Process types (=verb types=clause types)

Note: verbs may be used in more than one way – the lexico-grammatical context
determines the process type.
‘Doing’verbs

1. Material processes:
Material verbs/clauses construe ‘doing’ (transitive verbs) and ‘happening’ (intransitive
verbs) processes, which represent some ‘material’ or visible, tangible change in the
flow of events or the environment, through input of energy. These verbs construe
(=create and construct) our experience of the world. The unmarked (default, normal
most common) present tense of these verbs is present progressive (present-in-present).

The doer of these actions is labeled the ‘Actor’ and this may be an inanimate ro
animate doer. The receiver/affected/’patient’ is labeled the ‘Goal’ [or ‘Beneficiary’ or
‘Range’]. We can normally test for these verbs by saying ‘what s/he did to X was
[process -verb]’ OR ‘what happened to X was [process - verb].

Examples of prototypical use (the largest class – too many to list):

intransitive transitive
Creative appear, emerge, occur, happen, create, make, prepare
take place, develop, form, assemble, build, construct,
grow, produce compose, design, draw,
paint, write bake, cook, knit,
sew, dig, drill, establish,
open, set up….
Transformative burn, boil, fry, dissolve, cool, freeze, heat, melt….
(changing the blow up, explode, break, burst, collapse, crack, tear, mend,
environment)
crush, demolish, destroy,
damage
chop, cut, slice….
axe, hack, pierce, prick,
spear
Polish, rub, dust, scratch
Compress, extend, expand, grow, stretch, reduce, shrink
intransitive transitive
Form, shape, bend, coil, curl, distort, flatten, fold, stretch
Age, mature, modernize
Increase, reduce, strengthen, weaken,
Colour, blacken, darken
Shine
Twinkle, glimmer, glisten, Light, illuminate
glow, flash, sparkle….
Boom, rumble, roar, thunder,
sound
Cover, remove, unwrap,
undress…..

Hit, strike, bump, knock,

tap, punch, slap, kick, cane,
shoot, stone, whip
Open, close, shut
Run, operate, work, drive, fly, sail…
Give, offer, tip, advance,
leave, donate, grant, award,
fax, post, email, deliver,
send, lend, loan…
Hire, rent, sell
Feed, provide, supply,
present
Deprive, rob, strip, cheat

Acquire, get, take, grab,

steal, buy, borrow, hire, rent
Motion: manner
Bounce, rock, shake, tremble, walk, amble, limp, run, trot,
jog, gallop, stroll, march, slide, drive, fly sail
Motion: place Bring take
Come, go
Approach, arrive, reach,
depart, leave, circle, cros, exit,
escape, follow, pass, land….
 intransitive transitive
down, drop, fall/fell, rise/raise, capsize, tilt, tip, upset

2. Behavioural processes:
Behavioural verbs/clauses are on the borderline between ‘material’ and ‘mental’
processes. They construe psychological and some physiological processes (thus often
involuntary) and are ‘the outer evidence of inner workings’. They are the least distinct
and most troublesome of all the process types. The doer is called the ‘Behaver’ and
the process/event is called ‘behaviour’.
Examples:
(near mental) dream, look, watch, stare, listen, think, worry, dream
(near verbal) chatter, grumble, murmur, mouth
cry, laugh, smile, frown, sigh sob, snarl, hiss, whine, nod.
breathe, sneeze, cough, hiccup, burp, faint, yawn, sleep
(near material) sing, dance, lie, sit, walk.

‘Sensing’/ ‘Projecting’ verbs

3. Mental processes:
Mental verbs/clauses construe our experience of the inner world of our own
consciousness. They represent processes of feeling (emoting), wanting, thinking and
perceiving, so the ‘doer’ is alive (animate). They ‘have the potential to project what is
known, remembered or overheard as direct or indirect thoughts’ (Butt, et al, p. 51).
E.g ‘I knew that ………..; He remembers how………; I wonder if……….. The
independent clauses are called ‘projecting clauses’ and the dependent clauses are
called ‘projected clauses’. The unmarked present tense of these verbs is present
simple. The doer is called the ‘Senser’ and the thing which is sensed is called the
‘Phenomenon.’
Examples:
Perceive, sense, see, notice, glimpse, hear, overhear, feel, taste, smell
Think, believe, suppose, expect, consider, know understand, realize, appreciate,
imagine, dream, pretend, guess, wonder, doubt, remember, recall, forget, fear, like,
fancy love, adore, dislike, hate, detest, despise, rejoice, mourn, regret, enjoy.
Intrigue, surprise, attract, please, disgust, offend, delight, sadden, depress, scare,
shock, comfort, encourage, amuse, bore, worry.

4. Verbal processes:
Verbal verbs/clauses construe ‘saying’ processes, covering any symbolic exchange of
meaning. They are important in dialogic passages in narrative texts, and in academic
writing where people need to quote and report from various scholars. The doer is
called the Sayer, and the affected participants are ‘Receiver’ or ‘Verbiage (words)’ or
‘Target’.
Examples:
*Say, tell, (most typical in speech or writing) [go, be like – these are restricted to
speech] reply, counter
Speak, talk, praise, insult, abuse, slander, flatter, blame, criticize
Report, announce, notify, explain, argue, convince, persuade, promise (that), ask,
question, enquire (whether)…

‘Being’ verbs

5. Relational processes: processes of ‘being’ and ‘having’

Relational verbs/clauses serve to describe attributes of a Thing (relational attributive
processes) and identify a Thing (relational identifying processes). They construe
change as occurring without an input of energy. The most typical verbs are ‘be’ and
‘have’ and both are unaccented, and are typically construed with the simple present
tense.
Examples: become, seem, keep, remain, feel, belong to, include, serve as.

6. Existential:
Verbs of ‘existing’: like ‘be’ the function of which is to set up the existence of a sole
participant. These verbs are almost always used with ‘there’ as dummy subject, or a
circumstantial element of time, place etc..
Examples:[there] exist, remain, arise, occur, come about, happen, take place, follow, ensue,
emerge, flourish, as in ‘there flourishes a good study spirit’ or ‘in this school flourishes a
spirit of co-operation’.

Source: Halliday, M.A.K. & Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. (2004) Introduction to Functional

Grammar. London: Oxford University Press. (pp 187 – 189).