Introduction to

RADAR SYSTEMS
MERRILL I. SKOLNIK

Research Division
Electronic Communications, Inc.
Institute for Defense Analyses
International Student Edition
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.
New York San Francisco Toronto London
KOGAKUSHA COMPANY, LTD.
Tokyo

CONTENTS
Preface

CHAPTER 1. THE NATURE OF RADAR 1

1.1. Introduction 1
1.2. The Radar Equation 3
1.3. Radar Block Diagram and Operation 5
1.4. Radar Frequencies 7
1.5. History of Radar Development 8
1.6. Applications of Radar 14
References 19

.CHAPTER 2. THE RADAR EQUATION 20

2.1. Prediction of Range Performance 20

2.2. Minimum Detectable Signal 21
2.3. Receiver Noise 23
2.4. Probability-density Functions 25
2.5. Signal-to-noise Ratio 29
2.6. Integration of Radar Pulses 35
2.7. Radar Cross Section of Targets 40
2.8. Cross-section Fluctuations 50
2.9. Transmitter Power 56
2.10. Pulse Repetition Frequency and Range Ambiguities 57
2.11. Antenna Parameters 58
2.12. System Losses 61
2.13. Propagation Effects 66
2.14. Summary 67
References 70

CHAPTER 3. CW AND FREQUENCY-MODULATED RADAR 72

3.1. The Doppler Effect 72

3.2. CW Radar 73
3.3. Frequency-modulated CW Radar 86
3.4. Airborne Doppler Navigation 103
3.5. Multiple-frequency CW Radar 106
References 111

CHAPTER 4. MTI AND PULSE-DOPPLER RADAR 113

4.1. Moving-target-indication (MTI) Radar 113

4.2. Delay Lines and Cancelers 119
4.3. Subclutter Visibility 140
4.4. MTI Using Range Gates and Filters 151
4.5. Pulse-doppler Radar 153
4.6. Noncoherent MTI 154
4.7. MTI from a Moving Platform—AMTI 155
4.8. Fluctuations Caused by Platform Motion 157
4.9. Effect of Sidelobes on Pulse-doppler AMTI Radar 159
References 162
4.10.
CHAPTER 5. TRACKING RADAR 164

5.1. Tracking with Radar 164

5.2. Sequential Lobing 165
5.3. Conical Scan 166
5.4. Simultaneous Lobing or Monopulse 175
5.5. Target-reflection Characteristics and Angular Accuracy 184
5.6. Tracking in Range 189
5.7. Tracking in Doppler 190
5.8. Acquisition 190
5.9. Examples of Tracking Radars 192
5.10. Comparison of Trackers 195
References 196

CHAPTER 6. RADAR TRANSMITTERS 198

6.1. Introduction 198

6.2. Magnetron Oscillator 199
6.3. Klystron Amplifier 216
6.4. Traveling-wave-tube Amplifier 225
6.5. Amplitron and Stabilitron 227
6.6. Grid-controlled Tubes 233
6.7. Comparison of Tubes 244
6.8. Modulators 248
References 255

CHAPTER 7. ANTENNAS 260

7.1. Antenna Parameters 260
7.2. Antenna Radiation Pattern and Aperture Distribution 264
7.3. Parabolic-reflector Antennas 269
7.4. Scanning-feed Reflector Antennas 277
7.5. Cassegrain Antenna 282
7.6. Lens Antennas 286
7.7. Array Antennas 294
7.8. Pattern Synthesis 320
7.9. Cosecant-squared Antenna Pattern 329
7.10. Effect of Broadband Signals on Antenna Patterns 330
7.11. Effect of Errors on Radiation Patterns 336
7.12. Radomes 343
7.13. Focused Antennas 347
References 349

CHAPTER 8. RECEIVERS 356

8.1. The Radar Receiver 356

8.2. Superheterodyne Receiver 357
8.3. Receiver Noise 361
8.4. Noise Figure 363
8.5. Effective Noise Temperature 365
8.6. Environmental Noise 366
8.7. RF Amplifiers 373
8.8. Crystal Mixers 385
8.9. IF Amplifiers 388
8.10. Displays 391
8.11. Duplexers 395
References 403

CHAPTER 9. DETECTION OF RADAR SIGNALS IN NOISE 408

9.1. Introduction 408

9.2. Matched-filter Receiver 409
9.3. Correlation Detection 418
9.4. Detection Criteria 422
9.5. Inverse Probability 427
9.6. Detector Characteristics 430
9.7. Performance of the Radar Operator 439
9.8. Delay-line Integrators 445
9.9. Binary Integration 446
References 449

CHAPTER 10. EXTRACTION OF INFORMATION FROM RADAR

SIGNALS 453

10.1. Introduction 453

10.2. Phase and Amplitude Measurements 453
10.3. Review of Radar Measurements 455
10.4. Statistical Estimation of Parameters—Likelihood Function 461
10.5. Theoretical Accuracy of Range and Doppler-velocity Measurements 462
10.6. Uncertainty Relation 474
10.7. Angular Accuracy 476
10.8. Transmitted Waveform 482
10.9. Pulse Compression 493
References 498

CHAPTER 11. PROPAGATION OF RADAR WAVES 501

11.1. Introduction 501

11.2. Propagation over a Plane Earth 501
11.3. The Round Earth 506
11.4. Refraction 506
11.5. Anomalous Propagation 509
11.6. Low-altitude Coverage 512
11.7. Radar Diffraction Screen 516
11.8. Attenuation by Atmospheric Gases 517
11.9. Microwave-radiation Hazards 518
References 519

CHAPTER 12. CLUTTER, WEATHER, AND INTERFERENCE 521

12.1. Introduction 521

12.2. Ground Clutter 522
12.3. Sea Clutter 527
12.4. Clutter Reduction 534
12.5. Meteorological Echoes 539
12.6. Attenuation by Precipitation 543
12.7. Visibility of Targets in Weather Clutter 545
12.8. Angels 551
12.9. Interference 554
12.10. ECMandECCM 559
References 567

CHAPTER 13. SYSTEMS ENGINEERING AND DESIGN 570

13.1. Systems Engineering 570

13.2. Radar Parameter Selection 571
13.3. Example—Aircraft-surveillance Radar 572
13.4. ASDE 579
13.5. Airborne Weather-avoidance Radar 582
13.6. Bistatic Radar 585
13.7. Radar Beacons 594
References 601

CHAPTER 14. RADAR DETECTION OF EXTRATERRESTRIAL

OBJECTS 603

14.1. Introduction 603

14.2. Radar Echoes from the Moon 604
14.3. Radar Echoes from the Planets 610
14.4. Radar Detection of the Sun 618
14.5. Radar Detection of Meteors 619
14.6. Radar Observation of Auroras 621
14.7. Radar Observation of Ionized Media 624
14.8. and Tracking of Earth Satellites and Space Vehicles 628
References 634
Index 637

Povratak na popis literature