HANDBOOK

ON
TEXT TYPOLOGY
SECON EDITION

Texts and Materials

for Students of
Translation and Interpreting

Mercedes Díaz Dueñas

Julian Bourne

Granada 2021

Editorial Técnica AVICAM fleming

 No está permitida la reproducción total o
parcial de esta obra, ni su tratamiento informático, ni
la transmisión de ninguna forma o por ningún medio, ya sea electrónico,
mecánico, por fotocopia, u otros medios, sin el permiso previo y por
escrito de los titulares del Copyright.

© Mercedes Díaz Dueñas y Julian Bourne

Segunda edición, 2021

Edita: Editorial Técnica Avicam

avicamediciones@gmail.com

ISBN:
Depósito Legal: GR-2021

Maquetación e Impresión: Editorial Técnica Avicam

Impreso en España–Printed in Spain
 FOREWORD

This handbook aims to introduce students of English to text typology. It is particularly

useful for second-year students of Lengua B4 Inglés and third-year students of Lengua
C6 Inglés of the Degree Translation and Interpreting at the University of Granada.
The explanations and materials contained in this volume are designed to facilitate the
students’ understanding of the uses and conventions of different text types and genres,
which will allow them to analyse and to reproduce adequate versions of the texts they
may encounter in their academic and professional career. The handbook draws on
state-of-the-art and classic academic sources by leading authors devoted to the study
of textual typology (also called genre analysis), as well as online materials and real
examples of different texts.
The volume contains eight units. It begins with a general introduction to textual
typology, followed by seven units that address texts pertaining to the fields of the media,
literature, science, law, business, politics and advertising. Each unit provides theoretical
explanations, examples of texts and activities that are designed to help students, either
in class or on their own, to assimilate and practise the contents they have learned. In
addition, a checklist of the main points studied in the unit is included at the end of each
one to allow students to measure their progress. To facilitate autonomous learning, an
answer key is included at the end of the book. Finally, an extensive list of the references
to the sources mentioned in the unit as well as further reading suggestions appear at the
end of each chapter. The materials and activities have already been tried out in class for
several years and have proved to be effective.
The second edition of this handbook updates the previous edition with current
vocabulary, up-to-date links and further exercises.
erary language
 CONTENTS

Unit 1. Introduction to textual typology ................................................................... 7

1.1. Some basic concepts ..................................................................................... 7
1.1.1. Genre ..................................................................................................... 8
1.1.2. Type ........................................................................................................ 12
1.2. Grammatical, lexical and textual features ..................................................... 16

Unit 2. The language of the media ............................................................................ 19

2.1. The Mass Media ............................................................................................. 19
2.2. Newspapers ................................................................................................... 22
2.2.1. Headlines ............................................................................................... 25
2.2.2. News reports.......................................................................................... 26
2.3. Social Media .................................................................................................. 28
2.3.1. Neologisms ............................................................................................ 30
2.3.2. Textspeak ............................................................................................... 32
2.3.3. Memes ................................................................................................... 32

Unit 3. Literary language........................................................................................... 37

3.1. Introduction: Literary genres ......................................................................... 37
3.2. Is there a literary language? ........................................................................... 38
3.3. Rhetorical devices ......................................................................................... 44
3.4. Intertextuality ................................................................................................ 47
3.5. Computer-assisted corpora ............................................................................ 47

Unit 4. Technical and scientific language .................................................................. 53

4.1. Introduction .................................................................................................. 53
4.2. General characteristics .................................................................................. 53
4.3. Examples of scientific and technical texts...................................................... 57

Unit 5. The language of legal texts ............................................................................ 67

5.1. Introduction .................................................................................................. 67
5.1.1. Definition ........................................................................................... 67
5.1.2. Types of law ........................................................................................ 68
5.2. General characteristics of legal language ...................................................... 70
5.3. Examples of legal texts .................................................................................. 73
5.4. The language of court ................................................................................... 77
Unit 6. Business English ............................................................................................ 81
6.1. Introduction .................................................................................................. 81
6.2. Written and spoken Business English ............................................................. 82
6.2.1. Business letters, faxes and emails ....................................................... 86
6.2.2. CVs, job interviews, cover and reference letters ................................. 86
6.2.3. Business meetings ............................................................................... 86
6.3. Publications ................................................................................................... 88

Unit 7. Political language .......................................................................................... 93

7.1. Introduction .................................................................................................. 93
7.2. Famous political speeches ............................................................................. 99
7.3. UK Parliament ............................................................................................... 102
7.3.1. Specialized vocabulary ....................................................................... 103
7.3.2. Forms of address ................................................................................. 104
7.3. European Parliament ..................................................................................... 102

Unit 8. The language of advertising ........................................................................... 109

8.1. Introduction .................................................................................................. 109
8.2. Linguistic features.......................................................................................... 112
8.3. Parts of a written advertisement .................................................................... 116

ANSWER KEY ............................................................................................................ 125

 UNIT 1. INTRODUCTION TO
TEXTUAL TYPOLOGY

This book aims to enable students to recognize and produce different types of texts
following the conventions used in each of them. Probably, in earlier stages of their
language training, text typologies have been acquired intuitively and more attention has
been devoted to the production of grammatically correct and pragmatically appropriate
texts. Now is the time to study consciously and reflexively how different types of texts
are built and how they function. This will place the student in a better position to
produce translations that are appropriate, correct and relevant to their purpose.
Text Typology attempts to classify texts through the definition of certain criteria.
Depending on the criteria used, different classifications of texts will emerge, resulting
in the distinction between text types, text classes, styles or genres. There is no
comprehensive and universally applicable classification of text typology, although many
attempts have been made from different perspectives (functional, situational, strategic,
etc.).
Trosborg (1997) rightly observes how different types of text differ in ways that can be
distinguished intuitively, but which nevertheless require a detailed analysis (3). Bhatia
(1993) notes that various disciplines, such as linguistics, rhetoric, the ethnography of
speaking, pragmatics and discourse analysis have contributed to the study and taxonomy
of text typology. Particularly, so-called genre analysis has been especially popular and
has been explored by literary scholars, rhetoricians, sociologists, discourse analysts,
cognitive scientists, machine translator scholars, computational linguists, ESP specialists,
business communication experts and language teachers, among others (ix).

Exercise 1
In your opinion, in what ways is the study of text types or genres relevant for future
translators and interpreters?

1.1. Some basic concepts: genre and type

In order to be able to discuss textual typology, we should set out by defining certain
concepts and terms that will be needed to understand this way of analysing texts. To
begin, this section discusses the notions of genre and type.

7
Handbook on Text Typology

1.1.1. Genre
The term genre, which was originally used in literary criticism and later adopted
by linguists such as Halliday (1977), gained momentum in Translation Theory around
the 1980s, as Montalt i Resurrecció and García Izquierdo (2002) observe. According
to Faya Ornia (2015), it is precisely because the term genre has been used in so many
disciplines, that it is difficult to agree on its definition (5).
In the 1970s Halliday based his definition of genre on the notions of field, tenor
and mode. This definition has served as the foundation for many later studies. The
aforementioned three categories basically refer to the answers to the questions posed
by what?, who? and how? in relation to any communicative situation. Later on, Halliday
and Hassan (1989) expounded on how these aspects of context affect language
variation. We should not forget that Halliday also explained how we use language
within a situation and a culture, both of which should be taken into account to
interpret, understand and evaluate any text. He employed the terms Context of Culture
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8
 Unit 1. Introduction to textual typology

Another important consideration is that when we refer to socio-cultural aspects,

we have to contemplate not only the culture of a specific country, but also the cultural
aspects implicit in a certain field of knowledge (Faya Ornia, 10). This handbook is
primarily organized around specific fields that will cover various genres and different
text types.

Exercise 2
Read the following excerpts and decide what is the field, tenor and mode for the
second one. The first has been done for you.

Pottermore is the digital publishing, e-commerce, entertainment and news company

created by J.K. Rowling. According to its information webpage1 it offers “news, features,
and articles as well as new and previously unreleased writing by J.K. Rowling.” Here2 we
can find the following text (excerpt 1):

Writing by J.K. Rowling

Discover new and exclusive writing from the pen of J.K. Rowling. Today we feature
exclusive writing that explores the wizarding schools around the world and the history
of magic in North America

FIELD: Field refers to the topic being talked/written about (what?). Here the domain
is ‘J.K. Rowling’s new release’. Text 1 is written by the webmasters for promotional
purposes and the goal-orientation could be to persuade readers in general, and
particularly J.K. Rowling’s fans, to read the texts and pay for the new releases.
TENOR: Tenor deals with the participants in the communicative exchange (who?).
The social distance for this text would be medium: it is appealing to people with an
interest in J.K. Rowling but also wants its appeal to be broad enough to encourage new
visitors. Therefore the language assumes a fairly close relationship with the reader, who
is addressed directly, but the lexis is quite formal.
MODE: Mode attends to the channel of communication (how?). It is a written text
inviting readers to explore the website. Although mode was originally conceived in
either/or terms of written versus spoken language, nowadays it tends to be measured on
a continuum between the two channels, since a lot of written language imitates features
of spoken language, and vice versa (Chaume: 2012, 143). So here, although the mode is
written, it has a directness which is similar to face-to-face interaction.

1. <https://www.pottermore.com/about/us>
2. <https://www.pottermore.com/writing-by-jk-rowling>

9
Handbook on Text Typology

On 17th August, 2016 the Time magazine published an article by Melissa Chan,
under the title “J.K. Rowling Is About to Release 3 New Harry Potter Books”3, in which
we can read (excerpt 2):

Rowling reveals surprises and intricate details about several characters’ lives in the
three new ebooks, which are available next month, Pottermore CEO Susan Jurevics
said in a statement to TIME. The collections are presented by Pottermore, the
interactive website Rowling created for Harry Potter fanatics, and cost about $3 each
and will be released Sept. 6.

As we have seen, when looking at the field, tenor and mode, we have to take into
account that these influence the language choices in texts. In this case, it is particularly
interesting to see how these factors affect the length and complexity of the words and
sentences in each text, as well as the grammatical and lexical choices. It is useful to
ponder on these aspects, because learners of English as a Foreign Language often forget
that language is not just a set of structures and lists of words to be learnt, independently
of any social context.
Although there are many approaches to the definition of genre, we can adopt Hatim
and Mason’s definition as a valid starting point to understand the term. According to
these authors, genres are “conventional forms of texts associated with particular types of
social occasion (e.g. the sonnet, the cooking recipe, etc.)” (1990:241). A little earlier in
the same book they provide further detail, explaining that:
Genres are ‘conventionalised forms of texts’ which reflect the functions and goals involved
in particular social occasions as well as the purposes of the participants in them. (Hatim
and Mason, 69)

In this definition it is helpful to consider that formal aspects are referred to when it
mentions “conventionalised forms”; cognitive aspects are at play in what is called the
participants’ purposes; and socio-cultural aspects are taken into consideration with the
reference to “social occasions”.
Convention is a key concept in the definition and understanding of genres, because
it is precisely those conventionalised features which allow authors to shape their texts to
achieve a certain communicative purpose and, at the same time, enable the audience
to recognize and interpret the text correctly. Furthermore, it is essential to keep in mind
that these conventions are culture-specific and subject to change throughout time. Nord
(2005) expresses this idea as follows:
Certain genres that are very common today did not exist in former times (e.g. radio news or
advertisements), whereas others, which were quite commonplace centuries ago (e.g. magic

3. <http://time.com/4455746/j-k-rowling-pottermore-new-harry-potter-books/>

10
 Unit 1. Introduction to textual typology

spells or heroic poems) have changed function or become obsolete altogether. Genre
conventions are not universal, but linked to a certain culture at a certain time. (21)

The concept of communicative community is also useful in the understanding of

classifications of texts. It was first introduced by Ludwik Zabrocki (1963) to refer to a
group of people who exchange information. Other authors, such as Herzberg (1986), use
the term discourse community instead of communicative community. Herzberg explains
the relationship between discourse community and the conventions of certain genres as
follows:
Use of the term ‘discourse community’ testifies to the increasingly common assumption
that discourse operates within conventions defined by communities, be they academic
disciplines or social groups. The pedagogies associated with writing across the curriculum
and academic English now use the notion of ‘discourse communities’ to signify a cluster of
ideas: that language use in a group is a form of social behavior, that discourse is a means of
maintaining and extending the group’s knowledge and of initiating new members into the
group, and that discourse is epistemic or constitutive of the group’s knowledge. (1)

Swales (1990:25-29) provides further explanation and lists six characteristics of

discourse communities. First of all, a discourse community shares common public
goals, although its members do not necessarily have the same object of study. Secondly,
they possess mechanisms of intercommunication, e.g. meetings, telecommunications,
correspondence, newsletters and conversations. Thirdly, they also share participatory
mechanisms to provide information and feedback, because someone who receives,
for example, a journal or newsletter, but never reads it cannot be said to belong to
that discourse community. In addition, while they may use one or more genres in their
communication, they are aware of the “appropriacy of topics, the form, function and
positioning of discoursal elements” (26). Furthermore, they share a specific lexis. Finally,
a certain number of members in the discourse community have “a suitable degree of
relevant content and discoursal expertise” (27).
With these notions in mind, a more comprehensive and detailed definition of genre
can be grasped. Swales (1990) defines genre as follows:
A genre comprises a class of communicative events, the members of which share some
set of communicative purposes. These purposes are recognized by the expert members of
the parent discourse community, and thereby constitute the rationale for the genre. This
rationale shapes the schematic structure of the discourse and influences and constrains
choice of content and style. Communicative purpose is both a privileged criterion and
one that operates to keep the scope of a genre as here conceived narrowly focused on
comparable rhetorical action. In addition to purpose, exemplars of a genre exhibit various
patterns of similarity in terms of structure, style, content and intended audience. If all high
probability expectations are realized, the exemplar will be viewed as prototypical by the
parent discourse community. (58)

11
Handbook on Text Typology

The range of genres is very ample and differs from one categorization to another. To
mention just a few, there are very simple ones, such as recipes, or more complex ones,
such as research papers. Other examples include letters of reference, advertisements
and memoirs, among many others. In the remaining units of this handbook we will
examine some of these genres. If you wish to examine another possible classification
with examples, go to the “Chart of Text Features, Forms, and Genres” published
by Queen’s Printer for Ontario, 2006, at: http://eworkshop.on.ca/edu/pdf/mod37_
textforms_genres.pdf

Exercise 3
Take into consideration the definitions of genre you have read so far. Could you
summarize the main elements that contribute to the definition of a genre? Try to
provide your own definition of genre.

1.1.2. Type
Now that we have dealt with the concept of genre, it is necessary to turn our
attention to the notion of text type. In the same way as there is no consensus in the
definition of genre, different authors provide alternative explanations of text type. Some
authors, such as Alcaraz Varó (2000), do not establish any difference at all between
genre and type. However, Brian Paltridge (2002) recalls a distinction made by Biber that
seems particularly helpful:
Biber (1989, p. 6) observed that texts within particular genres “differ greatly in their
linguistic characteristics; for example, newspaper articles can range from extremely
narrative and colloquial in linguistic form to extremely informational and elaborated in
form.” On the other hand, he found that different genres can be quite similar linguistically.
For example, newspaper articles and articles in popular magazines are often nearly
identical in form.
[…] For him, the term genre characterized texts on the basis of external criteria, such
as a text that is written or spoken by a particular person, for a particular audience, in a
particular context, for a particular purpose, and viewed by the discourse community
as being an example of the particular genre. Examples of genres, taken from this
perspective, include university calendars, documented essays, research reports, lectures,
and tutorials. Text types, on the other hand, represent rhetorical modes such as “problem-
solution,” “exposition,” or “argument” type texts that are similar in terms of internal
discourse patterns, irrespective of genre. Genre and text type thus represent different yet
complementary perspectives on texts […] (73-74)

The following table, taken from Paltridge’s classification, exemplifies some instances
of genres and text types (based on Hammond, Burns, Joyce, Brosnan, & Gerot, 1992):

12
 Unit 1. Introduction to textual typology

GENRE TEXT TYPE

Recipe Procedure
Personal letter Anecdote
Advertisement Description
Police report Description
Student essay Exposition
Formal letter Exposition
News item Recount
Health brochure Procedure
Student assignment Recount
Biology textbook Report
Film review Review

This distinction between genre and text type has been widely accepted in the area
of translation studies. Genres are regarded as conventionalized forms of texts that are
guided by the communicative goals of particular situations, while the distinction
between text types is based on rhetorical expressions (e.g. descriptive, argumentative,
persuasive).
According to Gramley and Pätzold (1992), we can distinguish five major text types:
ß Narrative
ß Descriptive
ß Directive
ß Expository
ß Argumentative
On the one hand, narrative, descriptive and directive texts are concerned with the
real world. On the other hand, expository and argumentative texts involve explanation
and persuasion. Since both relate to mental processes, they are regarded as cognitively
oriented texts.
Firstly, narrative texts deal with real-world events and time, whether fictional (e.g.
short stories, fairy tales, novels) or non-fictional (newspaper report). Some possible
characteristics are a sequencing of events expressed by dynamic verbs and by adverbials
such as “and then”, “first”, “second”, “third”.
Secondly, descriptive texts have to do with the location of persons and things in
space. They situate the reader/listener spatially or offer background information which
can set the backdrop for narration. These descriptions may be rather technical (objective)

13
Handbook on Text Typology

or more impressionistic (subjective). Often this type of text contains a combination of

state or positional verbs and adverbial expressions. For example, “The shed is located on
the right-hand side at the rear.”
Thirdly, directive texts address specific future activity. One of the most outstanding
features of this type of text are imperatives (“Press the green button.”), equivalent forms,
such as polite questions (“Would you press the green button?”) or suggestions (“I wonder
what would happen if you pressed the green button?”).
Fourthly, expository texts identify and describe phenomena. For example, essays,
definitions, explanations and summaries are regarded as expository texts. This type of
text can be subdivided into subjective (e.g. essay) or objective (e.g. summary), and into
analytical (starting from a concept and then characterizing its parts; e.g. definitions) or
synthetic (describing certain features and concluding with an appropriate concept; e.g.
summaries). Their characteristics include the use of state verbs (“Some children have
no sense of danger”) and epistemic modals (“An EU trade mark may consist of any
sign…”) or verbs describing certain activities or qualities (“Dancing develops rhythmic
awareness”).
Finally, argumentative texts are built to present arguments on an issue or to change
the reader’s/listener’s opinion. They include persuasive texts, such as the ones found in
advertising, which try to persuade their audience, at least implicitly, that a particular
product is better than others.
To conclude, it must be observed that few texts are pure realizations of a single
type. For instance, advertisements can be both argumentative (“this product is the best
because...”) and directive (“So try it now!”).4

Exercise 4
Read the following excerpts and decide what type of text they belong to.

Excerpt 1: Papa and Mama

My father, Harald Dahl, was a Norwegian who came from a small town near Oslo,
called Sarpsborg. His own father, my grandfather, was a fairly prosperous merchant
who owned a store in Sarpsborg and traded in just about everything from cheese to
chicken-wire.
I am writing these words in 1984, but this grandfather of mine was born, believe it or
not, in 1820, shortly after Wellington had defeated Napoleon at Waterloo.4

4. Boy by Rohald Dahl, 1984

14
 Unit 1. Introduction to textual typology

5678

Excerpt 2
serendipity (ˌsɛrənˈdɪpɪtɪ)
n
the faculty of making fortunate discoveries by accident
[C18: coined by Horace Walpole, from the Persian fairy tale The Three Princes of
Serendip, in which the heroes possess this gift]5

Excerpt 3
Sri Lanka is filled with such romantic landscapes, governed by rising mountains, lush
forests, ocean-like lakes and gushing waterfalls, that it was considered the lost paradise
by many a globetrotter who fell upon the country. The golden beaches of the country
have been praised for their picture-postcard views since eternity. The dusk and dawn
and many activities connected to these times of day create a vibrant picture along the
coasts of Sri Lanka.6

Excerpt 4
Ladies and gentlemen, this is Linda Smith and I’m your chief flight attendant. On behalf
of Captain Thomson and the entire crew, welcome aboard British Airways Airlines flight
8734, non-stop service from Madrid to New York.
At this time, make sure your seat backs and tray tables are in their full upright position
and that your seat belt is correctly fastened. Also, your portable electronic devices must
be set to ‘airplane’ mode until an announcement is made upon arrival. Thank you.7

Excerpt 5
Encouraging children to eat a nutritious, balanced diet early on is important for a
number of reasons. Ensuring they get the right vitamins and minerals in their diet will
help them grow and develop optimally. They are also more likely to be energised and
motivated, supporting their ability to learn. Educating them on healthy eating during
childhood will also help them make healthier choices as they become adults.8

5. Boy by Rohald Dahl, 1984

6. Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged, 12th Edition 2014. (1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003,
2006, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2014). Retrieved 23 November 2016 from http://www.thefreedictionary.com/
serendipities
7. Adapted from Sri Lanka Wonder of Asia. Scenic. Retrieved 23 November 2016 from http://www.srilanka.
travel/scenic_beauty
8. Based on information retrieved 23 November 2016 from https://airodyssey.net/reference/inflight/

15
Handbook on Text Typology

1.2. Grammatical, lexical and textual features

In order to analyse a text we need to work through several levels. Following
Flowerdew (2002), and for the sake of clarity, we will deal with the text types in each
unit of this book systematically, starting with the schematic structure and continuing
with the lexico-grammatical structure. Nevertheless, we are aware that in practice
the “various interrelated levels of analysis go on at the same time: identification of
communicative purpose(s), schematic structure, grammatical features, lexical features,
etc.” (95).9Each unit will foreground the most relevant aspects in each text type or genre.

References
Alcaraz Varó, Enrique. El inglés profesional y académico. Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 2000.
Bhatia, Vijay K. Analysing Genre. Language Use in Professional Settings. London/New York:
Longman, 1993.
Chaume, Frederic. Audiovisual Translation: Dubbing. Manchester: St Jerome, 2012.
Colina, Sonia. “Contrastive Rhetoric and Text-typological Conventions in Translation Teaching.”
Target 9 (1997): 335-353.
Faya Ornia, Goretti. Estudio contrastivo (inglés-español) del género textual del folleto médico.
Granada: Comares, 2015.
Flowerdew, John. “Genre in the Classroom: A Linguistic Approach” in Ann M. Johns (ed) Genre in
the Classroom: Multiple Perspectives. New York and London: Routledge, 2002.
Gramley, Stephan & Kurt-Michael Pätzol. A Survey of Modern English. London: Routledge, 1992.
Halliday, Michael A. K. Aims and Perspectives in Linguistics. Brisbane: Applied Linguistics
Association of Australia, 1977.
Halliday, Michael & Ruqaiya Hasan. Language, Context, and Text: Aspects of Language in a Social-
semiotic Perspective. Oxford: OUP, 1989.
Hammond, Jenny, Anne Burns, Helen Joyce, Daphne Brosnan, & Linda Gerot. English for Social
Purposes: A Handbook for teachers of adult literacy. Sidney: National Center for English
Language Teaching and Research, 1992.
Hatim, Basil and Ian Mason. Discourse and the Translator. London: Longman, 1990.
Herzberg, Bruce. “The politics of discourse communities.” Paper presented at the CCC Convention,
New Orleans, LA, March, 1986.
Montalt i Resurrecció, Vicent and Isabel García Izquierdo. “Translating into Textual Genres.”
Lingüistica Antverpiensia 1 Linguistics & Translation Studies (2002): 135-145.
Nord, Christiane. Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology, and Didactic Application of a
Model for Translation-oriented Text Analysis. Amsterdam & New York: Rodopi, 2005.

9. Nutritionist Resource. Healthy eating for kids. http://www.nutritionist-resource.org.uk/content/healthy-eating-

for-kids.html. Retrieved 23 November 2016.

16
 Unit 1. Introduction to textual typology

Paltridge, Brian. “Genre, Text Type, and the English for Academic Purposes (EAP) Classroom” in
Ann M. Johns (ed.), Genre in the Classroom: Multiple Perspectives. New York and London:
Routledge, 2002.
Swales, John M. Genre Analysis. English in Academic and Research Settings. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Trosborg, Anna, (ed.), Text Typology and Translation. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins
Publishing Company, 1997.
Zabrock, Ludwik. Communicative Communities in the Genesis and Development of German I: The
Prehistory of German. Warszawa: PWN, 1963.

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17
a