on the object under consideration, r is the radius of the planet and h is the height of
the object from the surface of the body.
When the object is on or near the surface of the body, the force of gravity acting on
the object is almost constant and the following equation can be used.

DERIVATION
From the Newton’s Second Law of Motion, we can write
F=ma
Here, F is the force acting on the object, m is its mass and ‘a’ is the acceleration.
Also, as per Newton’s Law of Gravity, we can write,

It is the gravitational force acting between two bodies lying in the gravitational field of
each other. This force acts inwards and is attractive in nature. Each of the two bodies
experience the same force directed towards the other.
Using the Newton’s second law of motion, in order to find the acceleration of the body
under this condition,

Here, m is the mass of the object for which the acceleration due to gravity is to be
calculated.
Also, when the object is on or near to the surface the value of g becomes constant
and does not change considerably with the height. Hence, we can write,

7. Archimedes Principle Formula

Fundamental to fluid mechanics Archimedes’ principle is a fundamental law of
physics. Archimedes’ principle indicates that the increasing buoyant force that is
applied on a body submerged in a liquid, whether partially or fully immersed, is
equivalent to the mass of the fluid that the form displaces. The object will sink, if the
mass of the water displaced is less than the weight of the body, otherwise, the body
will float, with the weight of the water displaced equivalent to the mass of the object.
When a body is totally or partly submerged in a fluid it experiences buoyancy
(upward force) that is equivalent to the mass of the fluid displaced.
Archimedes Principle Formula is known as

Where, Buoyant force of a given body = F,

Volume of the displaced fluid = v
acceleration due to gravity = g
As we see that density ρρ = ρf – ρg. Here ρf is the density of the fluid and ρg is the
density of the body.
Thus, the formula can also be articulated as

Archimedes principle formula is helpful in finding the buoyant force, the volume of
displaced body, the density of fluid or density of body if some of these numerics are
known.

8. Ampere’s Law Formula

Andre-Marie Ampere gave the Ampere’s law in 1826. This is one of the basic law of
magnetism which talks about the sum magnetic field through a closed current carrying
hoop. Ampere’s law can be valuable when calculating magnetic fields of current
distributions with a high degree of symmetry.
The magnetic field in space an electric current is proportionate to the electric current
which works as its source, just as the electric field in space is proportional to the
charge which serves as its source. Ampere’s Law says that for any closed loop path,
the total of the length elements times the magnetic field in the direction of the length
element is equivalent to the permeability times the electric current bound in the loop.
The law can be articulated in two arrangements, the “integral form” and the
“differential form.”
The Ampere’s law formula is,

Where the permeability of the medium is mu and the magnetic field is B ,

the infinitesimal length is l , the current flowing through the closed loop is I .

9. Definition: Angular acceleration of an object undergoing circular motion is defined

as the rate with which its angular velocity changes with time. Angular acceleration is
also referred to as rotational acceleration. It is a vector quantity, that is, it has both
magnitude and direction.
Angular acceleration is denoted by α and is expressed in the units of rad/s2 or
radians per second square.
Formula:
Angular acceleration can be expressed as given below,

And also in terms of the double differentiation of the angular displacement, as given
below,

Derivation:
Angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity with respect to time, or
we can write it as,

Here, α is the angular acceleration that is to be calculated, in terms of rad/s2, ω is the

angular velocity given in terms of rad/s and t is the time taken expressed in terms of
seconds.
Angular velocity as we know, can be expressed as given below.

Here, ω is the angular velocity in terms of rad/s, v is the linear velocity and r is the
radius of the path taken.
Angular Velocity can also be expressed as the change in angular displacement with
respect to time, as given below.

Where, θ is the angular rotation of the object and t is the total time taken.
Using the above formula, we can write angular acceleration α as

10. Air Resistance Formula

As we have perceived, the air resistance decreases the speed of a planes that is
moving in the sky.
Air resistance is a force that is initiated by air. This force acts in the conflicting
direction to a body passing through the air. Air resistance exerts the frictional force of
air against a moving body. As a body moves, air resistance decelerates it down. The
quicker the body’s motion, the superior the air resistance applied against it. Air
resistance impacts all moving objects, from bicycles, car, trains, and rockets to
airplanes and even alive bodies. The resistance against the air is Air resistance,
which reduces the speed of the moving body. Its formula is articulated as,

Where,
air constant is c,
the object’s velocity is v.

Air Resistance Formula is made use of in finding the air resistance, air constant and
velocity of the body, if some of these numerics are known. This formula has wide
applications in aeronautics.

11. The degree to which a body rotates, gives its angular momentum. It is designated
by L. Angular Momentum Formula is articulated as

the angular velocity is ω. The moment of inertia of the rotating body about axis of
rotation is I, and the angular momentum is L,When regarding linear momentum the
Angular momentum is articulated by

the linear momentum is p the radius of the body is r from the axis crossing through
center x signifies the cross product
It is articulated in kilogram meter square per second (kg m 2 /s). Angular Momentum
formula is made use of in computing the angular momentum of the particle and also to
find the parameters associated to it.

Definition: Angular displacement is defined as the shortest angle between the initial
and the final points for a given object undergoing circular motion about a fixed
point. Angular Displacement is a vector quantity that means, it has a direction as well
as magnitude and is represented by a circular arrow pointing from the initial point to
the final point, that is either clockwise or anti clockwise in direction.
Formula: Angular displacement of a point can be given by using the following formula,
Where,

Here, θ is the angular displacement of the object through which the movement has
occurred, s is the distance covered by the object on the circular path and r is the
radius of curvature of the given path.
When the acceleration of the object, the initial velocity and the time at which the
displacement is to be calculated is known, we can use the following formula.

Here, ω is the initial angular velocity, t is the time at which the angular displacement
is to be calculated and α is the angular acceleration of the object.
Derivation:
Let us consider an object ‘A’ undergoing linear motion with initial velocity ‘u’ and
acceleration ‘a’. Let us say, after time t, the final velocity of the object is ‘v’ and the
total displacement of the object is ‘s’.
We know that acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity. Or we can
write,

We can also write it as,

Integrating both the sides, we get,

Also,

As we know v=dxdt, we can write,

v dv=a dx
Upon integrating both the sides of the equation, we get,
Now, substituting the value of u from the first equation into the second equation, we
get,

Dividing both the sides of the equation by 2a, we get,

Upon substituting the value of v instead of u we get,

The Average speed, as obvious from the term itself, is the average of the speed
of a moving body for the overall distance it has covered.
The average speed is a scalar quantity, which means, it is only represented by the
magnitude and direction of travel is not important and is linked to the distance
covered by the object.
Average Speed Formula
The formula for average speed is computed by calculating the ratio of the total
distance traveled by the body to the time taken to cover that space. It is not the
average of the speed.
The average speed equation is articulated as:

The equation (2) embodies the average speed formula of an object moving at a
varying speed.
Average Speed Problems
The subsequent samples will help us comprehend how to compute average speed.

Speed is all about how slow or fast an object moves. To calculate the speed of the
rotational motion, angular speed arises.

Speed is all about how slow or fast an object moves. To calculate the speed of the
rotational motion, angular speed arises.

Angular Speed Formula computes the distance covered by the body in terms of
revolutions or rotations to the time taken. It is represented by ω and is given as
Distance traveled is in terms of angle θ is measured in radians and time taken in
seconds. Therefore, the Angular speed is articulated in radians per seconds or rad/s.
Angular speed for a single complete rotation is known as

The connection between Angular speed and Linear Speed is

Where,
Linear speed = v and
radius of circular path = r

Acceleration: Acceleration of an object is defined as its rate of change of velocity at

that instant. It is usually denoted by ‘a’ and is measured in the units of m/s2. Any
object experiencing an unbalanced force, constant or variable, shows acceleration. In
other words, any object undergoing a change in its velocity, either magnitude, or
direction or both is said to be accelerated.
Average acceleration: Average acceleration is defined as the ratio of change in
velocity to the change in time for a given interval. Unlike instantaneous acceleration,
average acceleration is calculated for a given interval.
Formula:
Average acceleration is calculated by the following formula,

Here, Δ v is the change in velocity and Δ t is the total time over which the velocity is
changing.
Here the change in velocity and time can be expressed as the difference in the initial
and the final velocity. Let us say, the initial time is denoted by ti, and the velocity at
this time is observed to be vi. After some time it attains the final velocity vf when the
time is tf. The above expression for average acceleration can be written as

Here, the initial velocity is vi, the final velocity is vf, the initial time is ti and the final
time is tf.
Also, if the object shows different velocities, such as v1, v2, v3…vn for different time
intervals such as t1, t2, t3…t3respectively, the average a cceleration is calculated
using the following formula,

Angular velocity is a vector quantity and is described as the rate of change of angular
displacement which specifies the angular speed or rotational speed of an object and
the axis about which the object is rotating. The amount of change of angular
displacement of the particle at a given period of time is called angular velocity. The
track of the angular velocity vector is vertical to the plane of rotation, in a direction
which is usually indicated by the right-hand rule.
It is articulated as

Where, d θ is change in angular displacement,

dt is change in time t.
Angular Velocity Formula is given by

Where, θθ is angular displacement and

t is the time taken.
The Angular Velocity and Linear Velocity is articulated by the formula

Where,
the linear velocity is V
the radius of circular path is r
Angular velocity is articulated in radian per second (rad/s). Angular Velocity formula
is used to compute the angular velocity of any moving body.

It is apparent that kids are astonished when witnessing paper boats float in water. So
what keeps these paper boats floating in the water. It is called Buoyancy

Weight of displaced liquid = Buoyancy

Buoyancy is the phenomena stated by Archimedes which says the body

experiences the upward force when it is completely or partially submerged in
liquid.
The description of buoyancy denotes to whether something can float in air or water, or
the power of water or other fluids to keep water afloat, or a positive disposition. An
instance of example for buoyancy is when a boat floats over water. Buoyancy is an
upward force applied by a fluid that opposes the weight of an immersed object.
Buoyant Force is articulated by the following formulas:
Buoyant force F b, in terms of pressure is articulated by
Where,
P = Pressure and
A = Area
In terms of Area Height and Volume, it is given by

Where
the density of the fluid is ρ ,
the gravity is g,
volume of the immersed part of the body in the fluid is V.
the height of immersed part is h and
the area is A.
Buoyant force formula helps to determine

Beat Frequency Formula

Beat is a word linked to sound waves. The beat frequency is not anything but the
difference in frequency of two wave. It is because of the constructive and destructive
interferences. When two sound waves of dissimilar frequency approach your ear, the
alternating productive and damaging interference causes the sound to be alternatively
loud and soft – a phenomenon which is termed as “beating” or producing beat s. The
beat frequency is equivalent to the complete value of the alteration in frequency of the
two waves. The count of beats per second is equivalent to the difference in frequency.
Conferring to these interferences, sound will be loud or soft. Actually, the beat
frequency is the complete value of the difference in wave frequencies. The formula for
the beat frequency is,

Where the frequency of two waves are f 1 and f 2 .

BREWSTER’S LAW
Brewster’s Law Brewster derived a relation amongst the polarizing angle ip and the
refractive index mu which is well known as Brewster’s law. This says that the tangent
of the polarizing angle is numerically equivalent to the refractive index of the medium.
A polarizing angle is created when at a certain angle of incidence, t he reflected light
is completely polarized, and this specific value of the angle of incidence is identified
as polarizing angle. The polarizing angle ip hinges on on the refractive index mu of
the transparent material.
The relation is articulated by “µ = tan ip”
When unpolarized light is found to be incident on a transparent medium at any
polarizing angle then the transmitted and reflected rays are vertical to each other.

As the word states, Average Velocity is the average value of the known velocities.
Displacement over total time is Average Velocity. The average speed of an object is
described as the distance traveled divided by the time gone. Velocity is a vector unit,
and average velocity can be described as the displacement divided by the time. The
units for velocity can be understood from the definition to be meters/second or in
common any distance unit over any time unit. The average speed of a body is
described as the distance covered divided by the time elapsed.
It is useful in determining the average value of speed if the body is varying
continuously for the given time intervals.

It is known as V a v . Average Velocity Formula fluctuates based on the given problem.

If any distances x i and x f with their corresponding time intervals t i and t f are given we
use the formula

Where x i = Initial Distance,

Final distance = x f ,
Initial time = t i ,
Final time = t f .
If final Velocity V and Initial velocity U are known, we make use of the formula
Where,
U = Initial Velocity and
V = Final Velocity.
If there are diverse distances like d 1 , d 2 , d 3 ……. d n for diverse time intervals t 1 , t 2 , t 3 ,…
t n then

BULK MODULUS FORMULA

The Bulk Modulus is the relative change in the volume of a body produced by a unit
compressive or tensile stress acting over its surface uniformly.
The bulk modulus describes how a substance reacts when squeezed uniformly. When
the external forces are perpendicular to the surface, it is distributed uniformly over the
surface of the object. This may occur when an object is immersed in a fluid and
undergo a change in volume but no change in shape.
The ∆P is volume stress defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the change in the
amount of force ∆F to the surface area.
The bulk modulus of any liquid is a measure of its compressibility and the pressure
required to bring about a unit change in its volume.
Hence, Bulk modulus formula is given by
K = V(∆P) / ∆V
Where,
∆P denotes change in pressure
∆V denotes change in volume
The units for the bulk modulus K are psi or kPa.

BEAM DEFLECTION FORMULA

Deflection is the degree to which a particular structural element can be displaced by a
considerable amount of load. It can be referred to an angle or distance.
The distance of deflection of a member under a load is directly related to the slope of
the deflected shape of the member under that load. It can be calculated by integrating
the function that describes the slope of the member under that load.
The Beam is a long piece of a body capable of holding the load by resisting the
bending. The deflection of the beam towards a particular direction when force is
applied on it is called Beam deflection.
Based on the type of deflection there are many beam deflection formulas given below,
w = uniform load (force/length units)
V = shear
I = moment of inertia
E = modulus of elasticity
d = deflection
M = moment
PINNED-PINNED BEAM WITH UNIFORM LOAD

V = w (L/2 – x)
M = wx/2 (L – x)
δ = wx/24EI (L 3 – 2 Lx 2 + x 3 )

FIXED-FIXED BEAM WITH UNIFORM LOAD

V = W (L/2 – x)
M = W/12 (6Lx – L 2 – 6x 2 )
δ = wx 2 /24EI (L – x) 2

PINNED-FIXED BEAM WITH UNIFORM LOAD

V = w(3L/8 – x)
M = wx (3L/8 – x/2)
δ = wx/48EI (L 3 – 3Lx 2 + 2x 3 )

FREE-FIXED BEAM WITH UNIFORM LOAD

V = – wx
M = – wx 2 /2
δ = w/24EI (x 4 – 4L 3 x + 3L 4 )

PINNED-PINNED BEAM WITH POINT LOAD

V = Pb/L – P (x-a) 0
M = Pbx/L – P (x-a) 1
δ = P/6EI [bx3/L – abx/L (2L – a) – (x – a) 3 ]

FIXED-FIXED BEAM WITH POINT LOAD

V = Pb 2 /L 3 (L + 2a) – P(x – a) 0
M = −Pab 2 /L 2 + Pb 2 x/L3 (L + 2a) – P (x – a) 1
δ = P/6EI [b 2 x 3 /L 3 (L + 2a) – 3ab2x2/L2 – (x – a) 3 ]

PINNED-FIXED BEAM WITH POINT LOAD

V = Pb 2 /2L 3 (2L + a) – P(x – a) 0

M = Pb 2 x/2L 3 (2L + a) – P (x – a) 1
δ = P/6EI[b 2 x 3 /2L 3 (2L + a) – 3ab 2 x/2L – (x – a) 3 ]

FREE-FIXED BEAM WITH POINT LOAD

V = -P(x – a) 0
M = -P(x – a) 1
δ = P/6EI [3b 2 x – 2L 3 – a 3 – (x – a) 3 ]

CAPACITANCE FORMULA
Capacitance is used to describe how much charge any conductor can hold. It
represents the ratio of the charge flowing across the conductor to the potential
applied. Capacitors are the conductors used for holding charges.
Capacitance is the ability of a substance to store an electrical charge. Any object that
can be electrically charged shows capacitance. A parallel -plate capacitor is the
common form of energy storage device. Capacita nce is exhibited by a parallel plate
arrangement and defined in terms of charge storage. When a capacitor is charged
completely, there is a potential difference between its plates, and larger the area of
the plates and/or smaller the distance between them, greater will be the charge of the
capacitor and greater will be its Capacitance.
Capacitance Formula is expressed as
C=Q/V
Where,
Q denotes the charge of the conductor,
V denotes the potential applied across the conductor and
C is proportionality constant, called capacitance
If the capacitors are connected in series, the capacitance formula is expressed by
If capacitors are connected in parallel, the capacitance formula is expressed by
Where C1,C2,C3…….Cn are the capacitors and Capacitance is expressed in Farads

BUFFER SOLUTION FORMULA

A buffer solution is an aqueous solution comprising a mixture of a weak acid and its
conjugate base, or vice versa. There is a minute change in its pH when a small or
moderate amount of strong acid or base is added to it and that’s the reason it is used
to prevent changes in the pH of a solution.
The pH value of water solvent is 7, but if we add a few drops of HCl or NaOH solution,
its pH decreases or increases respectively. Therefore it is necessary to have
solutions whose pH does not change even on addition of strong alkalies or strong
acids. Such solutions are called buffer solutions.
Buffer capacity is the capacity of a buffer solution to resist change in its pH. The
equation is given by,
pH = pKa + log [Salt] / [Acid]
The pH of any acidic buffer solution is always less than 7 and the pH of any basic
buffer solution is always greater than 7.

BERNOULLI’S EQUATION FORMULA

Water in a hydraulic system exhibits two types of en ergy – kinetic and potential.
Kinetic energy when water is in motion and potential is when there is water pressure.
The sum of both kinetic and potential forms is the total energy of water. According to
Bernoulli’s principle, the total energy of the liquid remains constant and hence when
water flow in a system increases, the pressure must decrease.
Bernoulli’s principle states that for an inviscid flow of a nonconducting fluid, an
increase in the speed of the fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in p ressure
or decrease in the potential energy. Bernoulli’s principle can be applied to various
types of liquid flow, resulting in what is denoted as Bernoulli’s equation. The simple
form of Bernoulli’s principle is applicable for incompressible flows.
The Bernoulli’s equation formula is given by
E = Z+ P / W + V2 / 2g
where,
E denotes total energy
z is the height of the water
P means pressure
w is the unit weight of water
V indicates flow velocity
g is acceleration due to gravity