Writing in Focus.2016 PDF

Ioana
Mohor-Ivan
Writing in focus:
Guided Practice for Students of English
Galati
2015
Ioana Mohor-Ivan
Contents
Part One: Accuracy in Writing .....................................................................................3
1. Grammar and Vocabulary ..................................................................................4
1.1. Tenses .......................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2. Modals and Conditionals ............................................................................................................... 8
1.3. Passives ........................................................................................................................................ 9
1.4. Singular or plural ........................................................................................................................ 10
1.5. Articles ....................................................................................................................................... 11
1.6. Countable and Uncountable ........................................................................................................ 12
1.6. Prepositions ................................................................................................................................ 12
1.7. Word order ................................................................................................................................. 13
1.8. Prefixes / Suffixes ....................................................................................................................... 14
1.9. Words often confused ................................................................................................................. 16
1.10. Abbreviations ........................................................................................................................... 21
2. Spelling and Punctuation ................................................................................... 24
2.1. Commonly Misspelled Words ..................................................................................................... 24
2.2.Punctuation Marks and Capital Letters ......................................................................................... 28
3. Sentences and Paragraphing ................................................................................... 35
3.1. Joining sentences ........................................................................................................................ 35
3.2. Rhythm and Variation ................................................................................................................. 39
3.3. Paragraphing............................................................................................................................... 42
4. Register and Style .................................................................................................... 43
4.1. Linguistic registers...................................................................................................................... 43
4.2. Formal / Informal ........................................................................................................................ 44
4.3. Style ........................................................................................................................................... 46
4.4. Colloquial English and Slang ...................................................................................................... 48
4.5. British and American English...................................................................................................... 51
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Writing in Focus: Guided Practice for Students of English
4.6. Cockney Rhyming Slang ............................................................................................................. 53

5. Writing from Sources .............................................................................................. 54
5.1. Quotation .................................................................................................................................... 54
5.1. Paraphrasing ............................................................................................................................... 55
5.2. Summary .................................................................................................................................... 58
5.3. Referencing ................................................................................................................................ 62
Part Two: Types of Writing ........................................................................................ 68
1. Description ............................................................................................................... 68
2. Exposition................................................................................................................. 71
2.1. Definition.................................................................................................................................... 71
2.2. Exemplification ........................................................................................................................... 75
2.3. Classification ............................................................................................................................... 78
2.4. Comparison and Contrast............................................................................................................ 80
2.5. Analogy....................................................................................................................................... 86
2.6. Process analysis .......................................................................................................................... 88
2.7. Causal analysis ............................................................................................................................ 90
3. Narrative .................................................................................................................. 94
4. Argumentation ......................................................................................................... 98
4.1. Principles and Techniques ........................................................................................................... 99
4.2. Constructing an ARGUMENT ..................................................................................................... 100
Part Three:Text Organisation and Writing ............................................................. 103
1. The Essential Elements of the Essay ..................................................................... 104
2. Cohesion and Coherence.................................................................................. 105
3. Introductions.......................................................................................................... 109
4. Transitional paragraphs ........................................................................................ 111
5. Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 112
Select Bibliography …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………114

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Ioana Mohor-Ivan
Part One:
Accuracy in Writing
3
1. Grammar and Vocabulary
1.1. Tenses
1.1.1. Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple or Continuous Present:
a) My friend (come) to see us next month.

_______________________________________________________________________
b) Apricots (ripe) in early summer.
_______________________________________________________________________
c) Here (come) our long waited for teacher!
_______________________________________________________________________
d) I (see) her occasionally, as she (open) the windows in the morning.
_______________________________________________________________________
e) I (walk) to school every day, but today, as I am late, I (go) by bus.
_______________________________________________________________________
f) Still waters (run) deep.
_______________________________________________________________________
g) You again (forget) your manners!
_______________________________________________________________________
h) Egg plants (not grow) on trees.
_______________________________________________________________________
i) Don’t get off the bus till it (stop)!
_______________________________________________________________________
j) How he (feel) now? You (think) of going to see him at the hospital?
_______________________________________________________________________
k) She always (complain) about something.
_______________________________________________________________________
l) Why you (not stay) indoors for a change?
_______________________________________________________________________
m) Although he is unhappy with his mark, he (deserve) it as he hasn’t laid hands on a book this
term.
_______________________________________________________________________
n) We constantly (see) you outside the cinema.
_______________________________________________________________________
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Ioana Mohor-Ivan
o) However late it may be, my father never goes to bed until I (come) back home.
_______________________________________________________________________
p) “I (see) that you (wear) your best clothes. You (go) to a party?” “No, I (go) to a wedding.”
“And who is the unhappy man who (throw) away his freedom? You must tell him I (feel)
sorry for him.” “He (speak) to you now.”
_______________________________________________________________________
1.1.2. Write the past simple or the present perfect form of the verbs in brackets:
a) A: Did you like the movie “Star Wars?”
B: I don’t know. I _________________ (see, never) that movie.
b) Sam _________________ (arrive) in San Diego a week ago.
c) My best friend and I _________________ (know) each other for over fifteen years. We
still get together once a week.
d) Stinson is a fantastic writer. He _________________ (write) ten very creative short
stories in the last year. One day, he’ll be as famous as Hemingway.
e) I _________________ (have, not) this much fun since I _________________ (be) a kid.
f) Things _________________ (change) a great deal at Coltech, Inc. When we first
_________________ (start) working here three years ago, the company
_________________ (have, only) six employees. Since then, we _________________
(expand) to include more than 2000 full-time workers.
g) Listen Donna, I don’t care if you _________________ (miss) the bus this morning. You
_________________ (be) late to work too many times. You are fired!
h) Sam is from Colorado, which is hundreds of miles from the coast, so he
_________________ (see, never) the ocean. He should come with us to Miami.
i) Jonny, I can’t believe how much you _________________ (change) since the last time I
_________________ (see) you. You _________________ (grow) at least a foot!
j) This tree _________________ (be) planted by the settlers who _________________
(found) our city over four hundred years ago.
k) This mountain _________________ (be, never) climbed by anyone. Several
mountaineers _________________ (try) to reach the top, but nobody
_________________ (succeed, ever). The climb is extremely difficult and many people
_________________ (die) trying to reach the summit.
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l) I _________________ (visit, never) Africa, but I _________________ (travel) to South

America several times. The last time I _________________ (go) to South America, I
_________________ (visit) Brazil and Peru. I _________________ (spend) two weeks in
the Amazon, _________________ (hike) for a week near Machu Picchu, and
_________________ (fly) over the Nazca Lines.
1.1.3. Put the verbs in brackets into the past perfect simple or continuous tense:
a) They _________________ (not get) a reply, so they _________________ (decide) to spend
their holidays at home.
b) We _________________ (have) to go back, it _________________ (rain) for two hours and
the ground was water-logged.
c) How long he _________________ (live) there when the war _________________ (break)
out?
d) Only a long time after that he _________________ (find out) what _________________
(happen).
e) He _________________ (know) where I _________________ (live) but he never
_________________ (be) to my flat.
f) He _________________ (listen) to her story for two hours and _________________ (think)
it was boring.
g) Nobody _________________ (know) he _________________ (disappear).
h) She_________________ (stay) at the seaside for more than a week when the weather
_________________ (grow) cold.
i) He _________________ (laugh) at her hair and she _________________ (be) angry with
him.
j) They _________________ (wonder) what _________________ (become) of their luggage.
k) The hotel _________________ (be) much cheaper than he _________________ (think) at
first.
l) We _________________ (tell) him that his house _________________ (burn down).
m) The explorers _________________ (travel) for weeks without enough food and water.
n) They _________________ (ask) her why she _________________ (lie) to them.
o) He _________________ (be pushed) out of the room, before he _________________ (be
able) to speak.
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Ioana Mohor-Ivan
1.1.4. Choose one of the future tenses given to express the future correctly:
a) Hi! I’m just calling to find out what _________________ on Tuesday evening, because
I’ve got two tickets for the big football game.
you’ll do / you’re going to do / you’re doing
b) _________________ the washing up for me tonight? After all, I’ve done it every day
this week.
Will you do / Are you going to do / Are you doing
c) Call me again at six o’clock. I think _________________ fixing your car by then.
I’m finishing / I’ll have finished / I’ll finish
d) Just think! This time next week _________________ on a beautiful beach in the
Caribbean sun. I can’t wait.
we’ll be lying / we’ll lie / we’re going to lie
e) According to the timetable the next train _________________ at 11.30. That gives us
half an hour, so let’s have a coffee.
leaves / is about to leave / will have left
f) Those dark clouds are coming this way. Pack everything away in the car.
_________________.
It’ll rain / It’s raining / It’s going to rain
g) Don’t disturb me this afternoon because _________________ some important contracts
with our partners.
I’ll be discussing / I discuss I’ll discuss
h) I doubt if there’s any point in asking Dad if we can use the car. He _________________
us the keys after we took them last time without telling him.
isn’t giving / doesn’t give / won’t give
i) I know that _________________ married someday, but I just haven’t met the right
person yet.
I’m getting / I’ll get / I get
j) We have to deal with this problem before it _________________ too difficult to sort out.
will become / is going to / becomes
1.1.5. Read the text below and supply the correct form of the verbs in brackets. Pay attention to the
time phrases given in italics.
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For a long time gardeners a) _______________ (suspect) that using green fingers is just as effective as
talking softly to plants to encourage growth. Scientists b) _______________ (develop) a robot that
strokes young plants to make them grow stronger and faster. But after research a year ago c)
_______________ (confirm) that plants need the human touch, scientists at Greenwich University d)
_______________ (develop) the stroking machine they call Dr Green.
Dr Green e) _______________ (be display) at the last Chelsea Flower Show, where it f)
_______________ (demonstrate) the technique of brushing the tips of young plants to produce stronger
specimens. David Carey, who is leading the research, g) _______________ (say) that the machine could
avoid the use of chemicals.
Currently, Dr Green h) _______________ (be test) on a large scale by a commercial grower.
Stroking plants once a day i) _______________ (make) them 30% stronger, which is what you need
before you plant them out. When another kind of plant was stroked once a week, it j) _______________
(develop) increased insect resistance. The research team hope that a cheap version of Dr Green k)
_______________ (be available) to amateur gardeners by 2007.
1.2. Modals and Conditionals

1.2.1. Complete the following sentences with suitable modals of ability, certainty or obligation.
a) The question is whether democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . survive in such difficult conditions.
b) Fifty years ago a new house . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . be bought for ￡1500.
c) Students. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . be expected to write more than one long essay a week.
d) The mistakes of past historians. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . now be clearly seen.
e) Jenkins (1976) argued that aluminium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . be used in place of steel.
f) It. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not be surprising if the company were bought by a rival.
g) Various social situations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lead to a child’s loss of confidence.
h) Other studies confirm that a permanent shift in transport use . . . . . . . . . . . . . .occur.
i) By 2020 most children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . have internet access by the age of five.
j) If the pressure is lowered, the reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . take place more quickly.
k) In the long term, solar power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . make a significant contribution.
l) Students studying abroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . take some of their favourite music with them.
m) All books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . be returned to the main library by June 19th.
n) First-year undergraduates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . take at least three modules from the list below.
o) The second part of the essay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . focus on the differences in the results.
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Ioana Mohor-Ivan
1.2.2. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tenses:
a) If they _________________ (hang) the poster lower, people would be able to see
the details.
b) Nobody would have recognised the burglar, if he _________________ (wear) a
mask.
c) Unless you listen to the instructions more carefully, you _________________ (not
be able) to find your way out of the forest.
d) In case it _________________ (not be) convenient to you, let’s meet at 6 o’clock
sharp.
e) If he _________________ (be) in, I should have told him the bad news.
f) If you _________________ (have) the courage, I’m sure you should have
answered him back.
g) Unless I learn to type, I _________________ (not be able) to save money.
h) If Mary’s shoes hadn’t such high heels, she _________________ (not fall down).
i) If you _________________ (call) a dog a bad name, it will certainly bark at you.
j) If you work harder, you _________________ (have) more chances to pass the
examination.
k) If Mike had had a drink at the party, the policeman _________________ (fine) him
and _________________ (take) his driving-license.
l) If you were a liar, I _________________ (not trust) you.
m) She would never have bought the dress if she _________________ (not like) it.
n) If the weather is good, I _________________ (take) the dog for a walk.
o) You needn’t go if you _________________ (not want) to.
p) If he told me to do it, I _________________ (have) to obey him.
q) I can’t do it unless I _________________ (have) the tools.
r) He wouldn’t do it if he _________________ (not like) it.
1.3. Passives
1.3.1. Read the following article and underline the passives. Then change them into the active voice,
whenever it is possible.
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BOOTS THE CHEMISTS

When John Boot died at 45, he was worn out by the strain of establishing his herbal medicine business.
He had worked his way up from his early years as a farm labourer to be the owner of a substantial
business. He was born in 1815, became a member of a Methodist chapel in Nottingham, and later moved
to the city. Concerned by the situation of the poor, who were unable to afford a doctor, in 1849 he opened
a herbal medicine shop which was called the British and American Botanic Establishment. In the early
stages John was helped financially by his father-in-law, while his mother provided herbal knowledge.
On his death in 1860 the business was taken over by his wife, and she was soon assisted by their
10-year-old son, Jesse. He quickly showed the business ability which transformed his father’s shop into a
national business. He opened more shops in poor districts of the city and pioneered advertising methods.
Another innovation was to do all his business in cash, rather than offering credit.
In 1889 he was introduced to Florence Rowe, the daughter of a bookseller, while on holiday. Her
influence was felt by the business after they were married: the product range was enlarged to include
stationery and books. In addition she was responsible for the introduction of the Boots subscription
library and in-store cafes.
During World War 1 the factories were used to make a variety of products from sterilizers to gas
masks. But by 1920 Jesse was being attacked by arthritis and was worried by the economic prospects.
Boots was sold to an American rival for £2 m. This, however, was made bankrupt during the Depression
and Boots was then bought by a British group for £6 m, while Jesse’s son, John, was made chairman. The
famous No. 7 cosmetics range was launched in the 1930s. In the 1939–45 War the saccharin equivalent to
700,000 tons of sugar was produced in the Nottingham factories.
1.4. Singular or plural

1.4.1. Underline and correct the mistakes in the following (one per sentence).
a) More must be done to solve that problems of development.
_____________________________________________________
b) There are two sorts of college in Japan.
_____________________________________________________
c) The attitude towards this issue vary from person to person.
_____________________________________________________
d) Many culture from around the world are found in the city.
_____________________________________________________
e) In the country the people is more friendly.
_____________________________________________________
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Ioana Mohor-Ivan
f) It is common to move from the countryside to find job.

_____________________________________________________
g) Huge number of cars use the motorway.
_____________________________________________________
h) The city have disadvantages such as a high rate of crime.
_____________________________________________________
i) Public transport lets us move to another places easily.
_____________________________________________________
j) There are bad pollution due to traffic congestion.
_____________________________________________________
k) People should not ignore important factors that affect their life.
_____________________________________________________
1.4.2. Read the text and underline the correct alternative.

A large number of company/companies has/have developed website/websites in the last few years.
Trading using the internet is called e-commerce/e-commerces, and this/these is/are divided into two
main kinds: B2B and B2C. Many business/businesses want to use the internet to sell directly to
its/their customers (B2C), but large numbers have experienced trouble/troubles with
security/securities and other practical issues. In addition, the high start-up costs and the
expense/expenses of advertising means/mean that this/these company/companies often struggle to
make a profit.
1.5. Articles
1.5.1. Complete the following text by inserting a/an/the (or nothing) in each gap.
THE ORIGINS OF @
Giorio Stabile, a) . . . . . . . . . professor of b) . . . . . . . . . history at La Sapienza university in Rome, has
demonstrated that c) . . . . . . . . . @ sign, now used in email addresses, was actually invented 500 years
ago. Professor Stabile has shown that d) . . . . . . . . . @, now e) . . . . . . . . . symbol of f) . . . . . . . . .
internet, was first used by Italian merchants during g) . . . . . . . . . sixteenth century.
He claims that it originally represented h) . . . . . . . . . unit of volume, based on i) . . . . . . . . . large
jars used to carry liquids in j) . . . . . . . . . ancient Mediterranean world. He has found k) . . . . . . . . . first
example of its use in l) . . . . . . . . . letter written in 1546 by m) . . . . . . . . . merchant from Florence. n) . . .
. . . . . . letter, which was sent to Rome, announces o) . . . . . . . . . arrival in p) . . . . . . . . . Spain of ships
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carrying gold from South America. q) . . . . . . . . . professor argues that r) . . . . . . . . . @ sign derives from
s) . . . . . . . . . special script used by these merchants, which was developed in t) . . . . . . . . . sixteenth
century. According to him, u) . . . . . . . . . loop around v) . . . . . . . . . ‘a’ is typical of that style. He found
w) . . . . . . . . . evidence while researching x) . . . . . . . . . visual history of y) . . . . . . . . . twentieth century.
1.6. Countable and Uncountable

1.6.1.Complete the following sentences to show the differences in meaning.
a) Three years’ experience ________________________________________________.
b) She had some exciting experiences while _________________________________.
c) Most small businesses have _____________________________________________.
d) In many countries it is normal to discuss business _________________________.
e) A number of capitals such as Washington and Canberra are ________________.
f) Huge amounts of capital _______________________________________________.
g) Two world wars in thirty years caused___________________________________.
h) War is a feature of ____________________________________________________.
i) _______________________________________________________ was the cause of six deaths.
j) Death is _____________________________________________________________.
k) New medicines are developed __________________________________________.
l) Studying medicine at university can be ___________________________________.
1.6.2. In the following sentences, underline the correct alternative.

a) Little/few news reached the prisoners in the castle.
b) He established three successful businesses/business in 1995.
c) Substantial experiences/experience of report writing are/is required.
d) It has often been claimed that travel broadens/travels broaden the mind.
e) Paper was/papers were very expensive in the Middle Ages.
f) How much advice/many advices were they given before coming to Britain?
g) She had little interest/few interests outside her work.
h) The insurance policy excludes the effects of civil war/wars.
i) Irons were/iron was first powered by electricity in the twentieth century.
j) They studied the behaviour/behaviours of three groups of lions over two years.
1.6. Prepositions
1.6.1. Insert a suitable preposition before or after the nouns in the sentences below.
a) Evidence is presented in support ________ the value of women’s work.
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Ioana Mohor-Ivan
b) A small change ________ demand can lead to large price rises.

c) Many examples were found ________ high levels of calcium.
d) We tried to assess the feasibility ________ allowing children to choose their own subjects.
e) The second point is their impact ________ developing countries.
1.6.2. Complete the following sentences with suitable prepositions of place or time.
a) ________ the respondents, few had any experience of working abroad.
b) Industrial production declined gradually ________ 1976 ________ 1985.
c) Most workers ________ the European Union retire before the age ________ 60.
d) Albert Einstein was born ________ Germany ________ 1879.
e) Many flowers open their petals ________ the morning and close them ________ night.
f) ________ the surface, there is no difference ________ male and female responses.
1.6.3. Complete the text with suitable prepositions.

This study sets a) ________ to answer the controversial question b) ________ whether increased food
supply c) ________ a country makes a significant contribution d) ________ reducing malnutrition e)
________ children. It uses data collected f) ________ 75 countries g) ________ 1969 and 1987. The
findings are that there was a considerable improvement h) ________ the majority i) ________ countries,
despite population increases j) ________ the period. However, a clear distinction was found k) ________
the poorest countries (e.g. l) ________ South Asia), where the improvement was greatest, and the
wealthier states such as those m) ________ North Africa. Other factors, notably the educational level n)
________ women, were also found to be critical o) ________ improving childhood nutrition.
1.7. Word order
1.7.1. Re-write the following sentences correctly.
a) The captain ordered the men to throw into the sea the goods.
_______________________________________________________________
b) I went out to buy a book which had written a friend of mine.
_______________________________________________________________
c) It is pleasant to spend sometimes an hour in a library.
_______________________________________________________________
d) On my way to the office happened something very funny.
_______________________________________________________________
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e) They both again reached home.

_______________________________________________________________
f) Once used to live two detectives opposite our house.
_______________________________________________________________
g) I went into the room where was the thief hiding.
_______________________________________________________________
h) I used very often to visit in the country my uncle.
_______________________________________________________________
i) Suddenly arrived at the house relations whom he did not want to see.
_______________________________________________________________
j) From the shelf by someone the book was taken.
_______________________________________________________________
k) The friend from abroad whom I told you about has arrived.
_______________________________________________________________
l) I forgot on the letter I sent to write the address.
_______________________________________________________________
m) Never he has mentioned the subject.
_______________________________________________________________
n) You can trust him always.
_______________________________________________________________
o) You never can be certain that he will succeed.
_______________________________________________________________
p) He rarely has taken much trouble with his work.
_______________________________________________________________
q) If you had been careful this never might have happened.
_______________________________________________________________
1.8. Prefixes / Suffixes

1.8.1. Find the meaning(s) of each prefix in the examples given below:
auto autopilot The plane flew on autopilot for six hours.

co co-ordinator The co-ordinator invited them to a meeting.
ex ex-girlfriend He met his ex-girlfriend on the station.
ex exclusive It is difficult to join such an exclusive club.
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Ioana Mohor-Ivan
Micro microscope She studied the tiny animals with a microscope.

multi multinational Ford is a multi-national motor company.
over oversleep After oversleeping twice she got an alarm clock.
post postpone The meeting is postponed to next Monday.
re return Return the letter to the sender.
sub subtitle Chinese films have subtitles in England.
under undergraduate Most undergraduate courses last 3 years.
under undercook Undercooked meat can be a health hazard.
1.8.2. Suggest possible meanings for the words in italic.

a) Criminal activity seems to be very common among the underclass.
b) The passengers found the jet was overbooked and had to wait for the next flight.
c) The microclimate in my garden means that I can grow oranges.
d) It is claimed that computers have created a post-industrial economy.
e) Most film stars have ex-directory phone numbers.
f) It is believed that dreams are produced by the subconscious.
1.8.3. Give the word class and suggest possible meanings for:
a) cancellation
b) unpredictable
c) coincidental
d) saleable
e) uncooperatively
f) interviewee
g) evolutionary
h) surrealism
i) protester
j) symbolically
1.8.4. Study each sentence and find the meaning of the words in italic.
a) The film is a French–Italian co-production made by a subsidiary company.
b) When the car crashed she screamed involuntarily but was unharmed.
c) Using rechargeable batteries has undoubted benefits for the environment.
d) The unavailability of the product is due to the exceptional weather.
e) There is a theoretical possibility of the cloth disintegrating.
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1.9. Words often confused

1.9.1. Make up sentences to illustrate the difference between:
1) make, do _____________________________________________________
2) say, tell_____________________________________________________
3) lend, borrow _____________________________________________________
4) rise, raise _____________________________________________________
5) rise, arise_____________________________________________________
6) practice, practise __________________________________________________
7) advise, advice_____________________________________________________
8) affect, effect _____________________________________________________
9) all ready, already __________________________________________________
10) choice, choose_____________________________________________________
11) choose, chose_____________________________________________________
12) clothes, cloths_____________________________________________________
13) coarse, course_____________________________________________________
14) complement, compliment___________________________________________
15) conscious, conscience______________________________________________
16) dessert, desert_____________________________________________________
17) economics, economical_____________________________________________
18) fourth, forth_____________________________________________________
19) human, humane___________________________________________________
20) latter, later_____________________________________________________
21) loose, lose_____________________________________________________
22) logic, logical_____________________________________________________
23) mathematics, mathematical_________________________________________
24) moral, morale_____________________________________________________
25) passed, past_____________________________________________________
26) personal, personnel________________________________________________
27) politics, political___________________________________________________
28) quiet, quite_____________________________________________________
29) statistics, statistical_________________________________________________
30) than, then_____________________________________________________
31) very, too_____________________________________________________
32) weather, whether__________________________________________________
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Ioana Mohor-Ivan
1.9.2. In the spaces in the following sentences write the correct form of the word chose from the list
that is given.
a) He ________ a big effort to finish in time. (do/make)

b) Considerable progress has been ___ with the experiment. (do/make)
c) He found that he could not ________ the research. (do/make)
d) He ________ a number of attempts to finish the work. (do/make)
e) She had some difficulty in ______ her homework. (do/make)
f) Many discoveries have been _______ during the 20th century. (do/make)
g) The painting was ________ by a famous artist. (do/make)
h) His supervisor _____ him to prepare a talk. (say, tell)
i) The lecturer ____ that he would finish early. (say/tell)
j) He _______ to her that it did not matter. (say/tell)
k) It is possible to ______ four books at a time from the library. (lend/borrow)
l) Mr. Smith ____ his dictionary to the student. (lend/borrow)
m) Sandra tried to ______ some money from the bank. (lend/borrow)
n) The sun usually _______ at 5 a.m. in the summer. (rise/arise/raise/increase)
o) A new problem ________ in the college. (rise/arise/raise/increase)
p) Bus fares were ________ three times last week. (rise/arise/raise/increase)
q) The landlord said he is going to ________ the rent. (rise/arise/raise/increase)
r) He _______ a loan. (rise/arise/raise/increase).
s) There was a steady ________ in the population. (rise/arise/raise/increase)
t) The oil crisis _______ the price of petrol. (rise/arise/raise/increase)
u) Last year the price of food ______ by 15%. (rise/arise/raise/increase)
v) Tutors often give good _______ (advise/advice) but students sometimes _____
(choice/choose) not to follow it.
w) Of _______ (mathematics/mathematical) and _________ (politics/political), the former
is, perhaps, more ________ (logic/logical) than the ______ (later/latter).
1.9.3. Fill in the blank with either accept or except.

a) The whole army is out of step _______________ Fred.
b) I’ll _______________ no money from that cheapskate.
c) Please _______________ this pot of Mama’s chicken soup.
17
d) It will cure anything _______________ flat feet.

e) Rip could do anything _______________ make money.
f) I had to _______________ their negative evaluation.
g) All the girls went to the game _______________ Mary.
h) Howard could not _______________ the job.
i) __________ when there’s a classic movie playing, Pete seldom watches TV.
j) I will _______________ your gift if you let me pay for my lunch.
1.9.4. Fill in the blank with either affect or effect.

1. Wars _______________ everybody, and their destructive _______________ last for generations.
2. Television has a strong _______________ on public opinion.
3. My mood can _______________ my thinking, too.
4. I see that you’re trying to _______________ apathy, but I know that you really do care.
5. Falling on my head had a bad _______________ on my memory.
6. His years of smoking have negatively ____________ed his health.
7. This plan will surely ______________ significant improvements in our productivity.
8. The patient shows normal ______________ and appears to be psychologically stable.
9. The principal’s new rules _______________ the school.
10. Supply and demand have a direct ________________ on the prices of commodities.
11. The _______________ of the speech was visible on the faces of the sleeping audience.
12. He’s just trying to seem cool; his indifference is completely _______________ed.
13. We may never know the full _______________ of the radiation leak.
14. The early frost will _______________ the crops.
15. What kind of _______________ can this quiz have on your dinner tonight?
1.9.5. Correct the errors in the following sentences:

a) Some years ago Dr. Selye set fourth his theory of stress. _____________
b) He couldn’t imagine any torture worse than doing nothing accept lying on a beach day
after day. _____________
c) The affect was disastrous. _____________
d) Turning water haphazardly into the Everglades of coarse destroyed the natural wet-dry
rhythm of nature. _____________
e) At the end of the campfire talk, we gave the park naturalist a complement on his clear
explanation of the problem. _____________
f) I’m going to except Professor Eicken’s advise and strive for mastery. _____________
18
Ioana Mohor-Ivan
g) I took soft clothes to polish my car and course ones to clean the wheels. _____________
h) If pidgeons are let lose 700 miles from home, they’ll be home in about 12 hours,
depending on the whether and weather they have a tail wind. _____________
i) The moral of the personal were I work is excellent. _____________
j) Our supervisor is quiet a sympathetic women and help us threw difficulties.
_____________
k) She has high principals and strict morale standards. _____________
l) More than 90 nations ratified a law banning international trade in rhino products, but its
quiet difficult to enforce. _____________
m) Recently Yemen past a law forbidding the import of the horns. _____________
n) In this weather I’m sure a cold desert will be best. _____________
1.9.6. Underline the correct term from the pairs given in brackets.
a) His behaviour at the party was (contemptuous/contemptible).
b) This must be the (definite/definitive) reference work on Roman history.
c) The doctor told him to use (liniment/lineament) twice a day.
d) If you print that, I’ll sue you for (libel/slander).
e) This is my last will and (testimony/testament.)
f) We may have won all our matches this season, but we mustn’t allow ourselves to become
(complaisant/complacent.)
g) I’ve always wanted to drive (luxurious/luxuriant) cars.
h) It is most (regretful/regrettable) that Mr Brown has decided to resign.
i) The police have (conclusive/decisive) proof that he robbed the bank.
j) How do you expect me to get the work finished when I’m (continuously/continually)
interrupted?
k) She was a very (intensive/intense) person, who seemed to care deeply about everyone and
everything.
l) My father is a great believer in (alternative/alternate) medicine.
m) She had died her hair a (distinct/distinctive) shade of blue.
n) He spent three years in (goal, gaol).
o) Do you enjoy (urbane/urban) life, or would you prefer to live in the country?
p) He was a man of (sanguine/sanguinary) temperament.
q) My brother is (credible/credulous) enough to believe anything you tell him.
19
r) The Government are very worried about the (elicit/illicit) sales of champagne.
s) What can be (implied/inferred) from the Prime Minister’s remarks?
t) I’m afraid the project is far too expensive to be (practical/practicable).
u) There was an (appreciative/appreciable) drop in temperature last night.
v) Are these mushrooms (edible/eatable) or are they poisonous?
w) The majority of tinned food is (deficient/defective) in vitamins.
x) The company made (judicial/judicious) use of a Government grant.
y) The difference in performance between the two computers is (negligent/negligible).
1.9.7. Read the following short story. As you can see, there are a few problems with the text. See if
you can sort them out - the title should give you a clue.
A SHORT STOREY?
NO PIECE FOR HARRY HOMOPHONE
Detective Harry Homophone new that this job was almost over. He had bean hot on the
tale of Pinky Malone, ex-heavywait boxer and now notorious gangster, four over a weak.
But now he was only ours away from getting his man.
Harry lent against the wall, pulling his hat low over his eyes. He was at the harbour
down buy the sure, and knight had already fallen. The plaice was deserted, and silent
except for a ship’s bell that had wrung out once or twice threw the see missed that had
crept up the beech that evening.
He tossed his cigarette but into a puddle left by that afternoon’s reign, and approached the
seedy sailor’s hostel that Malone was using to whole up in. Harry entered silently, past
the door leading to the bar and began to climb the stares. At the top he paused, listening
intently to the noise that came from the room.
Was this Pinky Malone, oar was this just an ordinary guessed? No, that awful snore
could only mean won thing and have only won sauce. This had to bee the write man. In
his final fight in the wring Pinky had had his knows broken and now snored like a
foghorn.
As Harry’s shoo crashed into the door, he whipped out his gun, and their he was
face to face with Malone lying in bed. Malone’s startled expression soon gave weigh to a
rye smile.
20
Ioana Mohor-Ivan
“Looks like you got me this thyme, Homophone - my gun hand’s empty,” he said,
waiving his write hand in the heir.
Harry was just about to put up his peace when he remembered that Malone was a
south-pour, and that his left hand was still mysteriously under the bed-close.
As Pinky Malone was about to let loose with his concealed weapon, Harry snapped
him back into his sites and pulled the trigger.
The blanket went read.
“Aargh!” screamed Malone. “You’ve filled me full of led!”
Harry put up his gun and said, “You went two far when ewe tried to beet Harry
Homophone.”
1.10. Abbreviations
1.10.1. Explain the abbreviations in the following sentences.
a) The PM told MPs that the NHS needed reform.
b) The failure rate among IT projects reaches 70% (Smith et al., 1997).
c) The world’s most populous country i.e. China has joined the WTO.
d) NB. CVs must be no longer than 3 sides of A4.
e) See the OECD’s recent report on the UK.
f) The EU hopes to achieve a standard rate of VAT.
g) The CEO intends to raise spending on R&D by 40%.
h) Fig.4. Trade patterns on the w.w.w. (1997–2001).
i) The WHO is concerned about the spread of TB.
j) Director of PR required – salary approx. $45K.
k) GM technology is leading to advances in many fields, e.g. forestry.
l) Prof. Wren claimed that the quality of M.Phil. and Ph.D. research was falling.
1.11. Further practice

1.11.1. Underline the errors in the following sentences. Re-write each of them in correct English.
a) Table 3 is showing that most of this accidents occurs to young children.

________________________________________________________________
b) Each worker pay a small money which is taken from their salary.
________________________________________________________________
21
c) Specialist doctors in hospitals can divide into surgeons which operate the body and
another specialists which act as consultants.
________________________________________________________________
d) The number of schools growed gradually till 1965 and then number rised suddenly.
________________________________________________________________
e) When a country apply for foreign aids is because it has no enough resources of its own.
________________________________________________________________
f) If someone become ill, then can to local doctor.
________________________________________________________________
g) To my opinion, there is many parent which dud not take care their children.
________________________________________________________________
h) In the other hand, if we look the table of accidents, we will see this facts.
________________________________________________________________
i) In my country we have other kind of system; it is bigger and more better.
________________________________________________________________
j) The problem was solve by the introduction of machineries.
________________________________________________________________
1.11.2. Explain the mistakes in the sentences below and write the correct variant.
a) Your hands are not very clear.

____________________________________________________________
b) At last the ship it managed the rich the harbour.
____________________________________________________________
c) Nobody said nothing for what had happened.
____________________________________________________________
d) He was enjoyied his travel very much.
____________________________________________________________
e) The sun was shinning at the sea.
____________________________________________________________
f) We went for a walk with our car.
____________________________________________________________
g) The storm cause a very big damage.
____________________________________________________________
22
Ioana Mohor-Ivan
h) He did not leave me to go.

____________________________________________________________
i) I tried to find the luggages who I had left at the platform.
____________________________________________________________
j) We did not have a moment to loose.
____________________________________________________________
k) The afternoon I went for a walk with a friend of me.
____________________________________________________________
l) For my good luck he told me the hole story.
____________________________________________________________
m) We saw the boat to sink and run for help.
____________________________________________________________
n) I did not afraid when I herd it.
____________________________________________________________
o) People use to say that it was not a so easy thing to travel with a plane.
____________________________________________________________
p) I am enough comfortable he told.
____________________________________________________________
q) Sometimes when it happens the sea to be rough we do not go for baths.
____________________________________________________________
r) The teacher, he explained us our mistakes as usually.
____________________________________________________________
s) He went at school early this morning without to eat any breakfast.
____________________________________________________________
t) He is the friend of her’s.
____________________________________________________________
u) What shall I do with all these money?
____________________________________________________________
v) The bad was that we could not to go home.
____________________________________________________________
w) He said us much stories.
____________________________________________________________
x) He is bigger than me one year.
____________________________________________________________
23
y) They wanted to make us a surprise.

____________________________________________________________
z) As soon as I will return at home I will go to bed.
____________________________________________________________
2. Spelling and Punctuation
2.1. Commonly Misspelled Words
2.1.1. In the following paragraph there are fourteen words ending with -ible or -able, some of which
are misspelled. Read the paragraph, locate the misspelled words and write the correct spellings in
the space provided below the paragraph.
Most people thought that Michael, an eligable bachelor, was an adorable, personible man. Mattie,
however, found him detestable. Some time ago, Michael promised to take Mattie to a fashionible
restaurant for a remarkible dinner. As horrable as it sounds, Michael took Mattie to the local McDonald’s.
Most of the food there was either inedable or undigestable. Mattie was as irritable as possable when she
told her roommates about her terrible date. “Whoever finally marries that contemptable Michael,” Mattie
said, “is certainly not going to be in an enviable position.”
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
2.1.2. In the following sentences, the final four letters are omitted from each -ible or -able word.
Complete each word with the appropriate ending.
1. Last night’s movie about the invis____ man was so incred____ that it was laugh____.
2. My irrespons____ little brother is usually kept away from anything break____.
3. Are these new clothes really comfort____, or do people only wear them because they are fashion____?
4. I think I would be less irrit____ if my professors were more flex____.
5. I don’t think voting twice in national elections is permiss____.
6. It’s always valu____ to have a friend who is depend____.
7. My employer said that it isn’t suit____ to have a secretary whose handwriting is illeg____.
24
Ioana Mohor-Ivan
2.1.3. Write in either ie or ei to complete the words below.
a. ach____ve
b. bel___f
c. br___f
d. c___ling
e. conc___t
f. dec___ve
g. for___gn
h. financ___r
i. misch___vous
j. n___ghbor
k. n___ther
l. p___ce
m. perc___ve
n. rec___pt
o. rel___ve
p. rev___w
q. sh___ld
r. shr___k
s. v___l
t. y___ld
u. cash___r
v. ch___f
w. f___ld
x. fr___ght
y. h___nous
25
2.1.4. The following words are all spelled wrongly. Rewrite them correctly, using a dictionary if you
have great difficulty.
a) acomodation ________________________________
b) acheive ________________________________
c) applicible________________________________
d) begining ________________________________
e) caracteristics ________________________________
f) critisism________________________________ ,
g) developement________________________________
h) dissappeared________________________________
i) devided ________________________________
j) embarassed ________________________________
k) enviroment ________________________________
l) frequantly ________________________________
m) foreinger________________________________
n) heighth________________________________
o) hipothesis________________________________
p) incresingely________________________________
q) insufficent________________________________
r) intervieiwed________________________________
s) maintaning________________________________
t) medecine________________________________
u) neccessary________________________________
v) ocupation________________________________
w) ocured________________________________
x) preceed________________________________
y) reaserch________________________________
z) recieve________________________________
aa) recomendasion________________________________
bb) reffering________________________________
cc) seperatly________________________________
dd) studing________________________________
ee) sucesfull________________________________
26
Ioana Mohor-Ivan
2.1.5. Underline the misspelled words in the following passages. Then write the correct spellings in the
space above the lines.
a) He put alot of work into his vegtable garden, hopeing to sell part of his produce to a locale
restaraunt.
b) Last Wensday, five atheletes from Taiwan visited the campus for a gymnastic exibition. Amoung
other things, they preformed a dicsiplined series of excercises on the paralell bars, probally one of
the finest such preformences Ive ever seen.
c) The instructer decided to develope a course calander listing the due dates for all major
asignments. Than she revised her abscence policy, making it consistant with the new attendence
regulations issued by the university during the preceeding semester.
d) Nobody thought that the desparate, starving prisoners had the strenth to excape, but through an
extrordinary effort, they managed to make it accross fourty miles of mountainous terrain, arriving
safely at the border where they where rescued by local police.
e) His poor judgement, his overly agressive style of managment, his lack of disipline, and his
tendancy to exagerate his sucesses and ignore his failures – all these factors led the firm to a
truely disasterous year. Embarassed and outraged, the board of directers fired him as soon as his
incredable ineptitude came to light.
f) Michael Leary”s newest novel is a study in the psycology of teror. By subtley manipulating the
reader, he manages to make the villian seem monsterous without making him seem all together
unrealistic.
27
2.1.6. Write the correct answer for each sentence, using either words to spell out the numbers
(thirty-one) or numerals where appropriate (31). Write a C if the sentence is correct as is.
a) ________________ 351 people attended the performance.
b) ________________There were one hundred and thirty-five pieces in the puzzle.
c) ________________ Class started at eight-thirty A.M. in Room Twenty.
d) ________________ In the sixties there were sit-ins at 100’s of colleges.
e) ________________ Every afternoon at two o’clock the chimes rang.
f) ________________ The stock deal, which involved $4.5 billion, paid a twelve and a half percent
dividend.
g) ________________ The Lafayette television station is Channel Eighteen.
h) ___ _____________They needed eight ten-foot poles for the construction.
i) ___ _____________The vote was 126 in favor of the action and only sixteen opposed.
j) ________________ The assignment was to read chapter 6, pages 31-39.
k) ________________ Only fifty percent of high school students go on to college.
l) ________________ We were assigned a report of about 10 pages in length.
2.2.Punctuation Marks and Capital Letters
2.2.1. Which of the following punctuation marks are most adequate as a separating device?
a) It was a fine day, the sun was shining.
b) It was a fine day. The sun was shining.
c) It was a fine day – the sun was shining.
d) It was a fine day; the sun was shining.
e) It was a fine day: the sun was shining.
2.2.2. Identify the main uses of the following punctuation marks:

comma
a) It is years since I read “Anna Karenina”, which is my favourite novel.
b) If you do not understand, please tell me.
c) James Joyce, the great modernist writer, once said . . .
d) The speaker, getting to his feet, began to . . .
e) I shall need a book, some paper, a pencil, and a ruler.
f) You can, however, do it if you wish.
g) They tried, in spite of my advice, to climb the mountain.
28
Ioana Mohor-Ivan
full-stop
a) She quietly watched the man passing. Then she . . .
colon
a) I have some news for you: John’s father has arrived.
b) Please send the items indicated below, namely: (i) passport (ii) visa application (iii) correct fee.
semi-colon
a) The lecture was badly delivered; it went on far too long as well.
b) The chief commodities are: butter, cheese, milk, eggs; lamb, beef, veal, pork; oats, barley, rye and
wheat.
hyphen
a) The manager co-opted the workers in the project.
b) Self-control is what he needs.
apostrophe
a) The director’s interpretation altered the basic script of the play.
question mark
a) What time is it?
b) But: Please tell me what time it is.
dash
a) He received a prize – and a certificate as well.
quotation marks (inverted commas)
a) He said, “Why did you do that?”
exclamation mark
a) Oh dear! Get out!
brackets (parentheses)
a) He (Mr Brown) told him (Mr Jones) that he (Mr Green) had been accepted for his job.
b) William Smith (1910-1969) lived first in Manchester (see p. 70) and then . . .
2.2.3. Each of the following sentences needs either a comma or a semicolon. Put in the necessary
punctuation.
a) Many companies make sugar-free soft drinks, which are flavored by synthetic chemicals the drinks
usually contain only one or two calories per serving.
b) Mr. Leyland played the viola professionally for many years and he now conducts a community
orchestra.
c) The crab grass was flourishing but the rest of the lawn unfortunately was dying.
d) The hill was covered with wildflowers it was a beautiful sight.
29
e) As I turned around, I heard a loud thump for the cat had upset the goldfish bowl.
f) The artist preferred to paint in oils he did not like watercolors.
g) The house was clean, the table set, and the porch light on everything was ready for the guests’ arrival.
h) He looked carefully in the underbrush but he failed to notice the pair of green eyes staring at him.
i) The foundations of the house had been poured but, to his disappointment, nothing else had been done
because of the carpenters’ strike.
j) The computer could perform millions of operations in a split second however, it could not think
spontaneously.
k) I thought registration day would be tiring but I didn’t know I’d have to stand in so many lines.
l) The dog, growling and snarling, snapped at me I was so frightened that I ran.
m) The snowstorm dumped twelve inches of snow on the interstate subsequently, the state police closed
the road.
n) Professors are supposed to be absent-minded and I’ve seen plenty of evidence to support that claim
since I’ve been in college.
o) The suspect said that he had never met the victim however the detective knew that he was lying.
p) In the first place, it was snowing too hard to see the road in the second place, we had no chains.
q) I have read Soul on Ice but I have not read The Invisible Man.
r) San Francisco is my favorite city in fact I plan to spend two weeks there this summer.
s) The quarterback made a brilliant pass and the end crossed the goal line for the winning touchdown.
t) Large supermarkets fascinate me I can find everything from frozen chow mein to soybean flour in
one place.
u) Ron and Mike were both in English class this morning they gave an interesting presentation on their
research.
v) The obstacles are not insurmountable but they are real and formidable.
w) Riding a bicycle is excellent exercise I ride mine every day.
x) I am not interested in a trip to Asia this year however I would like to go to Europe.
y) Not all highly educated people enjoy traveling, but many world travelers are particularly well
educated.
2.2.4. Punctuate the following passages and add capital letters where necessary:
a) the most striking feature of the oceans is their vast size the next most striking feature is the constant
motion of their surfaces one cause of the motion is the wind it may make waves from an inch to over
sixty feet in height another cause of waves is geologic disturbances such as earthquakes and volcanic
30
Ioana Mohor-Ivan
eruptions below the surface of the oceans waves from geologic disturbances are sometimes
incorrectly called tidal waves but they have no relation to the tides.
b) the first of the great civic universities established in england manchester is today the largest unitary
university in the united kingdom and an internationally famous centre of learning and research it is
well endowed with resources and facilities the university library for instance is one of the four big
academic libraries in the country and the university has its own modern theatre television studios art
gallery museum shopping centre and of course extensive sports facilities
c) mr brown had been teaching English abroad for a number of years he had forgotten how cold it could
be in england in the winter it was often dull and grey in november but it could be really cold in
december january and february even in the spring it could snow mr brown looked out of the window
as the train crossed the river avon he remembered the weather forecast that he had heard on the bbc at
9 oclock that tuesday morning it had said that it would be wet and windy in the north west manchester
where he was now travelling to was unfortunately in the north west
2.2.5. Put in semicolons, colons, dashes, quotation marks, Italics (use an underline), and parentheses
where ever they are needed in the following sentences.
a) The men in question Harold Keene, Jim Peterson, and Gerald Greene deserve awards.
b) Several countries participated in the airlift Italy, Belgium, France, and Luxembourg.
c) Only one course was open to us surrender, said the ex-major, and we did.
d) Judge Carswell later to be nominated for the Supreme Court had ruled against civil rights.
e) In last week’s New Yorker, one of my favorite magazines, I enjoyed reading Leland’s article How
Not to Go Camping.
f) Yes, Jim said, I’ll be home by ten.
g) There was only one thing to do study till dawn.
h) Montaigne wrote the following A wise man never loses anything, if he has himself.
31
i) The following are the primary colors red, blue, and yellow.
j) Arriving on the 8 10 plane were Liz Brooks, my old roommate her husband and Tim, their son.
k) When the teacher commented that her spelling was poor, Lynn replied All the members of my family
are poor spellers. Why not me?
l) He used the phrase you know so often that I finally said No, I don’t know.
m) The automobile dealer handled three makes of cars Volkswagens, Porsches, and Mercedes Benz.
n) Though Phil said he would arrive on the 9 19 flight, he came instead on the 10 36 flight.
o) Whoever thought said Helen that Jack would be elected class president?
p) In baseball, a show boat is a man who shows off.
q) The minister quoted Isaiah 5 21 in last Sunday’s sermon.
r) There was a very interesting article entitled The New Rage for Folk Singing in last Sunday’s New
York Times newspaper.
s) Whoever is elected secretary of the club Ashley, or Chandra, or Aisha must be prepared to do a great
deal of work, said Jumita, the previous secretary.
t) Darwin’s On the Origin of Species 1859 caused a great controversy when it appeared.
2.2.6. How would you improve the following samples of inadequate or incorrect
punctuation?
A. Lady X refuses all blandishments to go on the stage or into films. Though her sister, Lady Y, is an
actress. Appearing in People of Our Class.
B. It should be noted that plastics can vary considerable in ruggedness they can be heavy or thin,
plastic dials and knobs can have a metal sleeve to take the screw or they can be just plastic, the
latter are the more likely to pull off in your hand.
C. Cholesterol, a steroid alcohol found in certain fluids and substances, stored by the body, is a
potentially deadly phenomenon, it promotes arteriosclerosis, this precipitates high blood pressure,
which increases the chances of having a heart attack, or angina, or a host of similarly dangerous
conditions, its main carriers are foods we eat regularly, like butter, cheese, milk and salt, let alone
32
Ioana Mohor-Ivan
things like cream and rich puddings. If you have too many of these, and I haven’t yet mentioned
eggs or anything fried, oil and dripping are simply loaded with cholesterol, your arteries harden
prematurely, this makes it more difficult for the blood to flow, obviously enough, they also get
coated and, in general, unhealthy, contaminated and weak, you run a high risk, at the very least,
of premature illness, or incapacity, or even death.
2.2.7. The following letter can be correctly punctuated in two separate ways, resulting in two
utterly different meanings. Work them out, beginning immediately after ‘Dear John’, which is
the only structure common to both.
Dear John
I want a man who knows what love is all about you are generous kind thoughtful people who are not
like you admit to being useless and inferior you have ruined me for other men I yearn for you I have no
feeling whatever when we’re apart I can be forever happy will you let me be yours Gloria
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2.3. Further Practice

2.3.1. Identify and correct the errors – of spelling, grammar, punctuation, usage – in the
following passage:
Me and my friend were laying around on the floor when the bell rung. It was the postman, who was in a
very stroppy mood, he said that the parcel he was delivering to me was extremely awkward to handle, and
that £2-40 was due to be paid because the sender hadn’t handed over enough money. I was disinterested
in his problems, but his manner was so unpleasantly masterly that I though I’d better behave judiciously.
33
Undoubtably he’d have been even more unpleasant if I’d stuck to my principals and told him where to get
off. After all, he is a public servant and has no business being so officious, it wasn’t my fault that the
parcel was so tricky for him and its no use blaming the innocent recipient if the sender has been too mean
to pay the correct postage. I therefore offered him my condonances on having such a pressurised job, paid
the access postage and shut the door on the wicked villain.
When I opened the parcel, I was incredible: it was a priceless diamond that must have cost a pretty
penny. The reason it was so bulky was because it was wrapped in yards and yards of paper – tissue paper,
newspaper, brown paper, even corrugated cardboard. No wonder the postman had found such a lot of
stationary awkward to carry! My friend was fascinated by the jewel and said I could proberly retire for
life if I sold it to the right buyer. I told her not to be so venial, it was a treasured present and I would never
part with it for no one. Then she asked me who it was from? I scrabbled around in all that paper, looking
for a card or a letter, but could find absolutely nothing. I was so upset at not knowing who my benefactor
was that I needed an immediate stimulus, and so I dived for the brandy. I poured out a good measure for
both of us, but she complained that my half was bigger than hers and inferred that I was greedy. I said she
was quite unique in being the nastiest, most grasping little rat-bag I had ever come across and that if she
had the intelligence required to find the door, she might like to use it at her earliest convenience. People
like that embarass me: their full of criticism for others but never practice what they preach.
Oh, I eventually found out who sent the diamond. There was a letter after all, tucked into the outer
rapping: it was from a Belgium I met on holiday, whose the most gorgeous man I’ve ever clapped eyes
on. Anyone who doesn’t fancy him must be off their head: he’s the sort of phenomena that makes me go
weak, knees-wise.
34
Ioana Mohor-Ivan
3. Sentences and Paragraphing
3.1. Joining sentences
3.1.1. Complete the following sentences by choosing one of the two words or phrases given in
brackets:
a) (And, Both) my wife and I went out early yesterday.
_______________________________________________________________________
b) (Or, Either) we will have to wait for them, or we will have to leave a message.
_______________________________________________________________________
c) He neither took my advice (nor, or) his father’s.
_______________________________________________________________________
d) The man (who, whom) you saw yesterday is my neighbour.
________________________________________________________________________
e) He has received the money (which, who) I sent him.
________________________________________________________________________
f) I cannot remember (where did I leave, where I left) my coat.
_______________________________________________________________________
g) He asked me (when would my brother, when my brother would) arrive.
_______________________________________________________________________
h) You did not tell me (how much this cost, how much did this cost.)
_______________________________________________________________________
i) He had to leave (why, because) it was so late.
_______________________________________________________________________
j) (Now that, So that) it has stopped raining, I shall not have to take an umbrella.
_______________________________________________________________________
k) He was (such, so) pleased when he heard the news that he rang me up at once.
_______________________________________________________________________
l) It is (such, a so) nice day, I cannot bear to stay indoors.
_______________________________________________________________________
m) I ran quickly (in order to be not, in order not to be) late.
_______________________________________________________________________
n) The little boy hid behind the door (in order his aunt not to see him, in order that his aunt might not see
him.)
_______________________________________________________________________
35
o) I’ll come and fetch you from the station (so that you will not have to, in order you do not have to)
walk as far as my house.
_______________________________________________________________________
p) Seeing me coming (the man, the man he) ran towards me.
_______________________________________________________________________
q) (Turning the corner, When he turned the corner) the brick fell on his head.
________________________________________________________________
3.1.2. Join the following pairs of sentences using the conjunctions given in brackets.
a) He was in Italy last year. Now he has returned home. (but)

_______________________________________________________________________
b) The talk on the radio was not amusing. It was not interesting. (neither … nor)
_______________________________________________________________________
c) He told me to leave. He told me never to call again. (not only … but)
_______________________________________________________________________
d) I have often invited him here. He has never come. (yet)
_______________________________________________________________________
e) Hurry up. You will be late. (or)
_______________________________________________________________________
f) The manager told him he must work hard. He must leave the firm. (either … or)
_______________________________________________________________________
g) She sent a present to my brother. She sent a present to me. (both … and)
_______________________________________________________________________
h) She finished her housework. She went out shopping. (so/and)
_______________________________________________________________________
i) The shops have shut. We should go home. (now that)
_______________________________________________________________________
j) You have not understood the question. I will repeat it. (since)
_______________________________________________________________________
k) You had better not stay too long. I have a lot of work to do. (as)
_______________________________________________________________________
l) I did not tell him. I was afraid I would hurt his feelings. (because)
_______________________________________________________________________
36
Ioana Mohor-Ivan
m) I have many friends abroad. I cannot write to all of them. (so … that)
_______________________________________________________________________
n) He is an interesting person. It is a pleasure to hear him talk. (such … that)
_______________________________________________________________________
o) The student asked the teacher a question. He wanted to understand the exercise better. (in order that)
_______________________________________________________________________
p) The thief drove quickly out of town. He did not want the police to catch him. (so that)
_______________________________________________________________________
q) He went into the room quietly. He did not want to disturb his brother who was asleep. (so as to)
_______________________________________________________________________
r) I wrote to him several times. I received no answer. (although)
_______________________________________________________________________
s) He plays well. He is still not good enough for the football team. (in spite of the fact that)
_______________________________________________________________________
t) We are determined to get there. It does not matter how far away it is. (however)
_______________________________________________________________________
u) The journey takes too long. It does not matter if you go by plane. (even if)
_______________________________________________________________________
v) I still think the film is poor. It does not matter if so many people enjoyed it. (even though)
_______________________________________________________________________
3.1.3. Join the following pairs of sentences using relative pronouns or adverbs where necessary:
a) There were a lot of people at the party. I had not met them before.
_______________________________________________________________________
b) My sister’s friend came to see me. Her parents died last year.
_______________________________________________________________________
c) The vase was very valuable. My younger brother broke it.
_______________________________________________________________________
d) A friend of mine will be coming tomorrow. I received a letter from him.
_______________________________________________________________________
e) Is he your friend? Did you go to the cinema with him yesterday?
_______________________________________________________________________
f) He has sent me a number of letters. I haven’t had time to answer them.
_______________________________________________________________________
37
g) The man had to pay a fine. His car was parked on the wrong side of the road.
_______________________________________________________________________
h) Why did he refuse to see me? You must find out.
_______________________________________________________________________
i) How did you find out my address? Please tell me.
_______________________________________________________________________
j) When did you last hear from him? Write and let me know.
_______________________________________________________________________
k) What did he tell you? I would like to know.
_______________________________________________________________________
l) Where did he put the book I lent you? Please ask him.
_______________________________________________________________________
3.1.4. Join the following pairs of sentences using the participle construction.
a) She thought I was a friend of hers. She greeted me.

_______________________________________________________________________
b) They found the door shut. They had to climb through the window.
_______________________________________________________________________
c) The guard was killed. The prisoner escaped.
_______________________________________________________________________
d) He has not been abroad for many years. He is now finding it difficult to settle down.
_______________________________________________________________________
e) He was not able to understand. He asked the teacher to explain.
_______________________________________________________________________
f) She did not believe me. She went to see for herself.
_______________________________________________________________________
3.1.4. Consider the following ‘howlers’ and ‘Colemanballs’ (i.e. written or oral errors where
there is a crucial gap between intention and result.) Can you rewrite them so that to make
clear and uncomical sense? Keep as close as you can to the original idea and wording.
a) Something Went Wrong In Jet Crash, Expert Says (newspaper headline)

_______________________________________________________________________
38
Ioana Mohor-Ivan
b) Squad Helps Dog Bite Victim (newspaper headline)

_______________________________________________________________________
c) We thought this story incredible – very convincing. (Lord Asa Briggs)
_______________________________________________________________________
d) The Channel Tunnel project seems to be getting off the ground again. (Sir Alistair Burnett)
_______________________________________________________________________
e) To win a Gold Medal, you’ve got to come first. (David Coleman)
_______________________________________________________________________
f) Obviously, you do other things as well as dedicating your life 24 hours a day to ballet. (Mike
Read)
_______________________________________________________________________
g) We are not prepared to stand idly by and be murdered in our beds. (The Reverend Ian Paisley)
_______________________________________________________________________
h) If Tchaikovsky were alive today he’d be turning in his grave. (Radio 1)
_______________________________________________________________________
3.2. Rhythm and Variation

3.2.1. Decide which of the following texts works most effectively on the reader in point of its rhythm
and sentence length/variation:
a) He took out his knife, opened it, and stuck it in the log. Then he pulled up the sack, reached into it,
and brought out one of the trout. Holding him near the tail, hard to hold, alive, in his hand, he
whacked him against the log. The trout quivered, rigid. Nick laid him on the log in the shade and
broke the neck of the other fish in the same way. He laid them side by side on the log. They were fine
trout.
Nick cleaned them, slitting them from the vent on the tip of the jaw. All the insides and the gills
and the tongue came out in one piece. They were both males, long grey-white strips of milt, smooth
and clean. All the insides clean and compact, coming out all together. Nick tossed the offal ashore for
the minks to find.
He washed the trout on the stream. When he held them back in the water they looked like live
fish. Their colour was not gone yet . . .
b) When the director in the field sends the executive in there’s got to be a professional set-up. We didn’t
have one.
I suppose Loman had thought of a dozen angles of attack and obviously the one he’d chosen was the
one he thought was right and he was wrong.
‘I think you’re showing an unreasonable bias towards –’
39
‘Is that so?’ I was clearly very fed up. ‘We’ve been called in by a panic directive to clear up the wreck
of an operation that went off half-cooked and killed one man and exposed another and by a bit of luck
I missed a bomb and last night they picked Fyson out of Tunis harbour and it’d be nice to think that
when they grilled him he didn’t break but the last time I saw him his nerve had gone so they wouldn’t
have had any trouble. How safe’s our base now, Loman? . . .’
c) Long before the mile was covered, Arnold was wilting. There was simply no strength left in that old
body which had weathered malnutrition and disease seventy years earlier and had gone on at a
cracking pace ever since. We walked more and more slowly. I was about to suggest that he sit down
while I fetched the car when we heard behind us the drumming engine of a tractor. It came up, towing
behind a flat wagon which had been emptied of its load. We flagged it down. The driver, a good-
natured young fellow, let us scramble up on to the wagon, and sitting on its smooth boards, dusty with
fragments of straw and chaff, we finished our excursion. Arnold looked round with satisfaction at the
landscape, and remarked that this would be a good way of taking a holiday: touring the British Isles by
tractor and trailer.
That was the last of my excursions with Arnold. His bed, and then the grave, claimed him in the
first height of summer, the time of year he loved so much, and his life ended among springing green
leaves and clamorous birds. But I remember him jolting along behind the tractor, enjoying the fun of
it, finding zest in that last outing as he found zest in all the others.
I was very proud of Arnold. He was my father.
d) One day Clevinger had stumbled while marching to class; the next day he was formally charged with
‘breaking ranks while in formation, felonious assault, indiscriminate behaviour, mopery, high treason,
provoking, being a smart guy, listening to classical music’ and so on. In short, they threw the book at
him.
Additional guidelines
The first sentence should be reasonably short (to ease the readers into the material).
Too many short/long sentences are likely to tire readers.
Sentences which are too long or complex should be avoided.
It is often appropriate to follow a sentence containing a lot of information with a short one that,
while not duplicating the material, summarises or clarifies it.
40
Ioana Mohor-Ivan
3.2.2. Keeping as close to the original, try recasting the following two passages so that they acquire
proper fluency and clarity:
a) Prohibition was known as ‘The Great Experiment’. The experiment was a remarkable one. It
occurred in the United States of America. It took place in the years 1920-33. The sale and
consumption of alcohol was prohibited throughout those years. But the people’s liking for alcohol
did not disappear. Therefore alcohol was distilled illegally. It was sold in ‘Speakeasies’.
‘Speakeasies’ were clubs owned by gangsters. Some of those gangsters became enormously
powerful. Al Capone of Chicago was for a time considered to be the most powerful man in the
country. He was eventually imprisoned for tax evasion. The gangsters’ control nevertheless
continued. The experiment came to an end in 1933. By this time the damage had been done.
America has had to live with organised crime ever since.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
b) Counsel maintained that the accused, if he had, as was alleged by some, though not the most
reliable of the witnesses for the prosecution, taken the articles in question, had been subject to
temporary lapses of memory as a result of shell-shock sustained during the war.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
41
3.3. Paragraphing
3.3.1. Re-design the extract below to give it proper flow and a more sensible shape:
Like many other able-bodied people, I had never thought very much about the problems of those
confined to wheelchairs.
But after spending just one morning in a chair, I now realise how difficult even a simple shopping trip
is for the disabled.
We borrowed a wheelchair from the Red Cross and set out along Station Road. It might be thought that
I had an easy job just sitting in a chair being pushed around, but I found the ride both frightening and
uncomfortable.
The pavement was very uneven - many slabs were cracked and few were actually aligned with each
other. Shock absorbers should be fitted as standard on all wheelchairs.
Added to the problem of bumpy pavements was the fact that Linda, my pusher, took some time to get
used to steering the wheelchair up and down the dips in the pavement. She was, of course, further
hampered by my weight in the chair.
Kerbstones were another major difficulty. She almost tipped me out several times before she learnt
how to negotiate them properly.
Because she had to go down the kerb backwards, I experienced a couple of moments of minor panic,
when she had difficulty turning the chair round again in the middle of the road . . .
3.3.2.How would you sub-divide the following passage? Can you detect any inconsistency in the
argument?
Twelfth Night is justly considered as one of the most delightful of Shakespeare’s comedies. It is full
of sweetness and pleasantry. It is perhaps too good-natured for comedy. It has little satire and no
spleen. It aims at the ridiculous rather than the ludicrous. It makes us laugh at the follies of mankind,
not despise them, and still less bear any ill will towards them. Shakespeare’s comic genius resembles
the bee rather in its power of extracting sweets from weeds or poisons than in leaving a sting behind
it. He gives the most amusing exaggeration of the prevailing foibles of his characters, but in a way
that they themselves, instead of being offended at, would almost join in the humour; he rather
contrives opportunities for them to show themselves off in the happiest lights, than renders them
contemptible in the perverse construction of the wit or malice of others. There is a certain stage of
society in which people become conscious of their peculiarities and absurdities, affect to disguise
what they are, and set up pretensions to what they are not. This gives rise to a corresponding style of
comedy, the object of which is to detect the disguises of self love, and to make reprisals on these
preposterous assumptions of vanity, by marking the contrast between the real and the affected
42
Ioana Mohor-Ivan
character as severely as possible, and denying to those, who would impose on us for what they are
not, even the merit which they have. This is the comedy of artificial life.
Each side of the paper (assuming A4 size) should usually contain 2 or 3 paragraphs.
Except for occasions when you wish to stress or highlight something, each paragraphs should contain
at least 3 sentences.
First and last paragraphs should be fairly short.
A paragraph should have unity and a nucleus (a sentence to which all other material can be seen to
gravitate.
4. Register and Style

4.1. Linguistic registers
Note
Register is a key element in expressing degrees of formality. I may assume the following forms:
Frozen - Language that does not change - Prayers and pledges, “set” speech which is often scripted
Formal - Complete sentences and specific word usage. - Formal English often used to show respect
used in places such as work, school and public offices
Consultative - Formal register used in conversation - colleagues, peers, etc
Informal / Casual - Language used in conversation with friends. - idiomatic and often full of slang,
used to signal belonging to a given group
Intimate - Language between lovers (and twins). - “private” language full of codewords only known
to the two
4.1.1. Compare the following examples of letters (both replies to an invitation). In each case,
identify the relationship between the writer and the recipient of the letter. How many differences
(in point of style) can you establish between them?
A. Dear Fred,
Thanks a lot for the invitation. I’m afraid Sue is ill so we won’t be able to come. See you soon.
All the best,
Tom
43
B. Dear Professor Smith,

Thank you very much for the kind invitation to dinner. I regret that my wife is ill so that it will not
be possible for us to come. I do hope, however, that I shall have an opportunity of seeing you again
in the near future.
Yours sincerely,
Tom Jackson
4.1.2.Compare the following explanations or definitions of economics. To what register do they

belong? Which are the main differences between them?
A. Economics? . . . Yes, well, um . . . economics is, I suppose, about people trying to . . . let me see . . .
match things that are scarce – you know – with things that they want, . . . oh yes, and how these
efforts have an effect on each other . . . through exchange, I suppose.
B. Economics is the social science that studies how people attempt to accommodate scarcity to their
wants and how these attempts interact through exchange.
4.2. Formal / Informal
4.2.1. The following sentences are mixed formal and informal. Write F (formal) or I (informal) after
each of them, and explain your decision.
a) The project will be completed next year.
b) I showed that his arguments did not hold water.
c) I wonder why he put up with those terrible conditions for so long.
d) Five more tests will be necessary before the experiment can be concluded.
e) It is possible to consider the results from a different viewpoint.
f) It has been proved that the arguments so far are without foundation.
g) He’ll have to do another five tests before he can stop the experiment.
h) It is not clear why such terrible conditions were tolerated for so long.
i) There are a number of reasons why the questionnaire should be revised.
j) We’ll finish the job next year.
44
Ioana Mohor-Ivan
4.2.2. Select the better alternative in each case.

a) The survey proved/yielded a surprising amount of information on student politics.
b) This question arose/manifested when older students were examined.
c) Both writers attempt to demonstrate/imply that older employees are more reliable.
d) Darwin held/indicated very strong views on this issue.
e) It must be proved/emphasised that these results are only provisional.
f) One of the chimpanzees supplemented/exhibited signs of nervousness.
g) Freud was concerned/identified primarily with middle-class patients.
h) The study was generated/carried out to explore the issue of religious tolerance.
4.2.3. Insert a suitable verb from the box below into each gap.
overcome predict demonstrate interpret discriminate recognise
clarify focus on
a) The results clearly ________________ that younger children learn more quickly.
b) This paper attempts to ________________ the confusion surrounding studies of infertility.
c) Social class must be ________________ as a leading factor in educational success.
d) His study fails to ________________ between the various types of reinforced concrete.
e) Most experts failed to ________________ the collapse of Soviet power in 1989.
f) It seems profitable to ________________ the record of smaller companies.
g) The noises made by whales have been ________________ in several ways.
h) This problem was ________________ by reversing the direction of the gas flow.
45
4.3. Style
Note
A feature of written academic English is the need to be tentative (i.e. to indicate ‘less than one
hundred per cent certainty’). The most usual ways of expressing tentativeness or caution are
achieved by employing the following:
appears to / apparently
seems to / seemingly
tends to / is likely to / may well
probably
may / might / can / could
maybe / perhaps / possibly
Other means to express caution include:
rather/fairly/quite + adj.
When referring to sources, verbs like think/consider/hypothesise/believe/claim/presume indicate
tentative or cautious findings.
4.3.1. The following sentences are definite statements. Make them more tentative or cautious by
changing or adding some words from the table above.
a) Industrialisation is viewed as a superior way of life.
b) Many people mistake the cause for the result.
c) They are prejudiced against evidence.
d) Potential changes are limited by two factors.
e) They are to turn into obstacles that prevent further progress.
f) The glossaries at the end of the articles help the readers in more than one direction.
g) Even for readers that do not need this lexical help, the glossaries highlight many interesting
words and phrases.
h) Private companies are more efficient than state-owned businesses.
i) Computer manuals are difficult to understand.
j) Older students perform better at university than younger ones.
k) Exploring space is a waste of valuable resources.
l) English pronunciation is confusing.
m) Global warming will cause the sea level to rise.
n) Science students work harder than those studying humanities.
a) Concrete is the best material for building bridges.
46
Ioana Mohor-Ivan
4.3.2. Rewrite the following text in more cautious language.
A team of American scientists have found a way to reverse the ageing process. They fed diet
supplements, found in health food shops, to elderly rats, which were then tested for memory and
stamina. The animals displayed more active behaviour after taking the supplements, and their memory
improved. In addition, their appearance became more youthful and their appetite increased.
The researchers say that this experiment is a clear indication of how the problems of old age can
be overcome. They state that in a few years’ time everyone will be able to look forward to a long and
active retirement.
4.3.3. What is redundant in the following examples?

a) This new innovation
b) At this moment in time
c) Whys and wherefores
d) Unnecessary fripperies
e) Quite unique
f) Quite dead
g) Throughout the whole chapter…
h) The final incident with which the chapter ends …
i) These factors combined together to produce …
j) It was no more than a mere passing thought …
k) But after a while, however, he realised…
l) He can do no more than just follow blindly …
In formal writing try to avoid:

useless or damaging qualifiers:
incredible We thought this story incredible – very convincing.
fantastic ‘ The Winslow Boy’, that fantastic update of the problem play, …
brilliant Defoe was a brilliant satirist …
definitely Macbeth is definitely a tragic hero …
no way/in no way No way is Macbeth not a tragic hero …
over the top Shakespeare goes way over the top here …
sincere A most sincere poem like …
47
leaden lead-ins:
It is interesting to note that …
It may perhaps be said that …
It is worthy of note that …
We can safely say that …
From certain points of view …
unnecessary complexity:
The poet succeeds in creating an arresting picture …
Mozart manages to convince us …
Einstein is trying to put over the point that …
…. embodies a representation of …
… the way this is brought to realisation is …
… promotes a general level of satisfaction …
clichés:
Grass roots
Stable relationship
Nitty-gritty
High profile
In this day and age
Viable alternative
4.4. Colloquial English and Slang
Note
The kind of informal English which is normal in ordinary conversation but is not considered
acceptable in more formal language is called ‘colloquial’. ‘Slang’ is even more informal language
and consists mainly of particular words and phrases used principally by one group of people, eg
young children, teenagers, students, professional people, working people etc. (The line between
colloquial and slang words is not at all clear and many words considered colloquial by some people
would be considered slang by others.) After each conversation below, first explain each colloquial
or slang item written in italics and then rewrite the conversation in a more formal style.
48
Ioana Mohor-Ivan
4.4.1. Re-write the following dialogues in a more formal register:

a) Alan: Do you fancy going to the pictures tonight?
Jill: Great. Hang on, though. There’s something good on telly.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
b) Peter: Lend us a few quid. I’m broke.
Tony: Here’s a fiver.
Peter: Smashing. Ta.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
c) Fred: I’m not too keen on this new guy in the office.
Alex: Yeah, he’s a bit of a big-head. Throws his weight around.
Fred: Yeah, if I get any more hassle from him, I’m going to tell him what I think.
Alex: Come off it. You haven’t got the guts. You’d get the sack.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
d) Joe: Posh suit!
Brian: My grandparents’ 50th wedding anniversary. We’re having a bit of a do.
Joe: Come and have a drink first. On me.
Brian: Just for a jiffy. Musn’t get there plastered.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
e) Mr Stanton: You look a bit fed up. What’s up?
Mr Moore: Someone’s pinched my brolly and it’s coming down in buckets.
Mr Stanton: Oh, tough luck.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
f) Phillip: I’m afraid the new secretary’s a dead loss, John. The red-head with the trendy clothes.
John: You’re right. She thinks she’s the cat’s whiskers, but in actual fact she’s a bit dim.
49
Phillip: Yes, her work’s poor and, as you say, she fancies herself. She’s very snooty with the other
girls.
John: Do you think we ought to give her the push?
Phillip: I’m afraid so, but she’ll be shattered.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
4.4.2. Provide a middle-diction equivalent for each slang or formal word in the following list.
Consult your dictionary as needed.
o Nefarious___________________________________
o Stuck-up ______________________________________
o Icky __________________________________________
o Commence ______________________________________
o Buddy _________________________________________
o Misprize _______________________________________
o Pernicious ______________________________________
o Pulchritude _____________________________________
o Mix-up ________________________________________
o Booze _________________________________________
o Flagellate ______________________________________
o Masticate _______________________________________
o Hyper (adjective) __________________________________
o Super (adjective) __________________________________
o Cool (adjective) ___________________________________
4.4.3. The following passage contains an incongruous mixture of formal and informal language.
Underline the offending words, and replace them to make the passage consistent in its use of middle
diction.
50
Ioana Mohor-Ivan
At the turn of the century, the female of the species was defined as someone’s property. She was
someone’s mother, someone’s daughter, or someone’s wife – nothing more. She had few legal rights
and therefore was stuck in her nowhere life. However, some members of the gender were experiencing
an awakening. They were getting in touch with new feelings and were starting to envisage a future in
which they might attain existence as people separate from their families.
In The Awakening, Kate Chopin delineates the life of such a woman – Edna Pontellier. Married to
a rich New Orleans patrician, Edna discovers that her marriage is a big flop. Dimly cognizant of her
own sensual and intellectual nature, she attempts to get it together as a person, seeking an independent
life in which she defies social convention. Her happiness, however, is fleeting. Realising that she is
stuck with few alternatives, Edna chooses suicide rather than facing the conventional life from which
she cannot extricate herself.
4.5. British and American English
4.5.1. A few words are sometimes used differently on either side of the Atlantic. Look at the words
in the following lists and match them:
Am.E.: apartment, attorney, to call someone, checkmark, closet, couch, downtown, drugstore/pharmacy,
the fall, faucet, garbage/trash, movie, movie theater, potato chips, schedule, sidewalk, zero, zipp
Br.E.: autumn, chemist’s, cinema, city/town centre, cupboard/wardrobe, film, flat, rubbish, nought,
pavement, potato crisps, sofa, to ring someone up, solicitor/barrister, tap, tick, timetable, zip
51
4.5.2. Work in pairs. Fill the gaps in the sentences below with suitable words from the lists – one of
you using British English words, the other the American ones.
a) Turn left at the next _______________ .
b) When you arrive, report to the reception desk on the _______________ floor and then take the
_______________ or walk up the stairs to the _______________ floor.
c) Every man was wearing a three-piece suit: jacket, _______________, and _______________.
d) Does the _______________ go all the way to the airport, or do I have to take a bus?
e) There was a long _______________ for tickets at the _______________ station.
f) We had to drive off the _______________ to fill up with _______________.
g) If there’s a power cut you may need to use a _______________ to see in the dark.
h) Do you need to go to the _______________ before we leave?
Br. E.: crossroads, first floor, ground floor, lift, motorway, petrol, queue, railway, toilet, torch, trousers,
underground, waistcoat
Am. E.: bathroom, elevator, first floor, flashlight, freeway/highway, gas, intersection, line, pants, railroad,
second floor, subway, vest
4.5.3. In British and American English some words may be spelt (Br.)/spelled(Am.) differently.
Work in pairs and decide how the following words, spelt in Am. English, would usually be written
in British English:
a) Catalog __________________
b) Center __________________
c) Color __________________
d) Defense __________________
e) Favour __________________
f) Honor __________________
g) Humor __________________
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Ioana Mohor-Ivan
h) Jewelry __________________
i) Kidnaper __________________
j) Labor __________________
k) Pajamas __________________
l) Quarrelling __________________
m) Skilful __________________
n) Theatre __________________
o) traveler’s cheque __________________
p) TV program __________________
q) Woollen __________________
4.6. Cockney Rhyming Slang
Cockney rhyming slang is not a language but a collection of phrases used by Cockneys and other
Londoners. Rhyming Slang phrases are a code of speaking wherein a common word can be
replaced by the whole or abbreviated form of a well-known phrase which rhymes with that word. It
has been evolving in the East End of London since the sixteenth century. It is thought to have
originated from the seamen and soldiers who used the London docks, from the Gypsies who arrived
in the fifteen hundreds, from the Irish residents and the Jewish faction and from all the other ethnic
minorities which have made up the population of the city.
4.6.1. Try to guess the referent for each of the following examples of Cockney rhyming slang.
e.g. He’s a real LUMP OF SCHOOL. (FOOL)

He’s got lots of BEES AND HONEY. (MONEY)
I like to wear AIRS AND GRACES.

This is a tasty bit of STOP THIEF.
53
We don’t want GOD FORBIDS.

You can’t expect BENDED KNEES.
I’m on the BEGGAR MY NEIGHBOUR.
She’s my old CHINA PLATE.
My office? It’s down the APPLES AND PEARS.
I’m hungry. Time for SAINT AND SINNER.
Friday they give you ROCKS OF AGES.
You’re shaking. Got bad WEST HAM RESERVES?
I haven’t a single MERRY-GO-ROUND.
Do you want some GIVE AND TAKE?
He’s in JUG AND PAIL.
Mine’s a GIGGLE AND TITTER.
I don’t bloody ADAM AND EVE it!
5. Writing from Sources

5.1. Quotation
Note
a) The apparatus for quotation is twofold, requiring the insertion of quotation marks for the cited
passage and the insertion of a citation containing the source’s name;
b) Quotation may be separated from or integrated with your writing. If separated, a comma or colon
and quotation marks separate citation and quotation; the first letter of the quotation is capitalized. If
integrated, no punctuation (but quotation marks) separates citation and quotation; the first letter of the
quotation is not capitalized;.
c) Some useful introductory verbs for citation are: argues, establishes, emphasizes, finds, points out,
notes, suggests, adds, explains, believes, continues, declares, observes, proposes, concludes,
disagrees, insists, maintains, states, compares;
d) An extended quotation (running more than four typewritten lines) should be isolated (i.e. treated as a
self-contained paragraph) and block-indented, with quotation marks omitted at both its beginning and
end.
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Ioana Mohor-Ivan
2.2.5.The following examples make use of quotation. Correct any errors occurring in them:
a) “Beggars should be abolished, said Friedrich Nietzsche. “It annoys one to give to them, and it
annoys one not to give to them.”
b) According to Dr. Johnson; “a man is in general better pleased when he has a good dinner upon his
table than when his wife talks Greek.
c) In his biography of Gary Cooper: David Zinman says Cooper thought he was successful “Because I
look like the guy down the street. According to Zinman, “He told many interviewers, I’m just an
ordinary Joe who became a movie star.”
d) In his biography of George Bernard Shaw, H. Pearson writes about “A strange lady giving an
address in Zurich who wrote him a proposal thus: ‘You have the greatest brain in the world, and I
have the most beautiful body; so we ought to produce the most perfect child.” “Shaw asked: ‘“What
if the child inherits my body and your brains’?”
5.1. Paraphrasing
Note
Paraphrasing involves changing a text so that it is quite dissimilar to the source yet retains all the
meaning. It may take two forms:
a) Literal paraphrase: a word-for-word substitution, staying close to the sentence structure of the
original text.
b) Free paraphrase: moves away from the words and sentence structure of the original text and
presents ideas in the paraphraser’s own style and idiom; it can summarise repetitious parts of the
original, but it will present ideas in much the same order.
5.1.1.Read the text below and then decide which is the best paraphrase, (a) or (b).
Ancient Egypt collapsed in about 2180 BC. Studies conducted of the mud from the River Nile showed
that at this time the mountainous regions which feed the Nile suffered from a prolonged drought. This
would have had a devastating effect on the ability of Egyptian society to feed itself.
a) The sudden ending of Egyptian civilisation over 4,000 years ago was probably caused by changes in
the weather in the region to the south. Without the regular river flooding there would not have been
enough food.
55
b) Research into deposits of the Egyptian Nile indicate that a long dry period in the mountains at the
river’s source may have led to a lack of water for irrigation around 2180BC, which was when the collapse
of Egyptian society began.
5.1.2. Compare the original text above with its paraphrases and exemplify some of the techniques
used in paraphrasing under the headings below:
a) changing vocabulary: ______________________________

b) changing word-class: ______________________________
c) changing word-order: ______________________________
5.1.3.Find synonyms for the words in italic.
a) Sleep scientists have found that traditional remedies for insomnia, such as counting sheep, are
ineffective. _____________________________________________________________________
b) Instead, they have found that imagining a pleasant scene is likely to send you to sleep quickly.
_______________________________________________________________________________
c) The research team divided 50 insomnia sufferers into three groups.
______________________________________________________
d) One group was told to imagine a waterfall, while another group tried sheep
counting.____________________________________________________________________
b) Instead, they have found that imagining a pleasant scene is likely to send you to sleep quickly.
___________________________________________________________________________
c) The research team divided 50 insomnia sufferers into three groups.
__________________________________________________
d) One group was told to imagine a waterfall, while another group tried sheep
counting.__________________________________________________________
5.1.4.Change the word class of the words in italic, and then re-write the sentences.
a) A third group was given no special instructions about going to sleep.

________________________________________________________________
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Ioana Mohor-Ivan
b) It was found that the group thinking of waterfalls fell asleep 20 minutes quicker.
________________________________________________________________
c) Mechanical tasks like counting sheep are apparently too boring to make people sleepy.
________________________________________________________________
5.1.5. Change the word order of the following sentences.
a) There are many practical applications to research into insomnia.

_______________________________________________________
b) About one in ten people are thought to suffer from severe insomnia.
_______________________________________________________
c) It is calculated that the cost of insomnia for the American economy may be $35 billion a year.
_____________________________________________________________
5.1.6. Combine all these techniques to paraphrase the paragraph as fully as possible.
Sleep scientists have found that traditional remedies for insomnia, such as counting sheep, are ineffective.
Instead, they have found that imagining a pleasant scene is likely to send you to sleep quickly. The
research team divided 50 insomnia sufferers into three groups. One group imagined watching a waterfall,
while another group tried sheep counting. A third group was given no special instructions about going to
sleep. It was found that the group thinking of waterfalls fell asleep 20 minutes quicker. Mechanical tasks
like counting sheep are apparently too boring to make people sleepy. There are many practical
applications for research into insomnia. About one in ten people are thought to suffer from severe
insomnia. It is calculated that the cost of insomnia for the American economy may be $35 billion a year.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
57
5.1.8. Here is an excerpt from P.F.D. Tennant’s book on Ibsen’s Dramatic Technique (Macmillan,
1978) followed by a passage from a student essay that makes use of the ideas and the words of the
source without acknowledging them. Compare the original with the plagiarized passage, then insert
the appropriate quotation marks and underline the paraphrases.
Source
When writing [Ibsen] was sometimes under the influence of hallucinations, and was unable to distinguish
between reality and the creatures of his imagination. While working on A Doll’s House he was nervous
and retiring and lived in a world alone, which gradually became peopled with his own imaginary
characters. Once he suddenly remarked to his wife: “Now I have seen Nora. She came right up to me and
put her hand on my shoulder.” “How was she dressed?” asked his wife. “She had a simple blue cotton
dress,” he replied without hesitation. . . . So intimate had Ibsen become with Nora while at work on A
Doll’s House that when John Paulsen asked him why she was called Nora, Ibsen replied in a matter-of-
fact tone: “She was really called Leonora, you know, but everyone called her Nora since she was the
spoilt child of the family.” (p. 26)
Student essay
While Ibsen was still writing A Doll’s House, his involvement with the characters led to his experiencing
hallucinations that at times completely incapacitated his ability to distinguish between reality and the
creations of his imagination. He was nervous, distant, and lived in a secluded world. Gradually this world
became populated with his creations. One day he had the following exchange with his wife:
Ibsen: Now I have seen Nora. She came right up to me and put her hand on my shoulder.
Wife: How was she dressed?
Ibsen (without hesitation): She had a simple blue dress.
Ibsen’s involvement with his characters was so deep that when John Paulsen asked Ibsen why the heroine
was named Nora, Ibsen replied in a very nonchalant tone of voice that originally she was called Leonora,
but that everyone called her Nora, the was one would address the favourite child in the family.
5.2. Summary
5.2.1.Complete the list of stages in a successful summary.
a) Read the text carefully and check key vocabulary.

b) Underline or highlight the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c) Make notes of these, taking care to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Ioana Mohor-Ivan
d) Write the summary using the notes, re-organising the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

e) Check the summary to make sure no . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . have been omitted or distorted.
5.2.2. Read the following text and compare the summaries. Decide which is best, giving reasons.
Researchers in France and the United States have recently reported that baboons are able to think
abstractly. It has been known for some time that chimpanzees are capable of abstract thought, but baboons
are a more distant relation to mankind. In the experiment, scientists trained two baboons to use a personal
computer and a joystick. The animals had to match computer designs which were basically the same but
had superficial differences. The baboons performed better than would be expected by chance. The
researchers describe their study in an article in the Journal of Experimental Psychology.
a) French and American scientists have shown that baboons have the ability to think in an abstract way.
The animals were taught to use a computer, and then had to select similar patterns, which they did at a
rate better than chance.
b) Baboons are a kind of monkey more distant from man than chimpanzees. Although it is known that
chimpanzees are able to think abstractly, until recently it was not clear if baboons could do the same. But
new research has shown that this is so.
c) According to a recent article in the Journal of Experimental Psychology, baboons are able to think in
an abstract way. The article describes how researchers trained two baboons to use a personal computer
and a joystick. The animals did better than would be expected.
5.2.3. Read the following text and underline the key points.
Indian researchers are trying to find out if there is any truth in old sayings which claim to predict the
weather. In Gujarat farmers have the choice of planting either peanuts, which are more profitable in wet
years, or castor, which does better in drier conditions. The difference depends on the timing of the
monsoon rains, which can arrive at any time between the beginning and the middle of June. Farmers,
however, have to decide what seeds to sow in April or May.
There is a local saying, at least a thousand years old, which claims that the monsoon starts 45 days after
the flowering of a common tree, Cassia fistula. Dr Kanani, an agronomist from Gujarat Agricultural
University, has been studying the relationship since 1996, and has found that the tree does successfully
predict the approximate date of the monsoon’s arrival.
59
5.2.4. Complete the following notes of the key points, then link them to make a summary.
a) Indian scientists checking ancient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b) Old saying links monsoon to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c) Used by farmers to select peanuts (for wet) or . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d) Dr Kanani of Gujarat Agricultural University has found that . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Indian scientists are checking

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
5.2.6. Consider the following paraphrase and summary of an excerpt from Machiavelli’s The
Prince. What differences can you establish between them?
Original
It is not, therefore, necessary for a prince to have [good faith and integrity], but it is very necessary to
seem to have them. I would even be bold to say that to possess them and always to observe them is
dangerous, but to appear to possess them is useful. Thus it is well to seem merciful, faithful, humane,
sincere, religious, and also to be so; but you must have the mind so disposed that when it is needful to be
otherwise you may be able to change to the opposite qualities. And it must be understood that a prince,
and especially a new prince, cannot observe all those things which are considered good in men, being
often obliged, in order to maintain the state, to act against faith, against clarity, against humanity, and
against religion. And therefore, he must have a mind disposed to adapt itself according to the wind, and as
the variations of fortune dictate, and … not deviate from what is good, if possible, but be able to do evil if
constrained.
A prince must take great care that nothing goes out of his mouth which is not full of the above-
mentioned five qualities, and to see and hear him, he should seem to be all mercy, faith, integrity,
humanity, and religion … Everyone sees what you appear to be, few feel what you are, and those few will
not dare to oppose themselves to the many, who have the majesty of the state to defend them; and in the
actions of men, and especially of princes, from which there is no appeal, the end justifies the means. Let a
prince therefore aim at conquering and maintaining the state, and the means will always be judged
honourable and praised by every one, for the vulgar are always taken by appearances and the issue of the
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Ioana Mohor-Ivan
event; and the world consists only of the vulgar, and the few who are not vulgar are isolated when the
many have a rallying point in the prince.
Paraphrase.It is more important for a ruler to give the impression of goodness than to be good. In fact,
real goodness can be a liability, but the pretence is always very effective. It is all very well to be virtuous,
but it is vital to be able to shift in the other direction whenever circumstances require it. After all, rulers,
and especially recently elevated ones, have a duty to perform which may absolutely require them to act
against the dictates of faith and compassion and kindness. One must act as circumstances require and,
while it’s good to be virtuous if you can, it’s better to be bad if you must.
In public, however, the ruler should appear to be entirely virtuous, and if his pretence is
successful with the majority of people, then those who do see though the act will be outnumbered and
impotent, especially since the ruler has the authority of government on his side. In the case of rulers, even
more than for most men, “the end justifies the means.” If the ruler is able to assume power and administer
it successfully, his methods will always be judged proper and satisfactory; for the common people will
accept the pretence of virtue and the reality of success, and the astute will find no one is listening to their
warnings.
Summary.According to Machivelli, perpetuating power is a more important goal for a ruler than achieving
personal goodness or integrity. Although he should act virtuously if he can, and always appear to do so, it
is more important for him to adapt quickly to changing circumstances. The masses will be so swayed by
his pretended virtue and by his success that any opposition will be ineffective. The wise ruler’s maxim is
that “the end justifies the means.”
Note
A paraphrase is the point-by-point recapitulation of another person’s ideas, expressed in your own
words. It is used to present ideas or evidence taken from a source whenever there is no special reason for
using a direct quotation. It must be accurate, complete, written in your own voice, and it must make sense
by itself.
A summary is the selection and condensation of ideas or information taken from a source. It should
make sense as an independent, coherent piece of writing, and it should be complete in the sense that it
provides a fair representation of the work and its parts. Unlike paraphrase, a summary includes only the
main ideas from the source, and it changes their order when necessary.
61
5.2.7. Try to summarize the following passages into one sentence each:
a. It is often remarked that science has increasingly removed man from a position at the centre of the
universe. Once upon a time the earth was thought to be at the centre and the gods were thought to be in
close touch with the daily actions of humans. It was not stupid to imagine the earth was at the centre,
because, one might think, if the earth were moving around the sun, and if you threw a ball vertically
upward, it would seem the ball should come down a few feet away from you. Nevertheless, slowly, over
many centuries, through the work of Copernicus, Galileo, and many others, we have mostly come to
believe that we live on a typical planet orbiting a typical star in a typical galaxy, and indeed that no place
in the universe is special. (Gordon Kane, “Are We the Centre of the Universe?”)
b. To parents who wish to lead a quiet life, I would say: Tell your children that they are very naughty –
much naughtier than most children. Point to the young people of some acquaintances as models of
perfection and impress your own children with a deep sense of their inferiority. You carry so many more
guns than they do that they cannot fight you. This is called moral influence, and it will enable you to
bounce them as much as you please. They think you know and they will not have yet caught you lying
often enough to suspect that you are not the unworldly and scrupulously truthful person which you
represent yourself to be; nor yet will they know how great a coward you are, or how soon you will run
away; if they fight you with persistency and judgment. You keep the dice and throw them both for your
children and yourself. Load them then, for you can easily manage to stop your children from examining
them. Tell them how singularly indulgent you are; insist on the incalculable benefit you conferred on
them, firstly in bringing them into the world at all, but more particularly in bringing them into it as your
children rather than anyone else’s. Say that you have their highest interests at stake whenever you are
much upon these highest interests. Feed them spiritually upon such brimstone and treacle as the late
Bishop of Winchester’s Sunday stories. You hold all the trump cards, or if you do not you can filch them;
if you play them with anything like judgment you will find yourselves heads of happy, united God-fearing
families, even as did my old friend Mr. Pontifex. True, your children will probably find out all about it
some day, but not until too late to be of much service to them or inconvenience to yourself. (Samuel
Butler, “The Way of All Flesh”)
5.3. Referencing
A reference is an acknowledgement that you are making use of another writer’s ideas or data in your
writing.
e.g. As Collins (1997) pointed out, post-war British theatre mirrors the upheavals in the social sphere.
There are three main reasons for giving references:
62
Ioana Mohor-Ivan
a) To avoid the charge of plagiarism, which is using another person’s ideas or research without
acknowledgement.
b) The reference can give more authority to your writing, for it shows you are familiar with other research
on the topic.
c) The reader can find the original source by using the reference section, which would list the full
publishing details of Collins’s book:
Collins, M. (1997) Post-War British Theatre. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
5.3.1.Decide which of the following need references.

a) A mention of facts or figures from another writer
b) An idea of your own
c) Some data you have found from your own research
d) A theory suggested by another researcher
e) A quotation from a work by any author
f) Something that is agreed to be common knowledge
5.3.2. Match the examples below with their function:
1. Orwell (1940) pointed out that although Charles Dickens described eating large a) Mixture of
meals in many of his books, he never wrote about farming. He explains this summary and
contradiction in terms of Dickens’ upbringing in London, remote from the quotation.
countryside.
2. Orwell clearly highlighted this inconsistency in Dickens: ‘It is not merely a b) Summary of a
coincidence that Dickens never writes about agriculture and writes endlessly about writer’s ideas.
food. He was a Cockney, and London is the centre of the earth in rather the same
sense that the belly is the centre of the body.’ (Orwell, 1940: pp. 53-54)
3. As Orwell (1940) noted, Dickens frequently described food but was uninterested c) Quotation of a
in food production. He considered that this was because of the writer’s background: writer’s words.
‘He was a Cockney, and London is the centre of the earth.’(pp.53–54)
5.3.3. Read the following extract from a book (Ioana Mohor-Ivan, The Celtic Paradigm and Modern
Irish Writing, GUP, 2014, pp. 49-50):
There are three main stages to Yeats’s development as a poet. The first phase, when he was associated
both with the Aesthetic movement of the 1890s and the Celtic Twilight, is characterised by a self-
63
conscious Romanticism. The poetry is sometimes based on Irish myth and folklore and has a mystical,
dream-like quality to it. The second main phase of Yeats’s poetic career was dominated by his
commitment to Irish nationalism, and it was Irish nationalism which first sent Yeats in search of a
consistently simpler, popular and more accessible style. As Yeats became more and more involved in
public nationalist issues, so his poetry became more public and concerned with issues of the modern Irish
state. In the final phase of his career, Yeats reconciles elements from both his earlier periods, fusing them
into a mature lyricism. The poetry is less public and more personal. He develops his theories of contraries
and of the progression that can result from reconciling them. The later poems explore contrasts between
physical and spiritual dimensions to life, between sensuality and rationality, between turbulence and calm.
a) Write a summary of the author’s ideas, including a suitable reference.

b) Introduce a quotation of the key part of the extract, again referring to the source.
c) Combine (a) and (b), again acknowledging the source.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
5.3.4. Which are the differences in the following two referencing styles?
a) Hemingway’s zest for life extended to women also. His wandering heart seemed only to be exceeded
by an even more appreciative eye.7 Hadley was aware of her husband’s flirtations and of his facility with
women. 8 Yet, she had no idea that something was going on between Hemingway and Pauline Pfeiffer, a
fashion editor for Vogue magazine.9 She was also unaware that Hemingway delayed his return to Schruns
from a business trip to New York, in February 1926, so that he might spend some more time with this
“new and strange girl.”10
________________________________________________________________________________
7
Ernest Hemingway, A Moveable Feast (New York: Scribner’s, 1964), p. 102.
8
Alice Hunt Sokoloff, Hadley: The First Mrs. Hemingway (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1973), p. 84.
9
Carlos Baker, Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story (New York: Scribner’s, 1969), p. 159.
10
Hemingway, op. cit., p. 210. Also Baker, op. cit., p. 165.
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Ioana Mohor-Ivan
b) Hemingway’s zest for life extended to women also. His wandering heart seemed only to be exceeded
by an even more appreciative eye (Hemingway, 1964: 102). Hadley was aware of her husband’s flirtations
and of his facility with women (Sokoloff, 1973: 84). Yet, she had no idea that something was going on
between Hemingway and Pauline Pfeiffer, a fashion editor for Vogue magazine (Baker, 1969: 159). She
was also unaware that Hemingway delayed his return to Schruns from a business trip to New York, in
February 1926, so that he might spend some more time with this “new and strange girl.” (Hemingway,
1964: 210; Baker, 1969: 165)
References
Baker, Carlos (1969) Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story, New York: Scribner’s.
Hemingway, Ernest (1964) A Moveable Feast, New York: Scribner’s.
Sokoloff, Alice Hunt (1973) Hadley: The First Mrs. Hemingway, New York: Dodd, Mead.
Note
There are three main systems of reference in use in academic writing:
a) The system illustrated above (the Harvard) is the most common. Note the following:
Hunter (1989) states … (date of publication in brackets when referring verb is used)
Women pose less security risk. (Burke and Pollock, 1993) (authors and date in brackets after summary)
NB. For quotations page numbers should also be given after the date.
b) A second system uses footnotes:
More than 80% of families own or are buying their own homes.2
In this system the references are listed at the bottom of the page:
2. The Economist, 13 January 1996, pp. 27–8.
NB. A full reference section is required at the end of the article or book.
c) Numbers in brackets are inserted in the text for each source, and at the end of the chapter or article the
references are listed in number order:
A survey of Fortune 500 companies found that over 70% have problems recruiting skilled staff [1]. Some
analysts argue that this could be as high as 90% [2].
[1]. Cuervo, D. 1990, Whither Recruitment? HR Journal 13. pp. 23–39.
[2]. Segall, N. 1996, Cross-cultural studies, Harper & Row, New York pp. 173-4.
65
5.3.5. Study the pattern of organisation of the following reference section of a book and answer the
following questions:
a) How are the entries ordered?

b) What is the difference between the information provided for:
i) a book by one author
ii) an edited book
iii) a source on the internet
iv) an article in a journal
c) When are italics used?
d) How are capital letters used in titles?
e) How is a source with no given author listed?
REFERENCES
Heaney, Seamus (1980). Preoccupations: Selected Prose 1968 – 1978, London: Faber and Faber.
Hennessey, Katherine Anne (2008). Memorable Barbarities and National Myths: Ancient Greek Tragedy and Irish
Epic in Modern Irish Theatre, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Notre Dame, Indiana, online, available at
http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-03042008-04843/ unrestricted/HennesseyKA032008.pdf,
[accessed 28 August 2010].
Holdsworth, Nadine and Mary Luckhurst (eds) (2008). A Concise Companion to Contemporary British and Irish
Drama, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
http://www.irishwriters-online.com/carroll-paul-vincent/, [accessed 10 September 2011].
Mathelin, Pascale (1972). “Irish Myth in the Theatre of W. B. Yeats”, in Patrick Rafroidi, Raymond Popot and
William Parker (eds), Aspects of the Irish Theatre, Paris: Editions Universitaire, pp. 163-171.
Merriam-Webster’s Encyclopedia of Literature (1995). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.
Mohor-Ivan, Ioana (2004). “The ‘Sweeneys Astray’ on Brian Friel’s Stage”, in Proceedings of the International
Conference Constructions of Identity (III), Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca: Napoca Star, pp. 308-318.
Moi, Toril (1991). “Feminist Literary Criticism”, in Ann Jefferson, David Robey (eds), Modern Literary Theory: a
comparative introduction, London: B.T. Batsford, pp. 204-211.
Sidnell, Michael J. (1979). “The Allegory of Yeats’s ‘The Wanderings of Oisin’”, in Colby Library Quarterly,
Volume 15, no.2 (June), pp. 137-151.
Sihra, Melissa (ed.)(2007). Women in Irish Drama. A Century of Authorship and Representation, Houndmills,
Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
University of Wisconsin (2005), “A Vision of Yeats: Mysticism, Celtic Myth and the Occult”, online, available at
http://www.uwm.edu/ Libraries/special/exhibits/yeats/myth/myth3.htm, [accessed 23 October 2012].
Vance, Norman (1990). Irish Literature: A Social History, Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
W.B. Yeats (1994). The Works of W.B. Yeats, with an introduction and bibliography, Ware: Wordsworth Editions.
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Part Two:
Types of Writing
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1. Types of Writing
1.1. Pair off the following instructional verbs with the definitions provided alongside them:
a) Account for 1) give reasons; say ‘why’ rather than just define
b) Analyse 2) write down the information in the right order
c) Comment on 3) item-by-item consideration of the topic, usually presented one under the other
d) Compare 4) point out difference only and present result in orderly fashion
e) Contrast 5) estimate the value of, looking at positive and negative attributes
f) Describe 6) elect features according to the question
g) Discuss 7) present arguments for and against the topic in question; you can also give your opinion
h) Evaluate 8) explain the cause of
i) Explain 9) make critical or explanatory notes/observations
j) Identify 10) state the main features of an argument, omitting all that is only partially relevant
k) List 11) give the main features or general features of a subject, omitting minor details and stressing structure
l) Outline 12) make a survey of the subject, examining it critically
m) Review 13) point out the differences and similarities
n) Summarize 14) separate down into component parts and show how they interrelate with each other
Note
The instructions above may be subsumed to the four main types of nonfiction writing:
Description: portrays an person, place or object;

Exposition: explains and clarifies;
Narration: recounts an event or series of events;
Argumentation: convinces through a sequence of reasoning.
2. Description
• It is used to portray in words a person, place, object, or a combination of these;
• In some instances (e.g. advertising) it is designed to persuade an audience to buy something;
• It may help a reader envision a scene that is central to a point the writer is making;
• It is often a key means of providing persuasive supporting detail in writing that is predominantly
argument, narration, or exposition
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Ioana Mohor-Ivan
2.1.Read the following sentences and decide what sense impressions they convey:
a) Axel has an orange wart on his nose.
b) The train whistle hooted faintly in the distance.
c) The coat felt soft.
d) The aroma of frying grease wafted from behind the restaurant.
e) The warm, musty red wine bit sharply on her throat.
2.2. Examine the following descriptive paragraphs. Identify the dominant impression (i.e.
attitude, image, or feeling that the writer has about the topic of his description and wants to
share it with his/her audience) in each, explain how the details reinforce that impression,
and note which senses are appealed to:
a) Documentary photographers at the turn of the century frequently turned their attention to persuading
society of the necessity of providing for the poor. Typical of them was Jacob Riis. His photography of
Baxter Street alley in 1888 shows tenements on either side of the narrow passage, crowding so close
as to shut out the daylight. On one side the tenements are brick and on the other wood, but they
appear rickety and squalid. Bags of rags and bones and paper are stacked in the alley. A small child
stands beside the bags, in front of a pile of scrap wood she apparently gathered for fuel.
b) I was surrounded by hills. They weren’t mountains like you see in calendar pictures, topped with
evergreens smiling down on a blue, sparkling lake. These were rolling, brooding hills, barren except
for some brown scrub grass. As I looked up at the grey sky, I heard the whine of the wind and felt its
sharp fingers pierce my thick, black coat. A driving rain soon began to beat me. Large drops smacked
my face and ran into my mouth. They tasted sour. The hills continued to look down at me, making me
small and afraid. I felt completely alone.
c) Then the cannons of the anchored warships thundered a salute to which the Vasa fired in reply. As
she emerged from her drifting cloud of gun smoke with the water churned to foam beneath her bow,
her flags flying, pennants waving, sails filling in the breeze, and the red and gold of her superstructure
ablaze with colour, she presented a more majestic spectacle than Stockholmers had ever seen before.
All gun-ports were open and the muzzles peeped wickedly from them.
d) Oxford has been ruined by the motor industry. The peace which Oxford once knew, and which a great
university city should always have, has been swept ruthlessly away; and no benefactions and research
endowments can make up for the change in character which the city has suffered. At six in the
morning the old courts shake to the roar of buses taking the next shift to Cowley and Pressed Steel;
great lorries with a double deck cargo of cars for export lumber past Magdalen and the University
Church. Loads of motor-engines are hurried hither and thither and the streets are thronged with a
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population which has no interest in learning and knows no studies beyond servo-systems and
distributors, compression ratios and camshafts.
Additional guidelines:
• Any description should have a broader purpose as revealed in the dominant impression the writer
wants to share with his/her audience.
• The dominant impression is conveyed by relying on details that convey sense impressions (details
of sight, sound, taste, touch, smell). Any description may convey several sense impressions, but
one should be dominant.
• An effective description is often presented from a particular vantage point. Developing detail
from a particular vantage point is known as spatial order. Spatial development is an additional
tool for achieving emphasis that will serve the purpose of the description.
2.3. Revise the following descriptive paragraph so that it makes use of sense other than just
the visual.
The open market had a large variety of fruits: apples, oranges, watermelons, peaches, and pears – all
colourfully arranged. Sunshine poured over the square, brightening the copper pots, pans, and utensils as
well as the red, green, orange, and yellow bolts of cloth. People dressed in their native ethnic costumes
crowded between the tables that displayed the wares. The square on International Day is a glorious sight.
2.4. Write a paragraph in which you describe your first day as a fresh student. Follow the
steps listed below:
a) Determine the purpose of the description.

b) Determine the dominant impression you want to create, and selecting details that will reinforce
that impression.
c) Draw details from the other senses – hearing, smell, taste, and touch – in addition to sight.
d) Choose a vantage point from which to present your description
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2. Exposition
Note
Exposition clarifies or explains; it has various forms.
Definition: it presents the meaning of a term; it is used to show the specific characteristics that give
something its identity, setting it apart from similar things.
Exemplification: it explains or clarifies by providing illustrations, examples and supporting details
Classification: it is used to arrange or group a complex set of ideas or items that share some common
feature.
Comparison/contrast: it identifies similarities and differences
Analogy: it clarifies something unfamiliar by comparing it to something familiar or easily understood.
Process analysis: it concentrates on how something is done; it enumerates the major steps involved and
provides proper warnings if a particular order of steps is involved.
Causal analysis: it reveals and discusses the reason for an occurrence and the consequences of it.
2.1. Definition
Note
Definitions are normally needed in two situations:
a) In introductions, to clarify a word or phrase in the title.
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b) More generally, to explain a word or phrase that may be either very technical (and so not in normal
dictionaries), or very recent, or with no widely agreed meaning.
The typical language construction is:

Term + verb + general class word + ‘wh’-word + particular characteristics (differentia)
2.1.1. Look at the following table. Join the 8 sentences on the left with the correct ones from
the 10 on the right by using the appropriate relative pronoun.
1. An engineer is a person a. It produces electricity.

2. A microscope is an instrument b. He studies the way in which industry and trade produce and use
wealth.
3. A generator is a machine c. He treats the diseases of animals.
4. A botanist is a person d. It makes distant objects appear nearer and larger.
5. A square is a geometric figure e. He designs machines, buildings or public works.
6. A cucumber is a vegetable f. It gives information on subjects in alphabetical order.
7. An economist is a person g. He studies plants.
8. An encyclopedia is a book h. It makes very small near objects appear larger.
i. It is long and round with dark green skin and light green watery
flesh
j. It has four equal sides and four right angles.
2.1.2. Insert suitable category words in the following definitions.
a) A barometer is a scientific _______________ designed to measure atmospheric pressure.

b) Kidneys are _______________ that separate waste fluid from the blood.
c) A multi-national company is a business _______________ that operates in many countries.
d) Reinforced concrete is a building _______________ consisting of cement, sand and steel rods.
e) Bullying is a pattern of anti-social _______________ in many schools.
f) Recycling is a _______________ in which materials are used again.
g) A recession is a _______________ of reduced economic activity.
h) Postcodes are a _______________ for making mail delivery more efficient.
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2.1.3. What mistakes have been made in the following definitions? Re-write them in a more
satisfactory way.
a) An amnemeter is used to measure electric current.

b) A lecturer is a person who lectures.
c) A dictionary is a book like “Collins English Dictionary”.
d) A degree is given by a university to a student who has passed the appropriate examinations.
e) Plastics are moulded into shape when they are heated.
f) A mineral is a structurally homogenous solid.
g) A fossil is buried by natural processes and subsequently permanently preserved.
h) Sociology is concerned with the development and principles of social organisation.
Note
More complete definitions may be written by adding extra information.
e.g. Gothic was originally a term of abuse hurled at the architecture of the Middle Ages by a pupil of
Michelangelo whose object was to advance the interests of the “new” style (now known as Renaissance)
at the expense of the old. The style he wrongly termed Gothic actually began in twelfth-century France
and flourished over much of Europe, especially the north, for the following four centuries. It is now used
to describe a splendid, soaring style typified by the pointed arches and rose windows of cathedrals, and
found repeated in miniature on much of the furniture that has survived.
2.1.4. Study the following examples and underline the term being defined. What methods
were used to provide definitions?
a)… the definition for a failed project … ranges from abandoned projects to projects that simply do not
meet their full potential or simply have schedule overrun problems.
b) Development is a socio-economic–technological process having the main objective of raising the
standards of living of the people.
c) Electronic commerce is characterised by an absence of physical proximity between the buyer and seller
in conducting the search, assessment and transaction stages of a transaction.
d) Bowlby (1982) suggested that attachment is an organised system whose goal is to make individuals
feel safe and secure.
e)… the non-linear effect called ‘self-brightening’ in which large-amplitude waves decay more slowly
than small-amplitude ones.
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2.1.5. Write extended definitions for the following terms:

a) satire
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b) novel
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c) point of view
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d) comedy of manners
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e) Renaissance
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f) Neoclassicism
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Ioana Mohor-Ivan
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2.2. Exemplification
2.2.1. Identify some ways of exemplifying used in the following sentences:
a) Linguistics may be defined as the science of language, for example, its structure, sound systems and
meaning systems.
b) Geology may be defined as the science of the earth’s history, as shown by its crust, rocks, etc.
c) Geography may be defined as the science of the earth’s surface; it is concerned with a number of
features, particularly physical, climate and products.
Note
Some commonly used verbs and methods of expression for exemplification are:
Shown / exemplified / illustrated by . . .

X shows / exemplifies / illustrates this.
The following examples, a and b. / The following are examples of X: a and b. / a and b are examples of X.
Writers such as X and Y … / Such writers as X and Y …
2.2.2. Read the following passage and draw a box around all the expressions which have the
same meaning as for example. Notice how they are used and the punctuation that is used
with them. Then underline all the examples.
What is Language?
A language is a signalling system which operates with symbolic vocal sounds, and which is used
by a group of people for the purposes of communication.
Let us look at this definition in more detail because it is language, more than anything else, that
distinguishes man from the rest of the animal world.
Other animals, it is true, communicate with each other by means of cries: for example, many
birds utter warning calls at the approach of danger; apes utter different cries, such as expressions anger,
fear and pleasure. But these various means of communication differ in important ways from human
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language. For instance, animals’ cries are not articulate. This means, basically, that they lack structure.
They lack, for example, the kind of structure given by the contrast between vowels and consonants. They
also lack the kind of structure that enables us to divide a human utterance into words.
We can change an utterance by replacing one word in it by another: a good illustration of this is a
soldier who can say, e.g. ‘tanks approaching from the north’, or he can change one word and say ‘aircraft
approaching from the north’ or ‘tanks approaching from the west’; but a bird has a single alarm cry,
which means ‘danger!’
This is why the number of cries that an animal can make is very limited: the great tit is a case in
point; it has about twenty different calls, whereas in human language the number of possible utterances is
infinite. It also explains why animal cries are very general in meaning.
2.2.3. Complete the following sentences making use of each of the words in the box below
only once.
illustration for example a case in point an example for instance such as
a) At the approach of danger many birds utter warning calls: this is ________ an animals
communicating with each other.
b) Cries, ________ those of anger, fear and pleasure, are uttered by apes.
c) There are important differences between human language and animal communication: ________ ,
animals’ cries are not articulate.
d) Animals’ cries lack, __________ , the kind of structure that enable us to divide a human utterance
into words.
e) A good _________ of changing an utterance by substituting one word for another is a soldier who
can say ‘tanks approaching from the north’ or ‘tanks approaching from the west.
f) The number of signals that an animal can make is very limited: the great tit is _________ .
2.2.4. Rewrite the following passage, using some of the language and vocabulary aid
provided for introducing examples.
Volcanoes, waterfalls, battle scenes, rescues on horseback, amazing transformations – all were done often
on the stages of the nineteenth century. But the questions of how – and of how well – are more difficult to
answer. Certainly the handling of scenic effects was often crude and blundering. A Philadelphia manager
famous for his dramatic spectacles almost failed once when a gauze representing rain fell properly on the
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stage, but had to be removed by drawing it up again. The sight of rain rising offended the audience’s
sense of reality, but, impressed with the other scenery, they chose to be amused rather than angered. The
failure of Vesuvius to erupt on cue, however, totally ruined a lavish production of The Last Days of
Pompeii. The stage manager ordered the curtain down and managed to get the eruption going, but by the
time the curtain was reopened the disappointed audience, already leaving the theatre, saw only the last
sputters of the cataclysm.
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2.2.5. Provide examples in the following paragraph where they appear necessary
Students who go to study abroad often experience a type of culture shock when they arrive in the new
country. Customs which they took for granted in their own society are not followed in the host country.
Even everyday patterns of life may be different. When these are added to the inevitable differences which
occur in every country students may at first feel confused. They may experience rapid changes of mood,
or even want to return home. However, most soon make new friends and, in a relatively short period, are
able to adjust to their new environment. They may even find that they prefer some aspects of their new
surroundings, and forget that they are not at home for a while!
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2.3. Classification
2.3.1. Which of the following categories may be employed as a logical set to be employed in
classifying works of art?
a) Renaissance art / landscape painting / oil painting / sculpture

b) Renaissance art / neoclassical art / Romantic art / modern art
Note
Classification is a method of paragraph or essay development in which a writer arranges people, objects,
or ideas with shared characteristics into classes or groups.
When using classification, keep in mind that you should:
a) determine the group of items to be classified
b) choose the classification basis most useful to your audience
c) verify if the categories of the classification system are mutually exclusive
d) verify if all items in the group can fit into the classification
Classification is often used together with other means of development, such as exemplification.
2.3.2. Identify the basis of classification used in the following paragraphs:

a) Cybercriminals generally fall into one of three categories, he [Michael DeCesare, president of McAfee]
says. First there are the ‘Anonymouses of the world’ or the hacktivists--people who expose information
about a company or government they morally oppose. Second is organized crime. ‘They’re realizing
there’s far more money in cybercrime than prostitution,’ Mr. DeCesare says. ‘You can buy somebody’s
I.D. for less than $10 online.’ Third are activities funded by states and other political groups. ‘Every
government has a cyber division,’ he says, including the U.S. But cyber dangers now stretch beyond state
lines to groups such as al Qaeda. ‘Cybercrime is a lot like that—[the country is] almost not relevant
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anymore,’ making it difficult to hold governments accountable. (Alexandra Wolfe, “Michael

DeCesare.” The Wall Street Journal, December 14-15, 2013)
b) There are three kinds of book owners. The first has all the standard sets and best sellers--unread,
untouched. (This deluded individual owns woodpulp and ink, not books.) The second has a great many
books – a few of them read through, most of them dipped into, but all of them as clean and shiny as the
day they were bought. (This person would probably like to make books his own, but is restrained by a
false respect for their physical appearance.) The third has a few books or many – every one of them
dogeared and dilapidated, shaken and loosened by continual use, marked and scribbled from front to back.
(This man owns books.) (Mortimer J. Adler, “How to Mark a Book” in The Saturday Review of
Literature, July 6, 1941)
c) The English-speaking world may be divided into (1) those who neither know nor care what a split
infinitive is; (2) those who do not know, but care very much; (3) those who know and condemn; (4) those
who know and approve; (5) those who know and distinguish. (H.W. Fowler and Ernest Gowers, A
Dictionary of Modern English Usage, 2nd ed., Oxford UP, 1965)
When classifying, one usually reverts to one or more of the following.
Nouns: criterion/criteria basis/bases categories classes groups types kinds
sorts divisions sub-categories/classes/groups/etc.
Verbs: classify categorise group divide into arrange(in) put into
fall into sub-classify/categorise/divide/etc.
Language structures:
X consists of/comprises …according to …
X may be classified according to/on the basis of/depending on (upon) …
The classification is based upon ….
2.3.3. Revise the following paragraph of classification so that it is complete, useful and
logical:
Choosing a gift for a graduating high school senior requires knowing whether the student is planning to
attend college and what the student needs. Judging from what I and my friends received, I would classify
graduation gifts for the college-bound as highly-practical, moderately practical, barely practical, and
impractical. In the first category, highly practical, were cash, towels, sheets, a fan, an alarm clock, a new
desk dictionary, a study lamp, a typewriter, and other such accessories such as stationary and pens, and a
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small refrigerator. Moderately practical gifts included reference books, wall posters to prevent visually
boring walls, and recreation things like music tapes for a radio tape player. Also in this category is a small
television set, which one of my friends got. Barely useful things included things like chess and Scrabble
games, because so few college students have time for them. A basketball and frisbee are much more
useful, because many students like to get exercise when they take breaks from studying. In the last
category, the impractical, were such gifts as new ties and clothing for formal occasions, a tropical fish
tank, and novels unlikely to be assigned reading in any course.
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2.3.4. Think of three means of classifying students in the curriculum you have chosen.
Consider your audience to be: a) your fellow students; b) you teachers. What basis of
classification would be most useful for each of these groups?
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2.4. Comparison and Contrast
Note
To compare: You are asked to explain how two or more things are alike.
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To contrast: You are asked to explain how two or more things are different.
To compare/Contrast: You are asked to explain how two or more things
are alike and different.
2.4.1. Read the following passage, then fill in the sentences given below it, by choosing words
and phrases provided in the accompanying list.
Several years ago, some research was conducted at Manchester University into the amount of time that
overseas postgraduate students spent listening to spoken English and speaking English. Sixty students co-
operated by completing questionnaires.
It was found that an average of 22 ¾ hours per week were spent listening to English and only 6 ¼
hours speaking English to English people. An analysis of the time spent listening to English showed that
lectures accounted for 5 hours and seminars 2 hours. An estimated 2 ½ hours were spent in serious
discussion while 2 hours were devoted to everyday small-talk. Watching television accounted for 5 ¼
hours and listening to the radio 4 ½ hours. Going to the cinema or theatre only accounted for an average
of ¾ hour per week.
biggest; as much … as; more … than; least; most; mot so many … as; as many … as; the same … as;
greater … than
a) The students spent considerably ________ time listening to English ________ speaking it.
b) A _____ amount of time was spent in lectures _____ in seminars.
c) Nearly ______ hours were spent listening to the radio ____watching television.
d) The ______ popular way of listening to English was by watching TV.
e) ___________ number of hours was spent in everyday small-talk _______ in taking part in seminars.
f) The __________ popular way of listening to English was by going to the cinema.
g) __________ hours were spent in serious discussion ________ in watching television.
h) Nearly ______ time was spent in watching television __________ in speaking English.
i) __________ time was spent in serious discussion ________ in everyday small-talk.
j) The ____________ surprise in the survey was the small number of hours spent speaking English to
English people.
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2.4.2. Read the following sentences - which are based on the information provided in the
table below - and underline the language constructions used to express similarity or
difference:
a) Both Belgium and Canada have a small agricultural population.

b) Ireland and Belgium are dissimilar in that Ireland has a much smaller population than Belgium.
c) Canada is similar to Nepal in that it has a large forest area.
d) The main religion in Belgium is Christianity, whereas in Egypt it is Islam.
e) On the one hand, Canada has the largest population; on the other hand, it has the lowest density of
population.
Belgium Canada Egypt Ireland Nepal

Population 10,140,000 29,972,000 64,100,000 3,589,000 21,953,000
Area: sq.km. 32,800 9,221,000 995,000 68,900 137,000
Density: per 323 3 52 53 136
sq.km.
Forest area 21% 39% 0 4.5% 39%
Arable land 23.5% 5% 2% 13.5% 17%
Agricultural 2% 3% 39% 12% 91%
population
Main Dutch/ English, Arabic, English, Irish Nepali,
languages Flemish, French French Maithili
French
Main Christianity Christianity Islam Christianity Hinduism,
religions Budhism
2.4.3. Write six more sentences similar to those above, basing your information on the same
table.
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Comparing words and language structures: like; same as; more; similar; likewise; and, as well as; also,
too; just as, as do, as did, as does; both
Contrasting words and language structures: unlike; in contrast to; different from; dissimilar; less;
whereas; however; but; as opposed to; on the other hand
2.4.4. Look at the information provided in the table below and write a paragraph
recommending one of the dictionaries and giving reasons for your choice.
Dictionary Words and Examples Pages Level

phrases
Longman 80,000 62,700 1,690 Upper
Dictionary of intermediate -
Contemporary advanced
English
Oxford Advanced 63,000 90,000 1,428 Upper-
Learner’s intermediate -
Dictionary advanced
Cambridge 100,000 110,000 1,792 Intermediate
International advanced
Dictionary of
English
Collins COBUILD 75,000 100,000 1,951 Intermediate -
English Dictionary advanced
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Note
When developing paragraphs that employ the comparison/contrast method of development, two
alternatives may be considered:
a) you may first discuss qualities of Subject A, and then discuss qualities of Subject B, taking care to treat
the strikingly similar or distinctively different qualities of A and B in the same order;
b) you may make alternative statements (arranged so as to be parallel) on A, then on B; A again, then B
again, etc.
2.4.5. What methods are used in the following excerpts that employ the comparison and
contrast method of development?
a) The seat next to Mom and Dad was a dreaded position. Here I was forced to do all the things in a
church that, as a child, I hated to do. I had to pay attention to the mass, I had to sing, I had to recite all
the prayers throughout the entire service. No talking, sleeping or daydreaming was permitted. I not
only had to sing, but I had to listen to Dad sing as well. That was real torture. Trips to the bathroom
were positively prohibited. “You’ll just have to hold it!” Mom would say. Sitting away from my
parents, in the rear pew and near the aisle, was a much more desirable position. I was far enough
away from my parents so that I could daydream all I wanted without being bothered. I didn’t have to
worry about singing, or praying, or paying attention. I could even fall asleep. The end seat was a
place in a world all my own. I didn’t have to hear Dad sing, and I could dart out anytime I wanted to
go to the bathroom. Most important, I could be the first person to leave when the service ended, and
leaving was my favourite part of church.
b) The advantages of cable television over commercial television are illustrated by last Saturday’s
schedule: in sports, one cable network offered live coverage of two baseball games involving teams
vying for first place in the National League, while the commercial network showed only a wrestling
match. In movies, cable featured a new and popular film that was still playing at the local theatres; the
commercial networks offered two older movies, a Doris Day film from 1966 and a 1975 western
starring no one I’d ever heard of. In addition, cable had no commercial interruptions, but the
commercial channels had dozens. The one disadvantage to cable is its cost (from twenty-two dollars
to thirty-three dollars a month), whereas the commercial networks are free.
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c) Two main techniques have been used for training elephants, which we may call respectively the tough
and the gentle. The former method simply consists of setting an elephant to work and beating him
until he does what is expected of him. Apart from any moral considerations this is a stupid method of
training, for it produces a resentful animal who at a later stage may well turn man-killer. The gentle
method requires more patience in the early stages, but produces a cheerful, good-tempered elephant
who will give many years of loyal service.
d) We think of males as large and powerful, females as smaller and weaker, but the opposite pattern
prevails throughout nature – males are generally smaller than females, and for good reason, humans
and most other mammals notwithstanding. Sperm is small and cheap, easily manufactured in large
quantities by little creatures. A sperm cell is little more than a nucleus of naked DNA with a delivery
system. Eggs, on the other hand, must be larger, for they provide the cytoplast (all the rest of the cell)
with mitochondria (or energy factories), chloroplasts (for photosynthesizers), and all other parts that a
zygote needs to begin the process of embryonic growth. In addition, eggs generally supply the initial
nutriment, or food for the developing embryo. Finally, females usually perform the tasks of primary
care, either retaining the eggs within their bodies for a time or guarding them after they are laid. For
all these reasons, females are larger than males in most species of animals.
2.4.6. Use the comparison/contrast method to develop a paragraph on one of the following
topics: a) a historical film and a thriller; b) two musical groups.
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2.5. Analogy
Note
An analogy is an extended comparison between two things usually thought of as unlike.
Analogies illustrate and explain by moving from the familiar to the unfamiliar, comparing several points,
each of which has a counterpoint.
Analogies are made up of two halves:
a) The thing being explained
b) The explainer.
Examples:
The world is like a large set of colored bar graphs. Everyone, whether a different race, or religion, has
different levels of talents and abilities.
The sky is like a time clock with the sun being the hour hand. You can tell what time it is by where the
sun is sitting in the sky.
a) When you construct an analogy, be certain that the familiar or known side of the analogy is really
familiar and known to your reader. It is useless to explain a mineral’s crystal-lattice structure by
reference to analytic geometry if your reader knows nothing about analytic geometry.
b) Analogies are useful for illustration only as far as they remain reasonable. Therefore, do not try to
stretch an analogy too far. Cut out or explain any points that cannot be logically compared.
c) Good analogies are vivid and logical, and while they cannot prove an argument, they can offer a
picture that is very persuasive.
2.5.1. Read the following texts and identify the analogies it develops:
a) The great advantage of the electron microscope was that it could magnify objects far more than the
light microscope. The reason for this had to do with quantum mechanics and the waveform theory of
radiation. The best simple explanation had come from the electron microscopist Sidney Polton, also a
racing enthusiast.
“Assume,” Polton said, “that you have a road, with a sharp corner. Now assume that you have
two automobiles, a sports car and a large truck. When the truck tries to go round the corner, it slips off the
road; but the sports car manages it easily. Why? The sports car is lighter, and smaller and faster; it is
better suited to tight sharp curves. On large, gentle curves, the automobiles will perform equally, but on
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sharp curves, the sports car will do better. In the same way, an electron microscope will ‘hold the road’
better than a light microscope. All objects are made of corners, and edges. The electron wavelength is
smaller than the quantum of light. It cuts the corners closer, follows the road better, and outlines it more
precisely. With a light microscope - like a truck - you can follow only a large road. In microscopic terms
this means only a large object, with large edges and gentle curves: cells and nuclei. But an electron
microscope can follow all the minor routes, the byroads, and can outline very small structures within the
cell - micochondria, ribosomes, membranes, reticula.” (Michael Crichton, “The Andromeda Strain”)
b) If a nation is essentially disunited, it is left to the government to hold it together. This increases the
expense of government, and reduces correspondingly the amount of economic resources that could be
used for developing the country. Where the cost of government is high, resources for development are
correspondingly low. This may be illustrated by comparing the position of a nation with that of a private
business enterprise. An enterprise has to incur certain costs and expenses in order to stay in business. For
our purposes, we are concerned only with one kind of cost – the cost of managing and administering the
business. Such administrative overhead in a business is analogous to the cost of government in a nation.
The administrative overhead of a business is low to the extent that everyone working in the business can
be trusted to behave in a way that best promotes the interests of the firm. If they can each be trusted to
take such responsibilities, and to exercise such initiative as falls within their sphere, then administrative
overhead will be low. It will be low because it will be necessary to have only one man looking after each
job, without having another man to check upon what he is doing, keep him in a line, and report on him to
someone else. But if no one can be trusted to act in a loyal and responsible manner towards his job, then
the business will require armies of administrators, checkers, and foremen, and administration overhead
will rise correspondingly; and the business will have less money to distribute as dividends or invest
directly in its future progress and development.
2.5.2. Create the basis for an analogy for the following. Develop one of them into a
paragraph.
a) McDonald’s and . . .
b) a professor and . . .
c) a politician and . . .
d) a car and . . .
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2.6. Process analysis
Note
It concentrates on how something is done; it enumerates the major steps involved and provides proper
warnings if a particular order of steps is involved.
Types:
a) General: when we analyse a process or procedure, we often use the present passive tense.
b) Particular: when we report a particular procedure, we are concerned with only one particular occasion
in the past; then we often use the past passive tense.
2.6.1. Read and compare the following excerpts that employ the process analysis method of
development. Which one works more effectively on the reader?
a) When feeding the baby with a bottle, it must be held at a steep angle with the bottom tilted up and the
neck held firmly down, otherwise an air-bubble will form in the neck. Do not allow the baby to drink all
the feed at once, but give it a rest sometimes so that it can get the wind up. Finally, when the baby has
finished the bottle, place it under the tap straight away, or allow it to soak in a mild solution of Milton, to
prevent infection. If the baby does not thrive on fresh milk it should be powdered or boiled.
b) How To Dress A Chub For Table

First scale him, and then wash him clean, and then take out his guts; and to that end make the hole as little
and as near to his gills as you may conveniently, and especially make clean his throat form the grass and
weeds that are usually in it, for of that be not very clean, it will make him to taste very sour; having so
done, put some sweet herbs into his belly, and then tie him with two or three splinters to a spit, and roast
him, basted often with vinegar, or rather verjuice and butter, and with a good store of salt mixed with it.
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If he is thus dressed, you will find him a much better dish of meat than you, or most folk, even the
Anglers themselves do imagine; for this dries up the fluid watery humour with which all Chubs do
abound.
Sequence / Order
We use words and phrases to show the order of steps. Here are some examples in an explanation about the
production of acid rain:
a. Introducing the first step
First / Firstly / To begin with, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are emitted into the atmosphere from
power plants that burn coal, oil and gas.
The process begins when sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are emitted into the atmosphere from
power plants that burn coal, oil and gas.
b. Sequencing the steps in the body of the process analysis
Then / Next / After this, the emitted gases are carried up into the air and eventually react with the
moisture in the atmosphere. During this stage, sulphuric and nitric acids are formed. As the emitted gases
are carried up into the air and react with the moisture in the atmosphere, sulphuric and nitric acids are
formed.
As soon as / When the emitted gases are carried up into the air and react with the moisture in the
atmosphere, sulphuric and nitric acids are formed.
c. Ending the process analysis
Finally / Lastly, the pollutants formed in the process fall as acid rain or snow.
The process ends when / In the final stage, the pollutants formed in the process fall as acid rain or
snow.
2.6.2. Put the following instructions in their correct order. Then use the specific vocabulary
to write an instructional paragraph on:
How a breakfast cereal is made

a) It is stored in the silos.
b) These are woven into biscuits.
c) The wheat is harvested from the fields.
d) Each biscuit is baked until brown.
e) It is cut into thin strips.
f) The grain is cooked to soften it.
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g) It is packed ready to be eaten.

h) The wheat grain is transported to the silos.
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structures associated with process analysis. Make any other changes you consider necessary.
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2.7. Causal analysis
Note
The relationship between two situations can be shown in a variety of ways:
CAUSE: heavy rain EFFECT: flooding

Heavy rain causes flooding.
Heavy rain leads to flooding.
Heavy rain results in flooding.
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Heavy rain produces flooding.
EFFECT: flooding CAUSE: heavy rain

Flooding is caused by heavy rain (note use of passive).
Flooding is produced by heavy rain.
Flooding results from heavy rain.
It is also possible to use some of the following conjunctions that demonstrate cause and effect: because
(of) so / since / therefore /as / consequently / owing to / which is why / due to
Because it rained heavily, the flooding was severe. (because + verb)

The flooding occurred because of days of heavy rain. (because + noun)
Owing to the heavy rain the flooding was severe.
It rained heavily for days, therefore the flooding was severe. (used in midsentence)
2.7.1. Complete the following sentences with a suitable verb or conjunction.

a) Childhood vaccination _____________________________ reduced infant mortality.
b) _____________________________ the cold winter hospital admissions increased.
c) Printing money _____________________________ higher inflation.
d) The summer was extremely dry, _____________________________ many trees died.
e) Increased ownership of video recorders _____________________________ falling cinema attendance
2.7.2. Use conjunctions to complete the following paragraph.
WHY WOMEN LIVE LONGER

Some British scientists now believe that women live longer than men a) ________________________ T
cells, a vital part of the immune system that protects the body from diseases. Previously,
various theories have attempted to explain longer female life expectancy. Biologists claimed that women
lived longer b) ________________________ they need to bring up children. Others argued that men take
more risks, c) ________________________ they die earlier. But a team from Imperial College think that
the difference may be d) ________________________ women having better immune systems. Having
studied a group of men and women they found that the body produces fewer T cells as it gets older, e)
________________________ the ageing process. However, they admit that this may not be the only
factor, and f) ________________________ another research project may be conducted.
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Note
Sometimes it is required to identify the types of causes as:
a) Sufficient / contributing (perpetuating)
b) Primary (immediate) / background (remote)
c) Obvious / hidden
2.7.3. Identify the types of causes in the following cause-effect relationships:
a) Charlie wore blue jeans to church because he wanted to irritate his mother.
b) Doctors usually charge high fees to recoup the high cost of their education.
c) Alcoholism causes marriages to fail.
d) The kitchen is hot because thirty people are stacked into it.
e) Cigarette smoking may cause lung cancer.
f) Adults continual interference in children’s squabbles results in children’s being unable to solve their
own problems.
2.7.4. Note the cause-effect relationships and identify the types of causes referred to in the
following:
a) A humming noise on a tape may result from a variety of recording errors. A common mistake in
recording that will result in humming is to forget to change the amplifier dial to the recording source
position: phonograph, radio or microphone. Placing the microphone too close to the speaker or having
the amplifier volume set too high will also produce a hum or even a howl. Another kind of
interference that may result in tape hum comes from stacking the recorder and amplifier on top of
each other.
b) Rising air, like air flowing toward a low, moves spirally in a counterclockwise manner, thereby
causing extremely low pressure in the centre of the rising column. The lower the pressure, the
stronger the winds, the greater the gyratory action in the updraft and the more intense the low
pressure becomes. The lowering pressure cools the air rapidly to below the dew point; as a result, a
cloud develops in conformity with this chimney of low pressure; hence, the characteristic funnel-
shaped cloud . . . . The very low pressure causes buildings to explode when the funnel cloud reaches
the ground, and the terrific velocities of the wind – perhaps as great as 500 miles per hour – usually
prostrate every standing object in the tornadoe’s path.
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2.7.5. Read the following text and fill in the table below with several examples of ‘cause and
effect’ relationships.
CLIMATE
For the last hundred years the climate has been growing much warmer. This has had a number of
different effects. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, glaciers have been melting very rapidly.
For example, the Muir Glacier in Alaska has retreated two mile in ten years. Secondly, rising
temperatures have been causing the snowline to retreat on mountains all over the world. In Peru, for
example, it has risen as much as 2700 feet in 60 years.
As a result of this, vegetation has also been changing. In Canada, the agricultural cropline has
shifted 50 to 100 miles northward. In the same way cool-climate trees like birches and spruce have been
dying over large areas of Eastern Canada. In Sweden the treeline has moved up the mountains by as much
as 65 feet since 1930.
The distribution of wildlife has also been affected, many European animals moving northwards
into Scandinavia. Since 1918, 25 new species of birds have been seen in Greenland, and in the United
States birds have moved their nests to the north.
Finally, the sea has been rising at a rapidly increasing rate, largely due, as was mentioned above,
to the melting of glaciers. In the last 18 years it has risen by about six inches, which is about four times
the average rate of rise over the last 9000 years.
Cause / Reason Connective or Marker Effect/Consequence/ Result/Solution

e.g. The climate has been growing (different) effects Glaciers have been melting very
much warmer. rapidly.
2.7.6. Develop a paragraph on a cause-effect relationship of your own choice. You may use
the following structure and vocabulary aid:
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The cause of / reason for X ….

The / One effect / consequence / result of ….
X causes / results in / leads to / produces …
X happens because of / as a result of / on account of / owing to / through …
X has occurred. Therefore, / So, / As a result / Accordingly, / Consequently, / Because of this, / Thus, /
Hence, / For this reason, / Now, ….
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3. Narrative
Note
The introduction to many pieces of academic writing contains some kind of historical background or
development. This is usually in the form of narrative: an account or description of events in the past
which entails following a time sequence or chronological order (i.e. earliest first). Verb forms commonly
used are the simple past active, simple past passive, and past perfect active.
3.1. Read the following carefully. Notice the structure, time sequence, date forms and
prepositions, and the verb forms used:
a) Mrs. O’C was somewhat deaf, but otherwise in good health. She lived in an old people’s home. One
night, in January 1979, she dreamed vividly, nostalgically, of her childhood in Ireland, and especially of
the songs they danced to and sang. When she woke up, the music was still going, very loud and clear. ‘I
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must still be dreaming,’ she thought, but this was not so. She got up, roused and puzzled. It was the
middle of the night. Someone, she assumed, must have left a radio playing. But why was she the only
person to be disturbed by it?
b) The beginnings of the EEC date from May 9th 1950, when Robert Shuman, France’s Foreign Minister,
proposed that France and Germany should combine their coal and steel industries under an independent
‘supranational’ authority. This led to the establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community
(E.C.S.C.) in 1952. In addition to France and Germany, Belgium, Italy, Luxemburg and the Netherlands
also became members.
The E.C.S.C. was a step towards economic integration in Europe and led to the Treaty of Rome
which was signed on March 25th 1957. This established the E.E.C. with the same six member states as in
the E.C.S.C. In 1973 the U.K., Denmark and the Republic of Ireland became members; Greece, Spain and
Portugal joined in the 1980s.
3.2. Read through the passage below, then write an appropriate word in each of the spaces:
The _____________ of the U.N. can _____________ traced back _____________ the League of
Nations. This _____________ an international _____________ which _____________ created
_____________ the Treaty of Versailles _____________ 1920 with the purpose _____________
achieving world peace. Before 1930, the league, from its Geneva headquarters, _____________
international conferences and did useful humanitarian work. _____________, it failed _____________
deal effectively _____________ international aggression _____________ the 1930s. The league
_____________ formally closed _____________ 1946 and _____________ was superseded
_____________ the United Nations.
The U.N. was ___ on 24th October 1945, when the U.N. Charter was _____________ by the 51
_____________ member countries. Almost _____________ the countries of the _____________ are now
_____________ : 159 in _____________.
The U.N. was _____________ to maintain _____________ peace, and to _____________
international co-operation to _____________ economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems.
_____________ from the _____________ organs of the U.N. (e.g. The General Assembly, the Security
Council, etc.), _____________ of the U.N.’s work is done _____________ its specialised bodies,
_____________ agencies. _____________ of the best _____________ are, perhaps, the FAO, ILO, IMF,
WHO, UNESCO and UNICEF.
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3.3. Below is a passage tracing the development of the universities. Read it through and
analyse its organisation. Then do exercise 3.4.
The word ‘university’ comes from the Latin word ‘universitas’, meaning ‘the whole’. Later, in
Latin legal language ‘universitas’ meant ‘a society, guild or corporation’. Thus, in mediaeval academic
use the word meant an association of teachers and scholars. The modern definition of a university is ‘an
institution that teaches and examines students in many branches of advanced learning. Awarding degrees
and providing facilities for academic research’.
The origins of universities can be traced back to the Middle Ages, especially the 12-14th
centuries. In the early 12th century, long before universities were organised in the modern sense, students
gathered together for higher studies at certain centres of learning. The earliest centres in Europe were at
Bologna, in Italy, for law, founded in 1088; Salerno in Italy for medicine; and Paris, France, for
philosophy and theology, founded in 1150. Other early ones in Europe were at Prague, Czechoslovakia,
founded in 1348; Vienna, Austria, founded in 1365; and Heidelberg, Germany, founded in 1386.
The first universities in England were established at Oxford in 1185 and at Cambridge in 1209.
The first Scottish university was founded at St. Andrews in 1412. By comparison, the oldest universities
in the U.S.A. are at Harvard, founded in 1636, and Yale, established in 1701.
In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, three more universities were founded in Scotland: at
Glasgow, in 1415, Aberdeen in 1494, and Edinburgh in 1582. The next English university to be founded
was not until the nineteenth century - London, in 1836. This was followed, later in the nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries, by the foundation of several civic universities. These had developed from
provincial colleges which were mainly situated in industrial areas. Manchester, for example, received its
charter in 1880, and Birmingham in 1900. In addition, the federal University of Wales was established in
1893, comprising three colleges.
Several other civic universities were founded in the 1940s and 1950s, such as Nottingham in
1948, Southampton in 1954 and Exeter in 1957. However, it was in the 1960s that the largest single
expansion of higher education took place in Britain. This expansion took three basic forms: existing
universities were enlarged; new universities were developed from existing colleges; and seven completely
new universities were founded. The latest, Kent University, in sough-east England, and Warwick, in the
Midlands, were both founded in 1965. Like the other new universities they are situated away from town
centres and are surrounded by parkland and green fields.
Finance for universities comes from three sources, namely grants from the government (the
largest), fees paid by students, and donations from private sources. All the British universities, except one,
receive some government funding. The exception is Buckingham, which is Britain’s only independent
university, and which received the Royal Charter in 1983.
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One of the latest university developments was the foundation in 1969 of the Open University. It is
a non-residential university which provides part-time degree and other courses. It uses a combination of
correspondence courses, television and radio broadcasts, and summer schools organised on a regional
basis.
3.4. Put the following sentences summarising the passage above in the correct order.
a) The quarter of a century from 1940 to 1965 was the period when there was a big increase in the
number of universities in Britain.
b) The Open University was founded in 1969.
c) The oldest American university was founded in the 17th century.
d) One of the original meanings of ‘university’ was an association of teachers and students.
e) There is one private university in Britain: it was established in 1983.
f) After three more Scottish universities were established in the 15 th and 16th centuries, the next major
developments were not until the foundation of a number of civic universities in the nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries.
g) Oxford and Cambridge are the oldest English universities.
h) Government grants are the most important source of university income.
i) The first Scottish university was established in the early 15 th century.
j) There were gatherings of students at centres of leaning in Europe between the twelfth and fourteenth
centuries.
Using narration effectively requires that you perform the following tasks:
a) Identify the feeling or idea you wish to convey through your narrative.
b) Arrange the narrative events chronologically, selecting the details that will reinforce that feeling or
idea.
c) Include only those other details that you need to make the narrative credible.
d) Determine whether you can gain greater impact by rearranging the chronology, perhaps placing the
most important or interesting episode at the beginning or at the end.
e) Revise to cut irrelevant detail, select the most appropriate detail, and arrive at the most effective
order.
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3.5. Develop a narrative paragraph on one of the following:

a) an event that marked a turning point in your life
b) the development of a literary genre
c) the biography of a favourite artistic personality
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4. Argumentation
Note
An argument can be used to:
• Support something we think has merit – a position, a point of view, a program, an object.
• Persuade someone that something would be beneficial to do (or not to do) – a particular course of
action.
• Convince someone that something is true, likely to be true or probable – a fact, an outcome.
• Show someone the problems or difficulties with something – a theory, an approach, a course of
action.
• Reason with someone to get them to change their mind or their practice.
In its most basic form an argument is a claim that is justified. What makes something an argument is that
the claim (or conclusion) is supported by at least one reason. The supporting statements of an argument
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are called premises.

A good argument should be convincing. This entails several things:
• that the premises are acceptable or reasonable (likely to be true)
• that the evidence or reasons are relevant to the claim
• that the reasons provide sufficient grounds to lead us to accept the claim.
These are called the acceptability, relevance and grounds conditions of an argument. If an argument
satisfies these three conditions, it is likely to be a good argument.
4.1. Principles and Techniques
Generalisations: a principle of providing supporting evidence, by using inductive reasoning and

examining particulars in order to conclude what is true in general or for similar particulars (e.g.
Americans are more likely to be influenced by quality than price when buying a compact car. → Reason:
A nationwide survey of 10,000 people who recently bought compacts showed that 73% listed quality as
the major determining factor in their decision.)
Avoid hasty generalisations (The rude bus driver in Bucharest did not surprise me, because city people
are never helpful), or sweeping generalisations: I have tested thirty Xerox photocopiers, and each one
gave clear reproductions. This thirty-first one, therefore, will make clear reproductions.
Appeal to authority: use experts’ opinions to reinforce the point of the argument.
Positive support: Use positive evidence to convince. (An argument in favour of art courses at
undergraduate level should use examples of the applicability of the principles of art to everyday decisions,
not merely state that there is no reason against it.)
Specific evidence: provide specific supporting evidence for any argument, in order to avoid circular
argumentation (e.g.Panasonic stereos give better sound because they have superior tonal quality./ A
landfill would ruin the environment of the city because it would pollute the air and water.)
Consider alternatives: don’t ignore choices in stating a solution to a problem or in assigning a cause to a
problem (avoid the either-or fallacy: Either real estate taxes should be raised or the schools should be
closed.)
Objectivity: consider exceptions to the general rule and explain them; avoid emotion; avoid the following
means of persuasion: the appeal to fear; the appeal to force; the appeal to pity; the popular appeal
4.1.1. What logical fallacies are present in the following examples? Remember that the most
common types are:
1. Either\or (“black and white” thinking)
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2. Circular reasoning
3. Assuming the conclusion
4. Begging the question
5. Hasty generalisation
6. Argument from ignorance (without positive support)
7. Popular (bandwaggon) appeal.
8. False cause
9. Sweeping generalisation
a) A person should not drive while intoxicated because of the possibility of getting a very high fine.
b) If you had seen the fire that destroyed the Smiths’ house, you would not hesitate to buy our
homeowner’s insurance policy.
c) Every visitor to Belfast should dine at the Crown’s. The food must be great because many officials
eat there.
d) The supervisor must really like Joe’s work, because I never heard him criticise him.
e) Every country boy desires to live in Bucharest.
f) The Engineering College is noted for its teaching excellence; therefore Professor Jones must be a fine
teacher.
g) You can’t believe anything she says. Ten years ago she was convicted of drunken driving.
h) Professors are expected to spend much of their time publishing. Therefore, you shouldn’t go to
university because your teachers will be more interested in their publications than they will be in you.
i) Neighbouring state universities have schools of veterinary medicine, so ours should too.
j) The players’ union should either accept the owner’s terms or go on strike.
k) Penal reform is necessary because of prison corruption, which shows the need for prison reform.
l) If teachers cannot fix the problems in schools they should stay out of the debate altogether.
m) Why are men more aggressive than women?
n) This action is wrong because it is immoral.
o) Art courses should be required in secondary schools because there is no reason that they should not
be.
p) Never trust anyone over thirty.
q) As more women have joined the work force, juvenile crime has increased. If mothers would stay
home where they belong, the crime rate would drop.
4.2. Constructing an ARGUMENT
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Note
When constructing an argument, try to follow the steps outlined below:
a) present a conclusion
b) note your reasons for arriving at the conclusion
c) test your conclusion by asking questions of it
d) test your reasons for logic; make sure they support the conclusion
e) revise both your reasons and your conclusion
4.2.1. Test the following argument. Revise it as necessary. Develop it in a paragraph.
CONCLUSION: private education for the elementary pupil is superior to public education.
BASES:
 Private education offers greater discipline.
 Private education limits the pupil’s exposure to undesirable elements.
 Private education affords parents the opportunity to select a school on the basis of educational
philosophy rather than on proximity to the home.
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4.2.2. Read the following passage and identify the structure of its argument:
The stronger the personal identification of a top business executive to his football past, the more violent
his antipathy to women managers is apt to be. He will be so convinced business (management-football)
is the apogee of a man’s game (great men against great men) that he will feel that women are positively
unqualified to compete against the strongest, most powerful, best-trained men in the world. Such
affectations are managerial daydreams, of course, because the game of business is not a literal physical
clash between male brutes. It is a symbol, a computer model, a paper game, a psychological contest.
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Competitive large-scale business does resemble football contests, but the business game is mental
competition – it’s played in the head not the stadium. Not a single technique needed for the game is
inherited or inborn – the talents, mental agility, abilities, attitudes are learned. Men teach them to each
other but adamantly refuse to teach them to women. Too bad about them; women are smart enough to
teach themselves, and their practice field can be everyday situations confronted on every job.
Conclusion: __________________________________________________________________________
Basis:
1. ________________________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________________________
4. ________________________________________________________________________
5. ________________________________________________________________________
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Part Three:
Text Organisation and
Writing
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1. The Essential Elements of the Essay
Consider the plan below, which is typical for the organization of an essay:
1. Introduction
a) The thesis statement: the subject or topic; a statement of the problem, etc.
b) comments on the way it is to be treated
2. Development (the body of the essay)
a) Presentation, analysis and discussion (involving comments on ‘advantages’ and ‘disadvantages’)
b) Paragraph 1: Main idea (topic sentence) + examples, details (supporting evidence)
c) Paragraph 2: Main idea (topic sentence) + examples, details (supporting evidence)
d) Etc.
3. Conclusion
a) Perhaps a summary of the main points in 2.
b) Own views/opinions and decisions.
1.1. Look at the following student essay, paying attention to the way in which it is structured.
What types of writing are employed in it?
THE HYPOCRISY OF THE COLLEGE GRADING SYSTEM
State University’s grading system is designed “to show how much a student has learned in each course
and to motivate him through competition with other students” - at least that is what the school catalogue
says. Since I have been here, though, I’ve found that this system is illogical and its motivation is
misdirected.
What makes the grading system illogical is that professors teaching the same course often have
different goals. For example, my roommate Gail and I are both taking U.S. History I, but all my
examinations are essay and hers are multiple-choice. All she has to get an “A” is to memorise
information. On the other hand, I’m required to explain why certain conflicts and changes took place and
to do it in “good, clear English.” Not only does my professor take off for content, but he also drops the
grade for writing errors, or what he calls “lack of clarity.” In addition, I’m expected to read two history
books, while Gail has to use just one for her class. In a way, I really shouldn’t complain. Gail and I both
realise that I’m learning much more than she is about U.S. history. Nevertheless, that isn’t going to show
up in the grade reports. As of last week, she was averaging a “B” (she isn’t memorising everything)
compared to my “C”.
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Ioana Mohor-Ivan
The other thing that undermines the grade system logic is the different standards that individual
professors have. For instance, two of my closest friends - Beth and Jerry - took first-year French, used the
same textbooks, and were each required to cover the same material. Professor Erickson, however, counted
simple vocabulary quizzes and short translations much more heavily that did Professor DuBois, who
relied mainly on oral examinations for determining grades. Having had four years of high school French, I
realised that both Beth and Jerry’s knowledge of the language was about the same at the end of their
courses. Beth received a “B.” Meanwhile, poor Jerry, who became very nervous during oral recitations,
had earned only a “D.”
Jerry’s anger at the grade is understandable, as, I think, is mine with regard to my U.S. History I
class. But this anger points up the other problem with the grading system: because students know that
others will immediately measure their knowledge by the grades they have received, they are liable to
become more interested in “A”s and “B”s than in learning. I admit that the grading system is likely to
motivate students, but not in the way the university intends. Instead, it will motivate them away from the
pursuit of knowledge and toward the pursuit of the easy “A,” the simple course, and the most lenient
professor. Jerry has already signed up for Professor Erickson next term, and I am planning to take U.S.
History II from the professor Gail has this semester.
What are the solutions to the problems created by the present grading system? Standardising
course requirements in each department is a first step. More important, though, is that each teacher
enthusiastically stress the benefits to be gained from the material in his or her course.
2. Cohesion and Coherence
Note
The discussion, argument, or comment in the development of the topic may be very straightforward. In
this case the ideas will be added together, one after the other. The basic connective AND (or a number of
connectives with a similar meaning) are used in this case.
Sometimes, the comments may be expressed in another way, or an alternative proposal, etc. may be
made. This is represented by the basic connective OR (and a number of connectives with a similar
meaning). After the alternative has been considered, the main argument will continue.
There are also occasions in arguments, etc. when the opposite is considered. This is represented by the
basic connective BUT (and a number of connectives with a similar meaning). After the opposite or
opposing view has been considered, the main argument is continued.
105
2.1. Look at the following examples. Which are the connectives used in each of them? With
what basic types can they be replaced?
a) He passed his examinations; therefore, he had some good news to tell his parents. / Because he passed
his examinations, he had some good news to tell his parents.
b) He said he had kept the library book for several years. In other words he had stolen it.
c) The time available for discussion was very limited. Nevertheless, it was still possible to produce some
interesting arguments.
2.2. Study the following table which offers a synoptic view of sample connectives used to
manage transitions within the essay:
Function Transitional words and phrases
to add In addition; furthermore; moreover; and; again; equally important; similarly
to “prove” Because; for; since; for the same reason
to compare and contrast Yet; while; whereas; in contrast; however; on the one hand… on the other
hand; conversely; on the contrary; by comparison
to show exception Yet; still; nevertheless; in spite of; despite; of course
to indicate time Immediately; thereafter; soon; finally; then
to repeat In brief; as I have noted
to emphasise Obviously; definitely; extremely; in fact; indeed; in any case; positively;

naturally; surprisingly; undeniably; unquestioningly; without reservation
to show sequence First; firstly; secondly (etc.); and so forth; next; then; following this; at this
time; at this point; after; before; previously; consequently; simultaneously
to give example For instance; for example; in another case; take the case of; to demonstrate; to
illustrate; as an example
to summarise or In brief; on the whole; summing up; to conclude; in conclusion; as I have

conclude
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Ioana Mohor-Ivan
shown; hence; therefore; as a result; on the whole; consequently
to show cause-and- Because; since; therefore; as a result; consequently; hence; thus; because of;
effect relationships due to; as a result of
to show adversative Although; even though; despite the fact that; notwithstanding the fact that;
position nevertheless; in spite of
to clarify In other words; that is
To intensify On the contrary; as a matter of fact; in fact
2.3. In the following sentences add (a) a suitable connective and (b) an appropriate ending
from the list below.
a) Many students find it difficult to read an English newspaper . . .

b) Most overseas students in Britain are interested in news of their own country . . .
c) When a student comes to study in Britain he may have to complete about twelve different
forms . . .
d) Maria is rather slow at learning . . .
e) Helen finds languages quite easy . . .
f) Anna speaks English like a native speaker . . .
g) Some of the examination questions were very difficult …
h) There was only limited money available for research . . .
i) The project was very complicated . . .
i. British news is found to be of most interest.
ii. They usually read the international news first in the newspapers.
iii. An average of five books per month are read.
iv. Not many read one regularly.
v. It is useful to be able to answer questions briefly.
vi. She speaks it excellently.
vii. She speaks slowly.
viii. She is taking a long time to improve her English.
ix. She speaks it with great difficulty.
x. Dimitros was not able to do it.
xi. Juan succeeded in completing it in time.
107
xii. Abdul was able to obtain a grant.

xiii. Oscar did not manage to complete them.
xiv. Ali managed to answer them satisfactorily.
xv. She has little difficulty in learning English.
2.4. Complete the following by adding a suitable ending:
a) The lecture was very difficult to understand. Consequently, _______________________________

b) Carlos was only able to read very slowly in English. Therefore, ____________________________
c) Margaret is bilingual. In other words, _________________________________________________
d) Some people say that if you are good at music you will also be good at learning languages. To put it
more simply, ____________________________________________________________________
e) It seemed likely that he would fail the test. However, _____________________________________
f) There were a number of good reasons why he should not finish the experiment. Nevertheless,
___________________________________________________________________________
2.5. Complete with suitable phrases the following extract from an essay on ‘British weather’.
The British are famous all over the world for their obsession with the weather, but in fact the reality is
more complex than people often believe. This essay sets out to examine some of the principal influences
on the weather of the British Isles.
............................................................................ is the geographical position of Britain, situated on the
extreme western edge of the European continent. This means that a variety of weather types can
dominate the country. ................................... the Atlantic Ocean can produce warm wet winds, especially
in winter. .............................. the land mass of Europe can create anticyclonic weather, hot in summer
and cold in winter. .................. the polar region to the north can generate cold winds at most seasons of
the year.
...................................................................... variations within Britain, there are significant differences
between regions. ............................... the south of England can be much warmer than the north of
Scotland, especially in winter. ........................ the west of Britain is usually much wetter than the
east. ........................... even in the same district, hilly areas will be cooler and wetter than the lowlands.
............................................ is seasonal change, which in Britain is less distinct than in many
countries. ....................... the Atlantic moderates extreme types of weather, and ....................... the
weather pattern can change radically from year to year. As a result warm days in winter and chilly
summer winds frequently surprise visitors to this country.
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Ioana Mohor-Ivan
3. Introductions
Note
There is no such thing as a standard introduction, and much depends on the nature of the research and
the length of the essay. However, for a relatively short essay, the following are worth including:
a) Definitions of any terms in the title that are unclear
b) Some background information
c) Reference to other writers who have discussed this topic
d) Your purpose in writing and the importance of the subject
e) The points you are going to make/areas you are going to cover
3.1. Study the following extracts from introductions below and decide which of the functions in the box
they fulfil.
i) explain starting point for research

ii) state aims/goals
iii) refer to recent research in same area
iv) give results of research
v) provide background information
vi) concede limitations
a) In many companies, the knowledge of most employees remains untapped for solving problems and
generating new ideas.
b) This paper positions Call Centres at the core of the mix of technologies public administration can use
to innovate e-commerce.
c) In fact, this is one of our main findings based on an extended sample period up to 1998.
d) Admittedly, the tenor of my argument is tentative and exploratory.
e) The purpose of this paper is to investigate changes in the incidence of extreme warm and cold
temperatures over the globe since 1870.
f) To what extent do increases in the food available per person at a national level contribute to reductions
in child malnutrition? This question has generated a wide range of responses (Haddad et al., 1997).
109
3.2.The following are some other common methods used for introducing essays. Read and
discuss them:
a) opening with the thesis statement:

e.g. Hitler’s murder of eight million Jews has given West Germany a legacy of guilt evident in some of
its major foreign policies.
b) opening with a broad statement

e.g. Sometimes unwelcome guests are just what a party needs.
c) opening with a scene-setter

e.g. For anyone fortunate enough to have a wood-burning fireplace, sitting in front of a healthy fire on a
frosty winter afternoon provides a sense of comfort and luxury.
d) opening with a quotation
e.g. H.L. Mencken defined “Puritanism” as “the haunting fear that someone, somewhere, may be happy.”
e) opening with an anecdote

e.g. When Jonathan Swift described Gulliver’s trip to the land of Laputa in Gulliver’s Travels, he
depicted scientists who had one eye turned inward and the other aimed at the stars.
f) opening with a statistics or a fact

e.g. Fully half the fatal automobile accidents in England involve a drunk driver, according to the Royal
Division of Motor Vehicles.
3.3. What methods are used in the following introductions?
a) People are always talking about ‘the problem of youth’. If there is one – which I take leave to doubt
– then it is older people who create it, not the young themselves. Let us get down to fundamentals
and agree that the young are after all human beings – people just like their elders. There is only one
difference between an old man and a young one: the young man has a glorious future before him
and the old one has a splendid future behind him: and maybe that is where the rub is.
b) A young man sees a sunset and, unable to understand or to express the emotion that it rouses in
him, concludes that is must be the gateway to a world that lies beyond. It is difficult for any of us in
moments of intense aesthetic experience to resist the suggestion that we are catching a glimpse
from a different realm of existence, different and, because the experience is intensely moving, in
110
Ioana Mohor-Ivan
some way greater than we can describe; for language, which was invented to convey the meanings
of this world, cannot readily be fitted to the uses of another. That all great art has this power of
suggesting a world beyond is undeniable, but in some moods Nature shares it.
c) “Let my skin wither, my hands grow numb, my bones dissolve; until I have attained understanding
I will not rise from here.” Dusk had come, and the resolute prince – the day was his 35th birthday –
sat down cross-legged and began to meditate through the watches of the night. And when he finally
rose, there arose with him a new religion. For he was Siddharth Gautama and the understanding he
attained in a night of transcending revelations made him Buddha, “awakened” – the Enlightened
One. Out of the mission he then set for himself – to impart the secret of enlightenment to all who
desire salvation – came the faith we call Buddhism.
d) If God invented whiskey to prevent the Irish from ruling the world, then who invented Ireland?
3.4. Write an introduction to an essay on one of the following subjects:

a) Compare the education system in England and Romania.
b) Assess the importance of public transport in the modern city.
c) ‘Each man is an island’ – Discuss.
d) To what extent is a higher education necessary for personal development?
4. Transitional paragraphs
All the discourse types presented in the previous chapter may be employed to create the special purpose
paragraphs that make up the body of your essay. Here follows a brief recapitulation of these:
Description
General purpose: enhance the readers understanding and appreciation of a certain topic; help the readers
identify something by providing specific information; establish a mood or create an atmosphere.
Tasks:
a) determine the purpose of the description
b) determine the dominant impression you want to convey to your readers, by selecting reinforcing
details.
Exposition:
General purpose: clarify and explain.
Forms of exposition:
a) exemplification
111
b) comparison/contrast
c) analogy
d) classification
e) definition
f) process analysis
g) causal analysis
Narrative :
General purpose: informing the readers of an event or a series of events.
Tasks:
a) identify the feeling or idea you wish to convey through your narrative
b) arrange the narrative events chronologically, selecting the details that will reinforce that feeling or
idea.
c) determine whether you can gain greater impact by rearranging the chronology, perhaps placing the
most important or interesting episode at the beginning or the end.
Argumentation:
General purpose: convince the readers about a point, by setting forth the reasons (presentation of
observations, experience, generalisations, facts and statistics that make up the evidence) along with the
conclusions drawn from them.
5. Conclusions
Note
There is usually a link between the starting point, i.e. the title, and the conclusion. If the title is asking
a question, the conclusion should contain the answer. The reader may look at the conclusion first to
get a quick idea of the main arguments or points.
5.1. Read the following extracts from conclusions and match them with the list of functions
in the box.
1 concluding with a summary 2 concluding with a prediction 3 concluding with a question
4 concluding with recommendations 5 concluding with a quotation 6 using combined methods
112
Ioana Mohor-Ivan
a) The children of Dolphu and Wangri are learning that the sabu – snow leopard – is worth more to
them alive than as a pelt for barter. As they come of age and take their places in village concerns,
they could become the most effective guardians of their national treasure, keeping the snow
leopards of the Langu a safe distance from the edge of extinction.
b) Trust, then, open trust has nothing to do with expecting or doing specific, predetermined things in
marriage, but rather with sharing the knowledge of your immediate desires and needs with your
mate, living for now and not for yesterday or tomorrow, living not the life that somebody else has
laid out for you in terms of role expectations, living instead for your own self through share
communication and growth with your mate’s self. Trust then is freedom to assume responsibility
for your own self first and then to share that human self in love with your partner in a marriage
that places no restrictions upon growth or limits on fulfilment.
c) It is clear from the examples above that the state is spending far more on highways than it is on
education. Most residents will be glad to have efficient road systems for getting to and from work
as well as for easy access to recreation areas. However, if current spending trends continue, the
question that voters will have to answer is, “Do I want to be on the same highway with
functionally illiterate drivers?”
d) Afterwards one can choose – not simply accept – the phrases that will best cover the meaning, and
then switch round and decide what impressions one’s words are likely to make on another person.
This last effort of the mind cuts out all stale or mixed images, all prefabricated phrases, needless
repetitions, and humbug and vagueness generally. But one can often be in doubt about the effect
of a word or a phrase, and one needs rules that one can rely on when instinct fails. I think the
following rules will cover most cases:
a) Never use a metaphor, simile or other figure of speech, which you are used to seeing in print.
b) Never use a long word where a short one will do.
c) If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.
d) Never use the passive where you can use the active.
e) Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word or a jargon word if you can think of an everyday
English equivalent.
f) Break any of these rules sooner than say anything barbarous.
These rules sound elementary, and so they are, but they demand a deep change of attitude in
anyone who has grown used to writing in the style now fashionable.
113
Select Bibliography
Bailey, Stephen, Academic Writing: A practical guide for students, London and New York, Routledge,
2003.
Celce-Murcia, M. and E. Olshtain, Discourse and context in language teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2000.
Craswell, Gail, Writing for Academic Success: A postgraduate guide, London, Thousand Oaks, New
Delhi: Sage Publications, 2005.
Dooley, Robert A. and Stephen H. Levinsohn, Analyzing Discourse: A Manual of Basic Concepts, Grand
Forks: University of North Dakota, 2000.
Gehle, Quentin L. and Duncan J. Rollo, Writing Essays: a process approach, New York: St. Martin’s
Press, 1987.
Hartley, James, Academic Writing and Publishing: A practical guide, London and New York, Routledge,
2008.
Lester, James D., Writing Research Papers: A complete guide, 9th edition, New York: Addison-Wesley
Educational Publishers, 1999.
Mohor-Ivan, Ioana, Writing in Focus, Galati, Europlus, 2014.
Murray, Rowena and Sarah Moore, The Handbook of Academic Writing, Maidenhead: Open University
Press, 2006.
Palmer, Richard, Write in Style: A guide to good English, 2nd edition, London and New York: Routledge,
2002.
Spatt, Brenda, Writing from Sources, 3rd edition, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1991.
van Dijk, T. (ed.), Discourse studies: A multidisciplinary introduction, 2 vols, London: Sage, 1997.
Wiśniewski, Kamil, Discourse Analysis, New York: Longman, 2006.
114

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Ioana

4.6. Cockney Rhyming Slang ............................................................................................................. 53

Select Bibliography …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………114

1. Grammar and Vocabulary

a) My friend (come) to see us next month.

l) I _________________ (visit, never) Africa, but I _________________ (travel) to South

1.2. Modals and Conditionals

1.2.2. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tenses:

BOOTS THE CHEMISTS

1.4. Singular or plural

f) It is common to move from the countryside to find job.

1.4.2. Read the text and underline the correct alternative.

1.6. Countable and Uncountable

1.6.2. In the following sentences, underline the correct alternative.

b) A small change ________ demand can lead to large price rises.

1.6.3. Complete the text with suitable prepositions.

1.7. Word order

1.7.1. Re-write the following sentences correctly.

e) They both again reached home.

1.8. Prefixes / Suffixes

auto autopilot The plane flew on autopilot for six hours.

Micro microscope She studied the tiny animals with a microscope.

1.8.2. Suggest possible meanings for the words in italic.

1.9. Words often confused

a) He ________ a big effort to finish in time. (do/make)

1.9.3. Fill in the blank with either accept or except.

d) It will cure anything _______________ flat feet.

1.9.4. Fill in the blank with either affect or effect.

1.9.5. Correct the errors in the following sentences:

1.11. Further practice

a) Table 3 is showing that most of this accidents occurs to young children.

a) Your hands are not very clear.

h) He did not leave me to go.

y) They wanted to make us a surprise.

2. Spelling and Punctuation

2.1. Commonly Misspelled Words

2.1.3. Write in either ie or ei to complete the words below.

the finest such preformences Ive ever seen.

regulations issued by the university during the preceeding semester.

safely at the border where they where rescued by local police.

incredable ineptitude came to light.

2.2.Punctuation Marks and Capital Letters

2.2.2. Identify the main uses of the following punctuation marks:

2.3. Further Practice

3. Sentences and Paragraphing

3.1. Joining sentences

a) He was in Italy last year. Now he has returned home. (but)

a) She thought I was a friend of hers. She greeted me.

a) Something Went Wrong In Jet Crash, Expert Says (newspaper headline)

b) Squad Helps Dog Bite Victim (newspaper headline)

3.2. Rhythm and Variation

4. Register and Style

B. Dear Professor Smith,

4.1.2.Compare the following explanations or definitions of economics. To what register do they

4.2. Formal / Informal

4.2.2. Select the better alternative in each case.

4.3.2. Rewrite the following text in more cautious language.

4.3.3. What is redundant in the following examples?

In formal writing try to avoid:

4.4. Colloquial English and Slang

4.4.1. Re-write the following dialogues in a more formal register:

she cannot extricate herself.

l) I _ (visit, never) Africa, but I _ (travel) to South