Migration of Hydrocarbons

By
Tausif Ahmad
Migration
“Migration is a process, whereby hydrocarbons move from source rocks to traps”.
Mainly migration (migration phases) is divided into:
1. Primary Migration: The release of petroleum compounds from solid organic
particles (Kerogen) in source beds and their transport within and through the
capillaries and narrow pores of a fine grained source bed has been termed
primary migration. -OR-The process of loss of hydrocarbons from the source
rock (also expulsion).

2. Secondary Migration: The oil expelled from a source bed passes through wider
pores of more permeable porous rock unit. -OR- Migration from source to
reservoir rock in trap configuration along a carrier system, including the
migration within the reservoir itself.
Distinction is made between primary and secondary migration by
facies.

 Petroleum generated from finely disseminated O.M (source beds);

it is the first appearance of petroleum, which is in dispersed form

 This dispersed form will finally leads to the formation of petroleum

accumulation by the process of primary and especially secondary
migration.
 Other migration includes:

3.Tertiary Migration: Migration to the surface, either from the reservoir or source
rock (dis-migration)

4.Re-Migration: Migration from one reservoir system position through an intervening

section into another reservoir position (trap) in the same or different reservoir.

Why do hydrocarbons Migrate?

 Fluid migrates along pressure gradient: (pressure driven)

 Density contrast between hydrocarbons and water: (buoyancy driven)

 Diffusion due to concentration differences: (chemical gradient driven)

Important Concepts!!!!!!!!!!!!
The generation of petroleum by thermal degradation of kerogen is based
on chemical processes controlled mainly by temperatures.
Migration of petroleum from its place of origin in the source rock to its
place of accumulation in the reservoir trap is controlled by the physical
and physico-chemical conditions of the sedimentary strata the oil is
moving through.
These physico-chemical properties include:

Pressure & Temperature Compaction

Porosity Formation Water
Permeability Capillary Forces
Pressure
Pressure exercises a major influence on this process.
Two types of pressures can be differentiated in the subsurface.

1. The hydrostatic pressure is the weight of the fluid column

corresponding to the interconnected network of water-filled pores
from a given depth up to the sediment surface.

Since subsurface pore waters contain dissolved salt, the hydrostatic

pressure gradient is not 10.0 MPa/km (pure water), rather 10.4 MPa/km.
It applies to all kinds of pore fillings, i.e. water, oil and gas.
2. The lithostatic pressure is the sum of the weight of the rock column,
transmitted from the surface to a given depth by grain-to-grain contacts,
plus the weight of the pore fluid column.
The lithostatic pressure gradient is 24.4 MPa/km (Hunt, 1996).

In some sedimentary basins there is a third type of pressure gradient.

3. The hydrodynamic pressure gradient or fluid potential gradient is
caused by active pore water flow.
It can be observed in those intervals of high porosity and high
permeability sandstones where water flow from an area of meteoric
water intake, located at high altitudes towards a deeper discharge area,
occurs.
Hydrodynamic Traps
In a sedimentary basin, any deviation from the hydrostatic pressure is called
an
Abnormal Pressure: A subsurface condition in which the pore
pressure of a geologic formation exceeds or is less than the expected, or
normal, formation pressure.
This can be
Overpressure: Overpressure is caused by the inability of pore fluids to
escape from porous rocks in proportion with the overburden load. Thus
overpressured shale or mudstone intervals are undercompacted.

Underpressure: Pore pressure less than normal or hydrostatic pressure.

Underpressure, or a zone of underpressure, is common in areas or
formations that have had hydrocarbon production.
Porosity and Permeability
Porosity is the volume of void spaces as percentage of a given total volume of rock.
Besides the abundance of pores in a rock volume, the sizes of the pores are also
important with respect to the movement of oil.
Most rocks exhibit a great variety of pore sizes, which can be measured and
expressed as pore-size distribution.
According to a standard classification scheme, pore-size categories are broadly
differentiated in: macropores, which have pore widths greater than 50 nm,
mesopores between 2 and 50 nm, micropores between 0.8 and 2 nm, and finally
ultramicropores less than 0.8 nm.
There are several types of so-called primary and secondary porosity (inherited
from deposition of a sediment, or generated by mineral dissolution reactions in the
subsurface respectively), as well as fracture porosities caused mostly by tectonic
processes (Selley, 1998).
Another essential requirement to allow movement of petroleum
through porous rocks is permeability, i.e. the pores must be connected.
Permeability characterises the ability of fluids (water, oil, and gas) to
pass through porous rocks.
It is measured according to Darcy’s law and expressed in Darcy (d)-
units equal to 1,000 milli-Darcy units (md).
Darcy’s law:

ko
qo  g ( w  o)
o

 The relationship between porosity and permeability is highly

variable and depends mainly on rock type.

http://dnr.louisiana.gov/assets/TAD/education/BGBB/3/migration.html
Capillary Forces
The movement of petroleum through porous rocks is influenced by
capillary forces.
This is due to the interfacial tension between two immiscible phases
(oil/water or gas/water).
Capillary forces, therefore, always act in pore systems of mixed
wetability, i.e. where water, oil or gas co-exist.
The capillary pressure of a rock increases with decreasing pore size.
The petroleum compounds generated from kerogen have a very
limited primary pore volume available for accumulation in fine-
grained source rock-type shales and mudstones.
They are forcefully transported through capillaries between the clay
minerals and narrow pores towards contact with the nearest strata of
higher porosity.
This process is referred to as primary migration (expulsion) and
differentiated from secondary migration through the greater pores in
more permeable carrier beds and reservoir rocks.

Capillary Pressure
Temperature
 T increases with increase in burial (geothermal gradient)
 Average 25oC/Km;
 But not linear there may be change due to thermal conductivity difference in
rocks e.g., may found 5oC/Km in well of Andros Island in Bahamas and
90oC/Km in walio oil fields of Indonesia.
 Thermal conductivity difference; e.g, salt good conductor than shale thus
energy transmission is easy from greater depth.
 Regional flow
 Subsurface fluid flow
 These are inter-connected, increase in temperature; would increase in volume;
would decrease in viscosity (fluids); pore spaces wider and flow is easily.
Compaction
One of the main driving forces for primary migration is sediment
compaction due to overburden load.
Compaction is achieved by the reduction of pore spaces due to the
expulsion of pore waters.
Freshly deposited clay-rich sediments have 60-80% pore water contents.
Most of this pore water is expelled due to compaction within the first
2,000 m of burial.
However, at that stage petroleum generation by thermal degradation has
not been initiated in most basins.
With further burial, very little pore water remains for additional
expulsion.
Compaction
 Compaction results in; increase in bulk density and loss of porosity by increase in P.
 Rate of compaction depends upon material properties
(a) Physical
(b) Chemical
(c) Rate at which fluid is expelled; considered an important factor in fluid migration

 Compaction related fluid behaves differently in clastic sediments and CaCO3

Compaction through Clastics

 Higher in upper 100-300m as compared to 1000-3000, then slowly diminished
 Shale: in a young sediments due to high pressure; can generate methane and
other low molecular weight H/C
 If gas produced; increase in volume; increases fluid pressure (non- equilibrium
state); thus fluid move from: hot to cold and deeper to shallow

Compaction through CaCO3

 Chemically reactive, which may increase or decrease

porosities/permeabilities

 Shallow depths (100-300m) may decrease porosity

 Higher depth may increase porosities due to recrystallization and dolomitization

 Eventually at depths; fine grained OM; concentrates on grain boundaries

Possible Modes of Primary Migration
i. Continuous Oil Phase
ii. Colloidal or Micellar Solution
iii. Droplet/Bubbles
iv. Molecular Solution
v. Microfractures
i. Continuous Oil Phase
 Movement of petroleum is in continuous oil phase during primary migration.

 Oil saturated in pore spaces in mature source rock upto 50%, in terms of pore-
fluids and assumed that rest of the pore spaces are covered with structured water

 If some of the interior surfaces are oil-wet rather than water wet then oil will
move as continuous phase.

 Deeply buried source rock, at maximum phase of oil formation, with high degree of
compaction offer greater opportunity to primary migration as continuous oil phase

 Driving force under such condition could be pressure gradient.

ii. Colloidal and Micellar Solution
 Colloid: size range; 1-10,00 nm (10-10,000 Ao)

 Micelle: an aggregate of surfactant (which lower the surface tension) molecules

dispersed in a liquid colloid, may be hydrophilic or hydrophobic.

 The transport of petroleum compounds through pores in source rocks as colloidal

and micellar solution is proposed by Baker and Meinschain (1959).

 Organic compound (colloidal compounds) act as polar organic compound, with

hydrophilic part outside and hydrophobic part inside the molecule as micelle.

 It has been reported that sediments and crude oil act as polar surface (Lousi, 1967;
Seifer and Howells, 1969 and Seifer, 1975)
 This might be the only way to solubilize practically water-insoluble
petroleum hydrocarbons in aqueous solution in relatively low
temperature.

 All in all, solubilization of H/Cs and its transportation thorough

micellar solution does not seam to be likely process.

 if micellar process were responsible for petroleum migration oil

should also be enriched in N-S-O polar compounds, which more
likely to form micellar solution, but crude oil are depleted in these
polar compounds, only certain shallow oil are rich in such
compounds.
iii. Droplet/Bubbles
 Transportation of oil and gas in form of individual
droplet/bubbles through narrow, water saturated
pores by phenomenon of Capillary pressure.
 If droplet; small or same size with pore spaces
there will be no restriction for movement of
petroleum.
 If droplet; larger than pore spaces, the capillary
pressure will overcome and oil will move in form
of bubbles.
 Capillary pressure is higher for small pore spaces.
iv. Molecular Solution
 Another way of transporting mechanism, during primary migration.

 There is solubility of different petroleum compounds within the water.

 In general; low molecular weight H/Cs are more soluble in water than high molecular
weight H/Cs, e.g., benzene and toluene are among most soluble common petroleum
hydrocarbons.

 Solubility of oil range from 10ppm below 100 oC and 100ppm below 100-200 oC.

 Solubility increases; with increasing in temperature

 Solubility decreases; with increasing C number.

 With increase in P there should be increase in Solubility among lighter H/Cs, when
subsequently pressure decreases the H/Cs released from the solution (within
reservoir).

v. Microfractures
 When pressure increase on source rock, decreases the porosity, thus creates minute
fractures, cracks or fissure within source rocks (This will allow petroleum to migrate).

 Tissot (1971), Snarsky (1962), and pelet (1971) pointed out that rock fractures in
dense, deeply buried shale; either by over pressure of enclosed fluids or due to creation
small pockets of over pressure gas formed during petroleum generation.

 Snarsky (1962), pointed, if mechanical strength of rock exceeds, fracture will occur in
rocks (this is subsequent release in pressure), which promote migration.
Primary Migration under Geological and Geochemical
Aspects
 Observed facts w.r.t primary migration of petroleum can be related to time, depth or chemical
differences or similarities b/w source and related oil.

 Therefore petroleum geologists further divide primary migration into early and late migration
based on availability of compaction waters.
i. Early Migration
 Takes place at the first 1000-1500m of subsidence, when sediments looses much of their porosity,
yielding large volume of water.

 Takes place before onset of main phase of petroleum formation.

 The minute hydrocarbons, which are produce are directly inherited from organisms or produce
form the early diageneis.
T ranges from 50-70oC, this migration can take place sediments not older than 1000years.

ii. Late Migration

Occurs during main phase of petroleum formation and generally takes place at depths
between 1500-3000m or 3500m

A special mechanism for primary migration in main phase is dewatering of clay mineral.

Dewatering of clay or clay dehydration is release of bound water during alteration of

smectite to illite mainly under influence of temperature (Burst 1959, Weaver, 1959) and
pressure. As a result which pressure on pore spaces increases, which expel the petroleum
from these pore spaces

The extent of migration may ranging from a few meters to a long distance in kms.
1) Early Generation Spill Point
Spill Point

Seal Rock
Reservoir Rock (Mudstone)
Migration from (Sandstone)
‘Kitchen’
Gas beginning to
2) Late Generation displace oil

Displaced oil
accumulates
Gas displaces all
oil
Changes in composition of source rock bitumen versus crude
oil

i. Hydrocarbon distribution in contact zone between source rock and

reservoir rock: Closed to reservoir, the source is depleted in more
lighter compounds. In source, where bitumen remaining, contains
enrichment of high molecular weight hetero-atomic compounds and
depleted in H/Cs.
ii. Gross chemical composition of crude oils versus source rock
bitumen: most oil enriched in saturated H/Cs and depleted in N-S-
O compounds.
iii. The phenomenon of oil-source rock correlation: most of the oil un-
changed within source and reservoir, which is good for correlation.
Factors controlling the Secondary Migration
 There are three parameters, which controls the secondary migration and subsequent formation of
oil and gas pools.
i. Buoyancy
ii. Hydrodynamic fluid flow
iii. Capillary pressure
i. Buoyancy
 Buoyancy is the force due to differences in the densities i.e., water and petroleum, by which
petroleum move upward.

 Buoyancy results in the final equilibrium adjustments of gas, oil and water in a pool and in the
original concentration of the dispersed particles of petroleum in water.

 In hydrostatic condition only buoyancy force is considered for secondary migration.

ii. Hydrodynamic Fluid Flow
 There is, however, frequently sub-surface water flow and the effect of
hydrodynamic condition on petroleum can not be neglected on secondary
migration.

 The interaction between buoyancy and flowing water will either enhance or retard
the migration. With flowing water the direction as well as the rate of petroleum
flow also changed.

 The force of buoyancy acts on trapped petroleum in two ways:

i. When oil and gas reaches to crest of anticlines, it rests there. If the hydrodynamic
pressure is much high then the oil will passes to another structural high.
ii. In case of stratigraphic traps the permeability decreases up dip, then oil and
gas migrate up dip due to buoyancy then stop by shale. If the water flow
downward then it restricts the oil and gas flow or if flow is within the
direction buoyancy then oil and gas might enter to small pore spaces.

iii.Capillary displacement Pressure

 The force required to move petroleum through a pore opening.

 Depends upon:
i. Radius of the pore opening (R= m)
ii. The interfacial tension b/w petroleum and water (r=dyne cm-1)
iii. Wettability of the rock: the contact angle between petroleum and water
interface against the rock (thetha=degrees)
Mathematically
Capillary displacement pressure= 2rcosθ/R
Interfacial Tension:
 Molecular attraction between fluid boundaries that cause fluid in separate phase
 If difference between interfacial tension high, then fluid are immiscible.
 Depends upon temperature and decrease when increased.

Wettability:
 An angle of contact between solid and liquid

 When two fluids occur together, one likely to have more affinity for the solid (rock wall) and wets.

 Two possibilities: Oil wet condition: when the rock wall have more contact with oil, large angle.
Water wet condition: when the rock wall have more contact with water, small angle
As HC migrate into a water-wet rock
 They first enter the pores with the largest pore throats (capillaries) leaving the wetting
phase in the pores with the smaller throats (insufficient pressure).
 Can also leave the wetting phase in irregular nooks and crannies.
 As the hydrocarbon column rises, Pc rises (buoyancy) and forces hydrocarbons into
pores with smaller and smaller throats

drainage

imbibition

Oil phase
Geological and Geochemical consideration on Secondary
Migration
 The movement of hydrocarbon is mainly controlled by these three factors,
such as buoyancy, capillary pressure and hydrodynamic flow of water.
 The difficult to assess the exact point when the hydrocarbons begin to
coalesce into pool.
 It is very difficult to quantify the relative importance of buoyancy or
hydrodynamic forces on secondary migration.
 At initial stage, oil are microscopic and more dispersed than the final
stage, due to which, in initial stage, oil will not move according to law
of buoyancy, rather move by water flow.
 So the hydrodynamic water flow is more important in initial stage rather
than final stage
 As oil grows, they subject to buoyancy, then the upward moving of the oil and gas
starts when ever there is low capillary pressure.

 In buoyancy, oil and gas always seek highest point in carrier bed or reservoir rock,
as they move the oil particle merge into globules, patches and stringers.

 Eventually, a point comes where: pore diameter too small, and capillary pressure
could not be overcome, thus accumulation starts.

Note!!!! any tectonic or disturbance may change this delicate balance, so tectonic
forces are important means of influencing secondary migration

 There might be some changes regarding chemistry of oil and gases, which are less
understood.
 The changes observed to date are difficult to explain because they are not
always consistent. The parameter investigation are C and N isotopes, the
amount of heavier hydrocarbon distribution.

i. Along the migration path there is increase of non-polar compounds and a

decrease in content of asphaltene, resins, porphyrins and other non-
hydrocarbon compounds.

ii. Water washing may cause loss in low boiling, more soluble hydrocarbons
along with slight decrease of 13C/12C isotope ratio may cause primarily by the
preferential loss of aromatic hydrocarbons.

Note!!! might be the process of effusion and diffusion, solution and adsorption
phenomena along with temperature and pressure effect.
Termination of Secondary Migration and Accumulation of Oil and
Gas
 The end of secondary migration and the final stage in the formation of oil and gas
pools, is the concentration of oil and gas from disseminated stage into commercial size,
in the highest available part of a trap.

 Oil or gas may trapped in any rock of suitable porosity and permeability (reservoir
rock), regardless of lithology

 The cap rock or seal, by virtue of its general decrease in pore diameter, must exert
capillary pressures which are great enough to stop the passage of oil and gas particles.

 The oil or gas may be close to source area or far away, depending upon geometry of
basin and conditions.
Migration Pathways
In the following, migration
pathways - both primary and
secondary - are shown for some
typical geological scenarios.

The example here illustrates how

excess hydrostatic pressure may
control directions of fluid flow in
the Paria formation, Orinoco delta,
Venezuela.

Source: Hunt, J.M. (1995) Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology, 2nd edition.
W.H. Freeman & Co
Direction of fluid migration on the flank of an anticline into the highest
possible place of the reservoir layer.

Source: Hunt, J.M. (1995) Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology, 2nd edition.
W.H. Freeman & Co
Direction of fluid migration into stratigraphic
- or better: combined - traps

Source: Hunt, J.M. (1995) Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology, 2nd edition.
W.H. Freeman & Co
Direction of fluid migration in an interbedded sand/shale sequence

Source: Hunt, J.M. (1995) Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology, 2nd edition.
W.H. Freeman & Co
 Direction of fluid migration into a pinnacle reef
Notice: Migration through the shales above the reef is greatly exaggerated

Source: Hunt, J.M. (1995) Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology, 2nd edition.
W.H. Freeman & Co