Lecture 3.

Details on Vorticity and Helmholtz’s Theorems

The fluid vorticity is defined by ζ~ = ∇ × ~u = curl(~u ) where ~u = (u, v, w), is the fluid velocity
vector, and∇ = (∂/∂x, ∂/∂y, ∂/∂z). (Sometimes it is more convenient to use ~u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ), and
∇ = (∂/∂x1 , ∂/∂x2 , ∂/∂x3 ).) There are number of interesting results concerning the vorticity which
are of some importance for aerodynamics, and because the text is somewhat sketchy on the details
of the required derivations, I’ll collect them here.

To start with we need a few vector identities. These are not hard to demonstrate, and are derived in
many calculus texts, so I’ll just write down the ones we need (~v , w
~ are any two differentiable vector
fields, and ψ is a scalar function):

~v × curl(~v ) = grad(|~v |2 /2 ) − ~v · ∇~v ,

curl(~v × w~) ~ ) − wdiv(~
= ~v div(w ~ v)+w ~ · ∇~v − ~v · ∇w,
~
curl(grad(φ ) ) = 0,
div(curl(~v ) ) = 0,

where div(~v ) = ∂v1 /∂x1 + ∂v2 /∂x2 + ∂v3 /∂x3 and grad(φ ) = (∂φ/∂x1 , ∂φ/∂x2 , ∂φ/∂x3 ). The first
two are somewhat tedious to verify while the last two are easy to check directly.

We’ll restrict our consideration to inviscid fluids with constant density (perfect fluids) in which the
body force per unit mass is derivable from a potential, i.e., ~g = −∇G. (In most practical situations,
~g = −g~k, where ~k is a unit vector pointing in the vertical (z) direction and g is the gravitational
acceleration. Thus, we can take G = gz.) Similar results can be established for baratropic fluids
where the pressure is a function of density only. First, we find the equation satisfied by the vorticity.
Recall that the continuity equation for an incompressible fluid reduces to div(~u ) = 0, and the
momentum equation in the absence of viscosity is

d~u
ρ = −∇p − ρ∇G = −∇(p + ρG).
dt
In the above equation, we denote the substantial derivative (or derivative following the fluid particles)
by
d~u ∂~u ∂~u
= + ~u · ∇~u = − ~u × curl(~u ) + grad(|~u|2 /2 ),
dt ∂t ∂t
where we use the first vector identity above. Take the curl of the momentum equation and use the
vector identities to verify that: div(curl(~u ) ) = div(ζ~ ) = 0, curl(~u × ζ~ ) = ζ~ · ∇~u − ~u · ∇ζ~ (since
div(ζ~ ) = 0 by the vector identities and div(~u ) = 0 by continuity), and curl(grad(|~v |2 /2 ) ) = 0.
Putting all these together we find

d~u dζ~
ρcurl( ) = ρ − ρζ~ · ∇~u = 0,
dt dt
that is the vorticity satisfies the Beltrami diffusion equation (there is also a viscous diffusion term if
µ 6= 0)
dζ~ ~
= ζ · ∇~u.
dt
Beltrami’s equation will be used to determine some interesting properties of vorticity. To derive most
of these properties in a reasonable way (i.e., keeping some degree of mathematical correctness), it
is necessary to recall the equation for fluid particle paths which we considered at the beginning of

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 the course. We specify the positions of particles at time t = 0 by their locations ξ~ at this time.
So that ξ~ is equivalent to a label identifying each particle. The mapping relating particle position
at time 0 to position at time t is denoted by ~x = X( ~ t) (and its inverse, from position at t to
~ ξ,
~ −1 ~ ~ t) = ∂ X/∂t
~
initial position, by ~x = X (ξ, t), and the fluid velocity of a particle ~uL (ξ, is related to
the velocity ~u(~x, t) of the fluid at the point ~x and time t (the function we normally work with) by
~ t), t) = ~uL (ξ,
~ ξ,
~u(X( ~ t).

~ x, 0) = ζ~0 (~x),
As a first application of these ideas, suppose we call the initial values of the vorticity ζ(~
~
then we prove that because the ζ(~x, t) satisfies Beltrami’s equation it must be expressible in the
form
~ X(
ζ( ~ t), t) = ζ~0 (ξ)
~ ξ, ~ · ∇~X( ~ t), or ζ(x,
~ ξ, ~ t) = ζ~0 (ξ)~ · ∇~X( ~ t)|~ ~ −1
~ ξ,
ξ ξ ξ=X (~ x,t) .

where we understand ∇ξ~ = (∂/∂ξ1 , ∂/∂ξ2 , ∂/∂ξ3 ). At time t = 0, X( ~ 0) = ξ~ and the matrix on the
~ ξ,
right reduces to the identity matrix so we obtain ζ(~ ξ,
~ 0) = ζ~0 (ξ)
~ which is correct initial condition
(replace the arbitrary point ξ~ by ~x). We know that
~
∂X ~ t), t),
~ ξ,
= ~u(X(
∂t
~ x, t) satisfies Beltrami’s equation, we find
and using the fact that ζ(~
~ X(
∂ ζ( ~ t), t)
~ ξ, ∂ ζ~
= ~
+ ~u · ∇ζ| ~
~ ξ,t) = ζ~ · ∇~u|x=X( ~ .
~ ξ,t) (∗)
∂t ∂t x=X(

~ t) ≡ ζ~0 (ξ)
We also compute the derivative of F~ (ξ, ~ · ∇~X( ~ t) and obtain
~ ξ,
ξ

~ t)
∂ F~ (ξ,
= ζ~0 (ξ)
~ · ∇~~u(X(
ξ
~ t), t) = F~ (ξ,
~ ξ, ~ t) · ∇u(X( ~ t), t),
~ ξ, (∗∗)
∂t
where the final equality follows from the chain rule
~ t), t) X ∂ui ∂Xk
~ ξ,
∂ui (X(
=
∂ξj ∂xk ∂ξj
k

together with the definition of Fi . The equations (*) and (**) are first order ordinary differential
equations (ODE’s). (ξ~ is held fixed.) They have the same initial conditions so we can use the
uniqueness of the solution to the initial value problem for ODE’s to conclude that their solutions
must be identical for all time.

Just as in the case of streamlines, which are defined to be lines everywhere tangent to the velocity
vector ~u, we can define a system of vortex lines in a fluid which are everywhere tangent to the
~ (s, t) is a vortex line at time t if the tangent satisfies
vorticity vector. In detail, a curve Y
~
∂Y ~Y
= λ(s, t)ζ( ~ (s, t), t),
∂s
where λ is a scalar and ζ~ is the vorticity. We show that if Y ~0 (s) is a vortex line at time 0 (with
~ (s, t) = X(
λ(s, 0) = λ0 (s)), then Y ~ Y~0 (s), t) is a vortex line at time t – that is, vortex lines are
material lines, and move with the fluid. In fact,
~ (s, t)
∂Y ~0 (s)
∂Y
= ~ Y
· ∇ξ~X( ~Y
~0 (s), t) = λ0 (s)ζ( ~0 (s), 0) · ∇~X(
~ Y ~Y
~0 (s), t) = λ0 (s)ζ( ~ (s, t), t),
∂s ∂s ξ

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where the final equality follows from the result on solutions of Beltrami’s equation.
~ (s), with 0 ≤ s ≤ 1 be an arbitrary closed curve, C(0) in the fluid at time 0. If the curve
Now let Y
moves with the fluid, then at time t it has the equation Y ~ (s, t) = X(~ Y ~ (s), t) and we denote its image
by C(t). If the fluid velocity field is ~u, the circulation around such a curve is defined to be
Z Z 1 ~
Γ= ~u(~x, t) · d~s = ~ (s, t), t) · ∂ Y ds
~u(Y
C(t) 0 ∂s
where the last integral is the definition of the next to last.

It was proved by Lord Kelvin that the circulation around a given circuit is constant for an inviscid
incompressible fluid, and we now prove this theorem. We have
! ! !
dΓ
Z 1 ~
∂~u ∂ Y ∂Y~ ~ , t)
∂~u(Y
Z 1 ~
d~u ∂ Y ∂ ~u2
/t = + · ∇~u · + ~u · ds = · + ds
dt 0 ∂t ∂t ∂s ∂s 0 dt ∂s ∂s 2

The last term of the integrand can be integrated directly and gives 0 since Y ~ (0, t) = Y
~ (1, t) (the
curve is closed). The momentum equation can be used to replace d~u/dt in the first term. This
~ /∂s = ∂(−p/ρ + G)/∂s, so that the first term also integrates to 0. As a
results in ∇(−p/ρ + G) · ∂ Y
result Z
dΓ d
= ~u(~x, t) · d~s = 0
dt dt C(t)

Next consider a surface S(t) in the fluid bounded by a closed curve C(t) and assume both S and C
move with the fluid. Using a combination of Kelvin’s theorem just proved and Stoke’s Theorem we
have Z Z
d d
ζ~ · ~n dA = ~u(~x, t) · d~s = 0.
dt S(t) dt C(t)
where the unit vector ~n in the surface integral is oriented in the usual way with respect to the tangent
~ /∂s to the curve. We find that the flux of vorticity through a surface moving with
direction ~τ = ∂ Y
the fluid is constant – if the surface area pinches down, the vorticity flux thru the surface must
increase to offset the change in area.

Along the same lines, suppose we have a tube like surface in the fluid whose walls are composed of
vortex lines. Selecting two arbitrary close curves encircling the tube, say C1 , C2 , these curves will
move with the fluid along with the lines composing the walls of the tube. Let W be the portion of
the tube wall between C1 and C2 and S1 , S2 be surfaces bounded by these curves (of course, moving
with the fluid). Then consider the region T whose surface consists of ∂T = W ∪ S1 ∪ S2 . Applying
the divergence theorem and using the facts that div(ζ~ ) = 0 and ζ~ lies in the surface W we find
Z Z Z Z
~
div(ζ ) dV = 0 = ~
ζ · ~n dA = ~
ζ · ~n dA + ζ~ · (−~n) dA
T ∂T S1 S2

Thus, we have Z Z
ζ~ · ~n dA = ζ~ · ~n dA
S1 S2
or by Stoke’s theorem Z Z
~u · d~s = ~u · d~s
C1 C2

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Thus, the strength of a vortex tube can be defined unambiguously by
Z Z
ζ~ · ~n dA = ~u · d~s
S C

where C is any closed curve going round the tube and S is any surface cutting the tube.

In closing, let’s list the three theorems of Helmholtz that summarize the results obtained.

1. The strength of a vortex tube is well defined by either of the above integrals.

2. The strength of a vortex tube remains constant in time (by Kelvin’s theorem).

3. Vortex lines are material lines and move with the fluid.