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Barree2002 PDF
Barree2002 PDF
This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE Program Committee following review of
information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper, as
Fracture Complexity
presented, have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to For many years, fractures were assumed to be bi-wing, single
correction by the author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any
position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Papers presented at planar features (mostly for easier numerical modeling) that
SPE meetings are subject to publication review by Editorial Committees of the Society of
Petroleum Engineers. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper
would stay primarily within the pay zone and grow very long
for commercial purposes without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is (Why would they want to grow anyplace else?). More than 10
prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300
words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous years of direct fracture diagnostics and over 6000 mapped
acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper was presented. Write Librarian, SPE, P.O.
Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836, U.S.A., fax 01-972-952-9435.
fractures have proven those assumptions to be mostly
incorrect. Fractures in the real world are very complex.
Numerous cases have been documented in the literature with
Abstract direct fracture diagnostics, mine-backs and core-throughs
Hydraulic fracturing is key to the economic success of many where fractures are seen in multiple parallel planes, in
oil and gas fields around the world and has improved multiple directions, and in “T-shaped” fashion with both
production in low permeability reservoirs for more than 50 horizontal and vertical components. Existing literature is rife
years. Successful stimulations are engineered to place the with cases of incomplete coverage of pay zones where
proper type and volume of slurry based on estimating the fractures may miss entire perforated intervals, only partially
dimensions of the optimal fracture to be created in a specific cover some intervals, grow primarily out of zone in others,
wellbore. Several commonly used technologies are available deviate significantly from the wellbore causing connection or
which determine important fracture parameters such as link-up problems, and grow into unwanted water or gas
fracture dimensions, fracture orientation, fracture conductivity intervals nearby.
and proppant placement effectiveness. Fracture models are Fracture mapping can be used in real-time to evaluate
today’s most widely used tool to predict the optimal frac whether the entire pay is being sufficiently stimulated,
geometry based on conditional inputs such as closure stress, whether the design calls for enough or too many stages,
pore pressure, permeability, fluid saturation and numerous whether the optimal fracture length has been achieved and
other mechanical and petrophysical properties of the reservoir. whether adjustments need to be made to the existing
In many cases, these parameters are based on assumptions treatment design.
rather than hard data, and incorrect assumptions then lead to
sub-optimal stimulation results. Diagnostics Groups
Direct near-wellbore diagnostics such as radioactive Fracture Diagnostics can be broken into 2 main groups (see
tracers and temperature logging are often used to gather Figure 1): Indirect and Direct Diagnostics. Indirect techniques
information about fracture height and proppant placement include fracture modeling, well testing and production data
effectiveness, while direct far-field diagnostics such as analysis, while Direct measurements are further subdivided
tiltmapping and microseismic fracture mapping are used to into Near-Wellbore (such as radioactive tracers, temperature,
determine hydraulic fracture dimensions and orientation. and production logs) and Far-Field (tiltmeter and microseismic
Direct fracture diagnostics alone only tell the story of what mapping).
happened after the fact on a given well, but they can also be
used to build a calibrated fracture model which accurately
predicts fracture growth in a reservoir. Depending upon the
critical information needed for specific fracture stimulation,
one or more diagnostic tools may be applied. These
diagnostic tools will be discussed and compared in order to
provide a reference of widely used diagnostic tools with
2 R.D. BARREE, M.K. FISHER, R.A. WOODROOF SPE 77442
2 and 3, showing post-frac production and a subsequent Fig. 3-Pressure buildup analysis of the fractured well (from Figure
buildup analysis on the same well. The production plot shows 2) showing Xf=355 ft. Far-field reservoir properties (kh, etc.) are
the same for both the buildup and production history match
a detailed match of the post-frac production using a fully analyses.
three-dimensional reservoir simulator. The far-field reservoir
effective permeability is 0.27 md and the apparent effective This example further points out the difficulty in using
half-length of the created fracture is 28 feet. The dashed line, indirect diagnostic tools to evaluate fracture treatment
shown for comparison, is the predicted well rate for a 300 foot effectiveness. All the indirect measurements respond to
effective fracture length. All fracture lengths are based on an primary variables in the system that actually control the
assumed infinite conductivity. response of the measured parameter to the system dynamics. If
The log-log type curve in Figure 3 shows the results of a these variables are not considered in the overall analysis, the
buildup test conducted at the end of the reservoir flow period. interpretation of the measurements can be wrong even if the
The buildup confirmed the same reservoir permeability, measurements themselves are correct.
thickness, and initial pressure as the production analysis
match, but the effective fracture half-length calculated from Direct Near-Wellbore Fracture Diagnostics
the buildup test was 350 feet, with an infinite conductivity. Radioactive Tracing. Historically radioactive tracing and
This discrepancy may be caused by high-rate non-darcy flow spectral gamma ray logging have been employed to determine
effects that exist during production but dissipate during the the extent of vertical fracture height growth associated with a
shut-in. Theoretical estimates of the effect of non-darcy flow propped fracturing treatment or an acid fracturing treatment.
indicate that changes in apparent fracture length of this Early radioactive tracers that were employed suffered from
magnitude are possible if non-darcy pressure losses plating-out (liquids) and poor integrity (RA-coated sand
are ignored. grains). Early spectral gamma ray tools were limited by the
number of spectral channels available for distinguishing
between multiple RA isotopes. In the last two decades, the
introduction of non-washoff RA ceramic bead tracers and
4 R.D. BARREE, M.K. FISHER, R.A. WOODROOF SPE 77442
Fig. 9-Proppant flowback problems identified in lower zone Fig. 10-Tracer identified perforations shot off depth.
through lack of tracer counts in perforated interval.
Any and all diagnostic technologies have nuances that limit
The last case history falls under the category of completion their range of effectiveness. The main limitation associated
surveillance. The implementation of this technology on a with RA tracing and spectral gamma ray logging is the
broad scale across a field often identifies totally unexpected logging tool’s 24” -30” area of investigation. In highly
problems/opportunities. Figure 10 presents one case in point. deviated wellbores (>30 degrees), hydraulic fractures can
This spectral GR image was generated following a multistage leave the plane of the wellbore such that a vertical fracture
Cotton Valley frac sequence. This portion of a larger image may be visible to this technology for only a few feet above
revealed two interesting anomalies, one near “X020 ft” and and below the interval where it connects with the wellbore.
one near “X120 ft.” The CCL curve presented in track 2 Even then, however, there is evidence within the tracer images
reveals an absence of perforations where intended near “X020 of this phenomenon. Typically there will be a uniform rate of
ft” and a presence of perforations where unintended near decrease in tracer counts above and below the perforated
“X120 ft.” In essence this set of perforations was shot interval, with the lowest energy tracers disappearing most
approximately 100 ft deeper than designed. The worse news to quickly (due to more rapid attenuation), and an increase in the
the operator was that the intended interval was gas-bearing relative distance measurement above and below the fracture’s
and the unintended interval was wet. The operator ended up coincident interval as the fracture begins to deviate from
squeezing off the “X120 ft” interval and reperforating the the wellbore.
“X020 ft” interval. Other similarly identified
problems/opportunities that have been identified by this Production/Temperature Logging. Production logging, in
broader completion surveillance application of the technology one form or another, has been around since the Schlumberger
have included: a) fracing through 4 leaking casing connections brothers ran their first electric line log. As technology
with minimal cement coverage; b) fracing through a leaking advanced, the sensors used for production logging also
cement stage tool and c) acidizing through a casing anomaly advanced, from the infancy of a temperature survey to what is
with minimal cement coverage. now considered a full production logging string of
temperature, pressure, fluid density, dielectric and spinner.
With the increase in tool resolution, production logging
expanded from a “problem solving” log to a tool used in
hydraulic fracture diagnostics.
The following listing describes the principal uses of the
individual sensors:
• Temperature Sensor
Identifying production entry points
Verifying channeling behind pipe
• Pressure Sensor
Determining density within the wellbore
SPE 77442 A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO HYDRAULIC FRACTURE DIAGNOSTIC TECHNOLOGIES 7
• Fluid Density
Determining density within the wellbore
Determining gas/fluid ratio
• Dielectric
Determining water/hydrocarbon ratio
Critical in three-phase determinations
• Spinner
Profiling production to determine treatment
effectiveness
The analysis of the production data indicated water and gas Fig.14-Production log used to identify perforations that were shot
production from a set of perforations (not shown) below X850 off depth.
ft and gas production from both the X250 to X300 and X750-
X800 ft intervals. Interestingly the unstimulated X320 to X360 Direct Far-Field Fracture Diagnostics
ft interval was producing the majority of the water. Further Tiltmeter and Microseismic fracture mapping services provide
investigation identified the X320 to X360 ft interval as a key information including fracture orientation and dimensions.
possible water-bearing zone at or near original reservoir Questions that every operator would like to know about their
pressure, while the gas zones had been slightly pressure hydraulic fractures are:
depleted. This led to a higher fracture closure pressure in the Does my fracture cover the entire pay zone as designed,
X320 to X360 ft interval, preventing it from being propped by and is it confined to that zone?
the fracture treatment. Am I getting efficient staging of my treatments (proper
A subsequent cement squeeze operation isolated the number of stages, optimal-sized stages, proper proppant
problem water production and prevented costly water volume and concentration)?
deposal issues. What are the fracture dimensions (top/bottom of fracture
In the fourth case history a combination production and length), and how do they compare with the modeled
log/spectral gamma-ray survey was run to evaluate a propped dimensions and resultant production estimates?
fracture treatment, thus revealing an unforeseen production How does the fracture orientation and length affect my
problem. According to the tracer interpretation, the majority of choice of well spacing and infill drilling locations to most
the fracture treatment was placed above the intended zones of effectively drain this reservoir?
interest. It was not until the production log data were reviewed These questions and many others are answered with a
along side that of the spectral gamma-ray data that the higher combination of direct fracture diagnostics and soundly
than expected proppant placement could be corroborated. engineered fracture modeling.
A cooling anomaly, along with a fluid density decrease,
apparent velocity increase, and moderate tracer counts Microseismic Fracture Mapping. A formation is stressed
observed across the X270 to X280 ft interval all indicated that during a fracture treatment because of leak-off induced pore
the perforations were shot off-depth (approximately 13 ft). pressure increases and net treating pressures. This affects the
Upon closer review, it was also determined that the lower stability of existing planes of weakness in the formation in the
perforated interval was shot off-depth by approximately the vicinity of the hydraulic fracture (natural fractures, flaws,
same footage, thus explaining the tracer counts observed bedding planes), many of which are likely to fail. The
across the shale. increasing pore pressure reduces the net effective stress
In this case the location of both perforated intervals holding these planes of weaknesses together, in effect
overlapped productive sands that allowed for some treatment lubricating them, so that they can slip and fail, similar to
of the intended intervals. Nevertheless, the likelihood of this earthquakes along faults. These shear slippages emit elastic
zone ultimately proving to be an underperformer is significant, waves (sound), which can be detected by sensitive
as a result of the targeted intervals not being fully treated. instrumentation.
SPE 77442 A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO HYDRAULIC FRACTURE DIAGNOSTIC TECHNOLOGIES 9
MICROSEISMIC INTERPRETATION very different result. The measured fracture dimensions were
much longer and much better contained than the model had
X Microseisms Originate In An Envelope Surrounding predicted and the actual measured length-to-height ratio was
The Fracture, Giving closer to 5 to 1. The frac model was then calibrated, honoring
– Height all known input parameters, net pressure history from the
– Length treatment, AND measured frac dimensions so that an
– Azimuth MICROSEISMS
INDUCED BY STRESS accurately calibrated frac model could be used on future
– Asymmetry MICROSEISMS fracture treatments in this field.
CHANGES NEAR TIP
INDUCED BY
LEAKOFF
ENVELOPE
NATURAL FRACTURES
Increased fracture Interface Composite why refracs in some areas perform much better than in other
closure stress slippage layering areas.
Considerable theoretical work has been done indicating
that refracs might reorient themselves in a direction up to 90
degrees from the original fracture azimuth under the right
conditions. In a low permeability reservoir, production causes
a local redistribution of pore pressure in an expanding
elliptical pattern around a well. This depletion reduces the
maximum horizontal stress component (along the fracture’s
length) faster than the minimum stress, so if the depletion
induced stress reduction in the minimum stress direction is
Fig. 17-Above illustration shows full elastic coupling (left) substantially less than the drop in the original maximum
compared with fracture blunting due to interface slippage horizontal stress, then a refracture may grow in a direction
(middle) and fracture splintering due to interface slippage and
composite layering (right), each arresting fracture height growth
perpendicular from the original treatment. This can have
differently. The composite layering effect can significantly reduce some very favorable consequences – a new fracture in an
fracture height growth beyond that predicted by a model undrained or less-drained direction, and since the original
assuming elastic coupling of layers. fracture is typically also in the direction of maximum
permeability, this new fracture now has that maximum
Tiltmeter Fracture Mapping. Tilt mapping has been permeability feeding into it all along it’s length. The primary
commercially available for more than ten years, and more than factors then are original horizontal deviatoric stress (the
6000 fracs have been mapped thus far. Tiltmeters are very difference between the minimum and maximum horizontal
sensitive, electronic “carpenter’s levels” which can measure stresses), the amount of pressure depletion that has taken
changes in the earth’s tilt from deformation caused by a place, and the difference in horizontal stress reduction in the
fracture’s displacement down to one part in a billion. original maximum versus original minimum direction.
Depending upon the location of the instruments, tiltmeters can
measure fracture azimuth, dip, height, length, and even width.
The theory is very simple – a fracture displaces the earth as it
grows, and tiltmeters are able to measure the deformation
pattern caused by these displacements. Inversion of the
deformation pattern allows for calculation of the size and
orientation of the frac or fracs that created the deformation.
Surface tiltmeters determine the azimuth and dip of a fracture,
while tiltmeters placed downhole in offset wells are used
primarily to determine height and length of a fracture. A new
generation of downhole tiltmeters can be placed in the
treatment well itself, eliminating the need for an offset
observation well, and provide direct measurements of fracture
height and width during a mini-frac, waterfrac or acid frac 2. Fig. 18-Reorientation of stress field due to depletion.
Limitations are typically a result of having the proper
observation vantage point: being near enough to the fracture Tilt mapping was performed on this pilot to determine
to be able to measure the resulting deformation, so for surface refrac orientation with some interesting results. As can be
tiltmapping in wells deeper than 10,000’, fractures must be seen from the figure, the original fracture direction was NE-
relatively large. Downhole tiltmapping is most successful SW. The refrac treatment in this well began by extending
when performed in nearby observation wells that are within predominately N-S, but rapidly began curving until it reached
two or three times the length of the fracture away from the a NW-SE orientation – orthogonal to the original fracture
treatment well. Tiltmapping works in any type of lithology treatment. At the time of the refrac, the well’s production had
from very soft, unconsolidated rock to very stiff carbonates. been steady at 50-100Mscf/d, and the refrac boosted that
production 8-fold (see figure 20). Even after increasing sales-
Surface Tilt Mapping Example. This example is from a pilot line pressure, the well was still producing 250-300Mscf/d
refrac project in the Barnett Shale in north Texas 3. This is a more than 6 months later – very quickly paying out the refrac
very low permeability gas-bearing formation that has seen pilot costs and adding incremental production.
resurgence in activity due to the economically favorable
application of water-frac technology. After fracturing
conventionally in this reservoir for many years, the
opportunity existed for identification of suitable candidates for
restimulation, and some of the results were much better than
expected. Surface tilt mapping provides some insights about
SPE 77442 A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO HYDRAULIC FRACTURE DIAGNOSTIC TECHNOLOGIES 11
GR log
1600
Fracture modeling
1700 (no confinement
mechanism)
1800
Depth (ft)
Fracture modeling
(composite layering
effect)
1900
2000
Inferred geometry from
2100 downhole tiltmeter
mapping
2200
-400 -200 0 200 400
Along Fracture Length (ft)
Fig. 20-Production decline for first 5 years after initial frac Fig. 21-Fracture Geometry from 7 frac treatments in same interval
procedure, then decline for an additional 7 years following refrac. as measured by downhole tiltmeters along with uncalibrated and
calibrated 3-D model geometries.
Downhole Tiltmapping Example. Downhole Tiltmeters are
used to directly measure the dimensions (height, length and Modeling versus Diagnostics
width) of a hydraulic fracture. As the fracture grows, it Today, several different fracture diagnostic technologies are
deforms or bends the earth surrounding the fracture and that available which estimate or measure key fracture parameters.
deformation is measured by a vertical array of tiltmeters Each diagnostic technology has inherent strengths and
placed downhole in offsetting wellbores, adjacent to the weaknesses, and in some cases more than one technology
interval being fractured. Because the downhole array is much needs to be applied in order to adequately describe the fracture
closer to the fracture than a surface array, the signals are more parameters most important to the individual treatment. Even
than 1000 times larger and a very distinct pattern is seen that with the availability of these diagnostic technologies, it is
is used to identify fracture dimensions. important to understand that simply measuring the fracture
The following case is from a series of fracture injections in dimensions is still a “post-mortem” picture of the fracture. It
the Atoka Shale in northeastern Oklahoma 5. This project was does not predict how a different frac design in the same well
initiated to determine the ability to repeatedly inject large would have grown, nor does it predict how the same frac
volumes of drill cuttings waste at fracturing pressure. design in a different well will behave. Fracture models are the
Injections took place in the Atoka Shale and the Wilcox Sand, most widely applied (and misapplied) diagnostic tool and are
and multiple diagnostic technologies as well as core-throughs useful as a predictive tool for fracture optimization, however,
verified the fracture locations, azimuths and dimensions. The they all suffer from an incomplete understanding of the
following figure shows the downhole tiltmeter-measured physics of how a fracture propagates in a formation.
fracture dimensions for seven injections in the Atoka Shale Therefore, the two technologies must be “married” such that
interval along with a 3-D fracture model geometry determined direct physical measurements of fracture growth can be
from history matching of net pressure. The thin ovals are the coupled to a 3-D fracture simulator resulting in a calibrated
tilt-measured geometry from the seven injection sequences frac model which captures the essential physics of fracture
and the heavy dashed oval is the fracture model geometry. As growth in a given reservoir while honoring direct fracture
can be seen, the fracture model geometry predicts growth that diagnostic data and the net pressure signature from
is essentially radial (height and length about equal) because the treatment.
12 R.D. BARREE, M.K. FISHER, R.A. WOODROOF SPE 77442
A complete picture of the fracture growth and geometry Waterfracs,” SPE paper 63034 presented at the 2000
can only be realized when fracture diagnostics and physically SPE ATCE in Dallas, October 1-4.
consistent models are combined at multiple scales. For 5. Griffin, L.G., Wright, C.A., Davis, E.J., Wolhart,
example, tracer, temperature, or other near-well diagnostics S.L., and Moschovidis, Z.A., “Surface and Downhole
are required to pin-point fluid entry into the fracture and Tiltmapping: An Effective Tool for Monitoring
determine which perforations are open during each phase of Downhole Drill Cuttings Disposal”, SPE paper 63032
the treatment. This knowledge is necessary as a first constraint presented at 2000 SPE ATCE in Dallas, October 1-4.
to the modeling process, but by itself is not sufficient to
constrain the model. The far-field fracture geometry must also
be defined by tiltmeter or microseismic mapping to determine
the general size and shape of the fracture and identify potential
confining layers and mechanisms. These direct measurements
must be integrated into a numerical model of the fracturing
process that recognizes and accounts for identified physical
processes of fluid flow, solid transport, rock deformation, and
fracture containment. The input parameters to the model,
while based on the best available well-log and reservoir
information, must be calibrated based on the direct diagnostic
measurements to assign the correct level of importance to
various containment mechanisms.
Only with this degree of fracture diagnostic
characterization and coupled modeling can we really
understand the controls on fracture geometry evolution. With
this integrated approach a predictive fracture design model can
be developed for a reservoir or development area. Using the
predictive, calibrated model, the stimulation process can be
optimized to provide the required conductivity and maximum
effective fracture length required to maximize production.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Pinnacle Technologies and
ProTechnics, a Core Laboratories Company, for permission to
publish this paper. Special appreciation is expressed to Mark
Warren and Rena Jackson for assistance in preparing the
temperature/production logging section and log graphics and
to Doug Elliott for assistance in font selection and
layup advice.
References: