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 Goldenberry: Golden Fruit of
Golden Future

Dr. Mohamed Fawzy Ramadan Hassanien

Ph.D., Assistant Professor
Biochemistry Department,
Faculty of Agriculture,
Zagazig University,
Egypt

1
 When the Lord created the world and people to live in it- an
enterprise which, according to modern science, took a very long
time- I could well imagine that He reasoned with Himself as follows:
“If I make everything predictable, these humans beings whom I have
endowed with pretty good brains, will undoubtedly learn to predict
everything and they will thereupon have no motive to do anything at
all, because they will recognize that the future is totally determined
and cannot be influenced by any human action. On the other hand, if
I make everything unpredictable, they will gradually discover that
there is no rational basis for any decision whatsoever and, as in the
first case, they will thereupon have no motive to do anything at all.
Neither scheme would make sense. I must therefore create a mixture
of the two. Let some things be predictable and let others
unpredictable. They will then, amongst many other things, have the
very important task of finding out which is which”

Schumacker E. F., Small is beautiful (1973).

Published by Hartley and Marks, Vancouver, Canada.

2
PREFACE

Iam particularly grateful to Dr. habil. Jörg-

Thomas Mörsel, at Berlin University of Technology and
the head of UBF (Untersuchungs, Beratungs, und
Forschungslaboratorium GmbH, Berlin, Germany), for
his never-ending enthusiasm, for never of failing to
share lifelong experience, give advice, inspire and care.

I am deeply grateful to my parents and my sisters for all the

support and encouragement I have received from them. My father,
Prof. Dr. Fawzy Ramadan Hassanien, and my mother, in spite of
being far away you were always present.

Finally, I thank my dear wife Enas Mohamed Wagdi for her love
and flexibility, and our lovely children Khaled for being the sunshine of
my live.

MOHAMED FAWZY RAMADAN HASSANIEN

December 2008

3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface 3
1 Introduction 7
2 Chemical composition of fruit 13
3 Juice constitutents and properties 15
3.1 Impact of enzymatic treatments on the physicochemical 20
properties of the juice
3.2 Antiradical action of goldenberry juices 23
4 Acyl lipids and fatty acid profile 24
4.1Lipid classes 27
4.2 Triacylglycerols (TAG) 28
4.3 Minor lipid components 29
4.3.1 Phytosterols composition 29
4.3.2 Fat-soluble vitamins and β-carotene composition 31
5 Fruit pomace 34
5.1 Oil extractability from enzymatically-treated fruit pomace 35
5.2 Impact of processing on composition and quality of oil and 47
meal
6 Physalis peruviana bioactive phytochemicals 51
6.1 Withanolides 51
6.2 Carotenoids 53
7 Volaties and aroma compounds 55
8 Changes during fruit ripening (ethylene production, cell- 58
wall enzymes and pectic polysaccharides)
9 Health benefits of fruits and fruit extracts 59

4
9.1 Antihepatotoxic effect 60
9.2 Anti-inflammatory activity 61
9.3 Antihepatoma activity 61
9.4 Antioxidant and antiradical activities 63
10 Health benefits of the oil and oil constituents 64
11 Medical and edible applications 65
12 Economic 66
13 Conclosion 68
14 References 71
List of author publications 83

5
6
1 Introduction

Goldenberry or cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana Linn.

(Solanaceae) is a tropical bush native to South America. Physalis
peruviana is an erect branching densely villous perennial; grown both
in planes and hills (Ram et al., 2003). Goldenberry has long been a
minor fruit of the Andes and also been grown in California, South
Africa, East Africa, India, New Zealand, Australia and Great Britain
(Morton, 1987; McCain, 1993; Rehm and Espig, 1991; Ramadan
and Moersel, 2003). In Colombia, P. peruviana is cultivated in regions
between 1500 and 3000 m above sea level. The round fruit with an
average diameter of 20-25 mm and an approximate weight of 4-5 g is
protected by an accrescent calyx and covered by a brilliant resinous
yellow peel (Mayorga et al., 2001). Goldenberries are succulent
golden spheres the size of marbles with a pleasing taste. They are
protected by papery husks resembling chinese lanterns (Figure 1). It
is somewhat tomato-like in flavor and appearance, though the taste
(sweet and sour) is much richer with a hint of tropical luxuriance. The
plant is fairly adaptable to wide variety of well-drained soils and a very
good crops are obtained on rather poor sandy ground (Morton, 1987;
Popenoe et al., 1990; Ramadan and Moersel, 2003, 2007).

7
Figure 1. Goldenberry (Physalis peruviana L.) in opened calyx. The fruit is a berry,

½ to ¾ in (1.25-2 cm) wide, with smooth, waxy, orange-yellow skin and juicy pulp

containing numerous small yellowish kernels. The part of the goldenberry that can

be used is composed of husk (5%) and berry (95%). The berries can be further

subdivided into seeds (ca. 17%) and pulp/peel fraction (ca. 83%), the latter being

the basis for fruit and juice products

8
1.1 Cultivars

Goldenberry is also known as cape gooseberry in many English

speaking countries. In Australia, it is marketed under the cultivar
names ‘Golden Nugget’ and ‘New Sugar Giant’. Growers in New
Zealand often take cuttings from plants that produce the sweetest fruit
for propagation.

1.2 Environment

Goldenberry is commonly found at upper elevations on mountain

slopes from 1000 to 4000 feet and is reported to occur as high as 8000
feet. Plants at lower elevations usually produce smaller fruit. Because
it is non-native in Hawaii and birds distribute its seeds, goldenberry is
regarded as an invasive species, although its threat to native species
and ecosystems is not well characterized. The plant’s shallow root
system is best adapted to soils with good drainage. The plant is
among the first to take root in newly cleared lands and does well in
relatively poor soils. Fertile soils favor vegetative growth over fruit
production. Goldenberry becomes dormant during extended periods of
drought unless irrigated. Harvesting is facilitated when plants are
spaced 4-6 feet apart in rows and, optimally, trellised or staked.
Planting in raised beds has helped ease the labor of harvesting.

1.3 Horticulture

Goldenberry tolerates a wide variety of soils with pH between 5.0

and 6.5. Because of its shallow root system, similar to that of tomato,

9
mulch and organic soil amendments help retain water and nutrients.
Fruit ripening can take several months, and harvest generally occurs
60-100 days after flowering. Goldenberry should be severely pruned
after harvest, and plants should be replaced after 3-4 years when fruit
size and yield diminish.

Papery fruit sacks (and a praying mantis)

1.4 Pests and diseases

The broad mite, Polyphagotarsonemus latus, feeds by

puncturing the stem and sucking the sap from the wound. This will
stunt growth, discolor leaves, and deform young foliage. The
solanaceous treehopper (Antianthe expansa), thrips, and various
beetles can also affect the plant. Sooty mold (Asteridiella acervata),

10
root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne sp.), and bacterial wilt
(Pseudomonas solanacearum) are among the pathogens that can
affect goldenberry. In general, good field sanitation, appropriate
horticultural practices, and an integrated pest management program
can prevent crop damage.

1.5 Propagation

Goldenberry is usually started from seed but can be started from

stem cuttings 6-8 inches long. Rooting hormones will high
temperatures, and it is advisable to plant them in the late afternoon or
during cloudy weather. Seedlings should be kept moist and shaded.

1.6 Harvesting and yield

Goldenberry is harvested every few days, when the husks are

dry and turn to a straw color. It is often picked in the afternoon, when
there is little moisture. Many growers shake the bush so that the dry
husks fall and are easily picked up from the ground. Plastic sheets are
sometimes placed under the plants to catch the fallen fruit. Plants at
lower elevations (300-700 feet) under irrigation produce small fruit in
large quantities, sometimes more than 1000 fruits per plant. Higher
elevations (700-3000 feet) without irrigation produce an average of
300 large fruits per shrub. Averages in South America are 3000
pounds of fruit per acre. Laborers harvest 10-12 pounds of in-husk fruit
per hour.

11
1.6 Postharvest quality

Goldenberry will last up to several months dry and in-husk. Large

commercial producers store them in-husk at 33 °F. They will keep
more than a year when husked and frozen. The husks are kept on
when shipping the fruit and it should be stored dry.

Goldenberry flower

1.7 Packaging, pricing and marketing

In Hawaii, goldenberry fruit is often sold husked in local groceries

and farmers’ markets. In Japan, the fruit, grown help induce rooting.
Young seedlings are susceptible to in South America, is sold in-husk in
small blister packs. In Hawaii, goldenberry can wholesale to
restaurants for as much as $3.50 in-husk and $7.00 husked, but it is
often found cheaper in grocery stores. Jam manufacturers and

12
restaurants throughout Hawaii continuously seek fresh and fresh-
frozen husked goldenberry (Love et al., 2007).

2 Chemical composition of fruit

The pulp is nutritious, containing particularly high levels of

carotenoids, vitamin C and minerals. The general chemical
composition of goldenberry was reported (Morton, 1987; McCain,
1993; Ramadan and Moersel, 2003). Goldenberry has been widely
used as an excellent source of provitamin A (3000 I.U. of carotene per
100 g), minerals, vitamin C and some of the vitamin B-complex. The
fruit contain ca. 15 % soluble solids (mainly sugars) and its high level
of fructose make it valuable for diabetics. The protein and phosphorus
levels are exceptionally high for a fruit (Table 1). Goldenberry is also
an excellent source for low calorie and dietetic products. Its high
content of dietary fiber is of importance, wherein fruit pectin acts as an
intestinal regulator and a detoxifiying agent. It has an anti-ulcer activity
and it is effective in reducing cholesterol level.

13
Table 1. Levels of nutrients, minerals and water-soluble bioactives in goldenberry
pulp

Moisture (g/100g) 78.9

Protein (g/100g) 0.05-0.3

Lipid (g/100g) 0.15-0.2

Carbohydrate (g/100g) 19.6

Fiber (g/100g) 4.9

Ash (g/100g) 1.0

Calcium (mg/100g) 8.0

Phosphorus (mg/100g) 55.3

Iron (mg/100g) 1.2

Carotene (mg/100g) 1.6

Thiamine (mg/100g) 0.1

Riboflavin (mg/100g) 0.03

Niacin (mg/100g) 1.70

Ascorbic acid (mg/100g) 43.0

14
3 Juice constitutents and properties

The yield of juice produced from goldenberry sample is 72.6 % of

the total berry weight. Increase of approximately 2-3% is observed in
the yields of juice produced by enzymatic treatment (Ramadan and
Moersel, 2007). Composition of goldenberry juice is presented in
Table 2. By the enzymatic treatment, not only the yield of juice
increase, but also the macro- and micro-components content of the
product increased. Application of enzymes in goldenberry juice
processing reflected on higher levels of ash, protein, lipids and
carbohydrates in treated samples than in untreated sample. This
increase in macro-components was due to the release of cell wall
contents upon enzymation and pasteurisation (Ramadan and
Moersel, 2007). The total sugar content in the juice was 4.90 g/100 g.
Enzyme action, generally, resulted in greater increase in reducing and
non-reducing sugar content. TLC analysis showed that the
preponderant carbohydrates of goldenberry cell wall are, in decreasing
order: sucrose (35 g/100 g total sugar), fructose (29 g/100 g total
sugar) and glucose (25 g/100 g total sugar). Galacturonic acid and
traces of oligsaccharides, moreover, was identified in the enzyme
treated samples (Ramadan and Moersel, 2007). It is worthy to
mention that the approximate sugar content in other common fruit
juices was reported to be in pear (9.8%), orange (7.0%), apple
(11.1%), peach (8.5%), strawberry (5.7%), pineapple (12.3%),
raspberry (4.5%), plum (7.8%) and apricot (6.1%) (Belitz and Grosch,
1999; Gurrieri et al., 2000). Interestingly, vitamin C is present in high

15
amount in goldenberry juice (46 mg/100 g). The untreated sample had
slightly higher vitamin C content than enzyme-treated and control
samples (Ramadan and Moersel, 2007). However, ascorbic acid
showed no significant variations after enzyme treatment. Ascorbic acid
was probably protected by the ascorbic-sparing effect of the
polyphenols. The ascorbic acid content in goldenberry on average
turns out to be higher than in most common fruits such as pear (4
mg/100 g), apple (6 mg/100 g), peach (7 mg/100 g), pineapple (25
mg/100 g), plum (3 mg/100 g) and apricot (9 mg/100 g), and only
slightly lower than other fruits such as orange (50 mg/100 g) or
strawberry (60 mg/100 g) (Belitz and Grosch, 1999).

Table 2. Juice yield and chemical composition of goldenberry juices and juices
treated with pectolytic and cellulytic enzymes

Moisture Ash Protein Carbohydrate Lipids

a
Type of treatment Yield (g/100g (g/100g (g/100g (g/100g
Content juice) juice) juice) (g/100g juice)
(g/100g juice)
berries)
Untreated Sample 72.6 92.7 1.01 0.44 5.65 0.20

Control Sample 71.9 90.7 1.05 0.45 7.59 0.21

(heated and pasteurized)

Rohapect VR-C 75.7 90.1 1.07 0.49 7.67 0.25

Pektinase L 40 74.2 90.1 1.06 0.45 8.16 0.23

Ultrazym AFP-L 75.0 90.3 1.07 0.46 7.83 0.34

a % Carbohydarte= 100-(%Protein + %Lipids + % Moisture + % Ash).

16
 The study of the phenols in fruits is of great interest owing to the
qualitative and quantitative differences appearing as a function of the
species, cultivar, and degree of ripening and environmental conditions
of growing, ripening as well as storage. Phenolics, are important
because of their contribution to the sensory quality of fruits (colour,
astringency, bitterness and flavour), which may be affected during the
technological processes used for obtaining the juices and other
transformation products. Phenolic compounds, moreover, have
important pharmacological properties and have been associated to a
lowered risk of heart disease via their action toward low-density
lipoprotein (LDL). All of these aspects justify the increasing interest in
fruit phenolics which has been manifested in the past few years (De
Simon 1992; Meyer, 1999). Good amounts of phenolics are estimated
in goldenberry juice, wherein the level of total phenols as determined
by Folin-Ciocalteu method was 6.30 mg/100 g juice as caffeic acid
equivalents.

In the study on goldenberry from Egyptian cultivar it was found

that juice contains ca. 0.2% oil (on fresh weight basis). Generally,
enzymatic treatment did not cause significant changes in the fatty acid
profile and fat-soluble bioactives. Analysis of fatty acid methyl esters
(FAME) gave the proportion of linoleic, oleic, palmitic, γ-linolenic (GLA)
and palmitoleic esters as the major FAME. Fatty acid profile of pulp oil
from Egyptian cultivar was slightly different from that of Colombian
cultivar (Ramadan and Moersel, 2007). According to the results
shown in Table 3, fifteen fatty acids were identified. Linoleic and oleic

17
 were the dominating fatty acids, wherein the ratio of linoleic acid to
oleic acid was about 1:1.

Table 3. Levels of fatty acids, phytosterols, fat-soluble vitamins and β-carotene in

goldenberry pulp oil

Compound % Compound g/kg

C12:0 0.25 Ergosterol 9.23

C14:0 1.09 Campesterol 12.2

C16:0 19.3 Stigmasterol 6.23

C16:1n-7 7.52 Lanosterol 6.55

C18:0 1.87 β-Sitosterol 5.23

C18:1n-9 22.2 ∆5-Avenasterol 12.5

C18:2n-6 22.7 ∆7- Avenasterol 3.71

C18:3n-6 18.8 Total Sterols 55.6

C20:0 0.21

C18:3n-3 0.63 α-Tocopherol 28.3

C20:1n-9 0.15 β- Tocopherol 15.2

C20:3n-6 2.31 γ- Tocopherol 45.5

C22:1n-9 0.91 δ- Tocopherol 1.50

C24:0 0.65 Total Vitamin E 90.5

C24:1n-9 1.12 β-Carotene 4.32

S/U ratio (%)a 29.4

a Ratio of saturated fatty acids to unsaturated fatty acids

18
 The lipid fraction also contains appreciable amounts of saturated
normal chain fatty acids. Palmitic acid (ca. 19.3%) followed by stearic
acid (ca. 1.87%) were the major saturated fatty acids in all examined
juices. The juice was characterised by relatively high amount of
saturated fatty acids which were comprised more than 22.7% of total
FAME. Five minor fatty acids, namely gadoleic, dihomo-γ-linolenic
(DHGLA), erucic, lignoceric and nervonic acids were also identified.
The juice could be a good source of polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFA). The total content of trienes was about 22.7% and the oil was
characterised by extremely high level of GLA (18.8% of total FAME),
while ω-3 fatty acid (α-linolenic acid) and DHGLA were estimated in
lower levels. Interest in the PUFA as health-promoting nutrients has
expanded dramatically in recent years with rapidly growing literature
illustrating their benefits (Riemersma, 2001; Finley and Shahidi,
2001). Fatty acid composition and the high amounts of PUFA make
the goldenberry a special fruit for nutritional applications. Phytosterols
represent a group of the most important bioactive compounds. They
are of interest due to their antioxidant activity and their impact on
health. The content and composition of free sterols determined in
goldenberry juice are shown in Table 3. The major sterols detected
were, in order of decreasing prevalence, ∆5-avenasterol>
campesterol> ergosterol> lanosterol> stigmasterol> β-sitosterol> ∆7-
avenasterol. ∆5-Avenasterol and campesterol were detected at equal
levels and comprised together about 44% of the total sterols content.
Vitamin E level was extremely high, wherein γ- and α-tocopherols were

19
the main constituents. Concerning the stability issue, high amounts of
vitamin E measured may contribute to great stability toward oxidation
of the product. The importance of carotenoids for juice colour and the
growing interest in their health benefits have stimulated efforts to study
the carotenoids in goldenberry. In this study, evaluation of carotenoid
levels was restricted to β-carotene. The most common and most
effective pro-vitamin A is β-carotene. Carotenoids are responsible for
the orange hues of goldenberry juice. The level of pigments, however,
depends on the stage of fruit ripeness, the extraction process and the
storage conditions. High amounts of β-carotene were detected in the
juice. Recently, modern technologies make it possible to introduce
liposoluble vitamins and PUFA into the fruit juices (Kolesnov et al.,
2002). Therefore, goldenberry juice could be a novel source of
functional drinks without a need of fortification with fat-soluble
bioactives (Ramadan and Moersel, 2007).

3.1 Impact of enzymatic treatments on the physicochemical

properties of the juice

Influence of different enzyme preparations on physicochemical

parameters of juice is presented in Table 4. Application of enzymes,
generally, leads to juices with a relatively higher pulp content, higher
acidity, higher TSS and a slightly darker colour. On the other side,
enzyme-treated juices were characterised by a lower AIS and pH-
values. Percentages of pulp content indicated the changes of the
insoluble high molecular weight compounds into more simple

20
compounds soluble in juice. Under the conditions of the experiment, it
was shown a considerable effect of macerating enzymes on the
increase in the proportion of soluble fractions, as compared to
untreated juices.

Table 4. Physico-chemical parameters of goldenberry juice

Type of treatment Pulp Content AIS TSS Acidity pH Browning

(g/100g juice) (g/100g juice) (° Brix) (g citric/100g Index
juice) (420 nm)

Untreated Sample 3.87 0.62 10.5 0.92 3.86 0.275

Control Sample 4.79 0.58 10.6 0.97 3.84 0.281

(heated and pasteurized)

Sample treated with 4.72 0.24 11.2 1.01 3.80 0.297

Rohapect VR-C
Sample treated with 3.98 0.35 11 1.03 3.79 0.290
Pektinase L 40
Sample treated with 4.78 0.45 11.5 1.02 3.79 0.300
Ultrazym AFP-L

The amount of AIS prepared from untreated juice was found to

be 0.62 g/100 g juice. The enzymatically processed juices showed
lower amount of AIS, whereas the lowest level of AIS was obtained
from juice processed with Rohapect VR-C preparation. TSS levels of
enzyme-treated samples were higher than the untreated juices.
Among the enzyme treatments, Ultrazym AFP-L was the most
effective in TSS release. The rise could be partially accounted for by
increase in soluble sugars, which may be resulted from the conversion
of insoluble pectin by pectinolytic enzymes and the action of cellulase

21
on cellulose to produce soluble sugars. The total acid content in
goldenberry juice is of the order 0.9-1.0%, wherein the acidity of other
fruit juices was reported to be in pear (0.3%), orange (0.8%), apple
(0.9%), peach (0.9%), strawberry (0.9%), pineapple (1.1%), raspberry
(1.8%), plum (2.2%) and apricot (2.4%) (Belitz and Grosch, 1999).
Because of the high content of organic acids, the pH of the
goldenberry juice turns out to be slightly low, with values of the order
of 3.79-3.86 generally recorded. pH-values of juices play an important
role on the taste and aroma. The decrease of pH-values may be due
to the release of carboxyl groups and galaturonic acid from pectin.
Absorbance at 420 nm of the juice samples treated with enzymes and
the pasteurised juice (control) were slightly higher than the untreated
sample. Clearly, such thermal treatment does not pretend to simulate
the industrial pasteurisation protocol and it is surely far more drastic
compared to a process that would be used for a commercial product.
Nevertheless, it allowed us to qualitatively investigate the effects of
temperature on several physicochemical parameters of goldenberry
juice (control sample) and to gain information that could be extremely
useful in the eventual optimisation of pasteurisation conditions for
applications on a larger scale. Under the processing conditions, such
treatment did not cause major undesirable effects such as significative
alterations in the colour of the juice and off- or cooked-flavour.

22
3.2 Antiradical action of goldenberry juices

There is convincing epidemiological evidence that the

consumption of fruits and vegetables is beneficial to health and
contributes to the prevention of degenerative processes, particularly
lowering incidence and mortality rate of cancer and cardio- and
cerebrovascular diseases. The protection that fruits and vegetables
provides against these diseases has been attributed to the various
antioxidant phytonutrients contained in these foods (Rapisarda et al.,
1999; Hertog et al., 1993; Ramadan and Moersel, 2007). The
antioxidant activity of goldenberry juices was assessed by means of
DPPH test and the resulting values were correlated with each one of
these classes of antioxidant compounds. There was no significant
increase in antioxidative activity values by enzymatic treatment.
Untreated goldenberry fruit juice produce a 78% decrease vs the
absorbance of DPPH radicals’ control solution at a volume of 10 µL,
while Ultrazyme treated sample resulted in 82% decrease. A direct
correlation was found between the antioxidant effectiveness of
goldenberry juices and their total fat-soluble bioactives (tocopherols,
sterols and carotenoids) content. The antioxidant activity of
goldenberry juices was not a property of a single phytochemical
compound, but the synergistic effect of different antioxidant existing in
the juice. Phenolic compounds are reported to be responsible for the
antioxidant activity of fruit juices and wines (Frankel et al., 1995;
Meyer et al., 1995). On the other hand, there is an evidence that
ascorbic acid plays a minor role in the total antioxidant efficiency of

23
fruit juices. Wang and co-workers (1996) have recently evaluated that
the contribution of vitamin C to the total antioxidant activity of a fruit is
usually less than 15%. Moreover, Miller and Rice-Evans (1997) have
underlined the significant contributory role of phenols to the total
antioxidant activity of long-life orange juice, even if vitamin C was the
most abundant antioxidant. The presence of a good amount of
phenolics in goldenberry juice, could contribute to the high level of
antioxidant capacity determined in this study.

4 Acyl lipids and fatty acid profile

Ramadan and Moersel (2003) studied lipid composition of

Colombian cultivar of Physalis peruviana. Whole berries were found to
contain ca. 2.0% oil (on fresh weight basis), in which seed oil was
comprised ca. 90% (1.8% oil of the whole berry fresh weight) and
pulp/peel oil was constituted ca. 10% (0.2% oil of the whole berry fresh
weight). Analysis of fatty acids in the whole berry oil (WBO), seed oil
(SO) and pulp/peel oil (PO) of Physalis peruviana L. gave the
proportion of linoleic, oleic, palmitic, stearic and γ-linolenic (GLA)
esters as the major FAME. According to the results shown in Table 5,
fifteen fatty acids were detected. In the different oils linoleic acid was
the dominating fatty acid followed by oleic acid as the second major
fatty acid, wherein the ratio of linoleic acid to oleic acid was more than
2:1 in PO and around 5:1 in WBO and SO. These oils also contain
appreciable amounts of saturated normal chain fatty acids. Palmitic
acid (ca. 9%) followed by stearic acid (ca. 2.5%) were the major

24
saturated fatty acids in all examined oils. PO, however, was
characterized by relatively high amount of saturated fatty acids which
were comprised more than 16% of total fatty acids. The four fatty acids
(linoleic, oleic, palmitic and stearic) were constituted ca. 95% of total
fatty acids in WBO and SO, while accounted for ca. 77% in PO. Five
minor fatty acids, namely gadoleic, dihomo-γ-linolenic (DHGLA),
erucic, lignoceric and nervonic acids were identified in higher levels in
PO and in lower amounts in WBO, whereas not detected in SO. Unlike
SO which contain very low level of trienes (GLA, α-linolenic acid and
DHGLA), PO could be a good source of this type of polyunsaturated
fatty acids. The total content of trienes in PO was about 11.7% and the
oil was characterized by relatively high level of GLA (8.66% of total
fatty acids), while ω-3 fatty acid (α-linolenic acid) and DHGLA were
estimated in lower levels. Interest in the polyunsaturated fatty acids as
health-promoting nutrients have expanded dramatically in recent years
with rapidly growing literature illustrates their benefits. The fatty acid
composition and high amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids makes
the goldenberry a special fruit for nutritional applications.

25
 Table 5. Fatty acid compositions of colombian goldenberry oils

WBO SO PO

Relative content
Fatty acid
C12:0 0.49 0.35 0.91

C14:0 1.00 1.00 0.50

C16:0 8.62 7.29 9.58

C16:1n-7 0.63 0.52 1.06

C18:0 2.57 2.51 2.92

C18:1n-9 13.0 11.7 20.1

C18:2n-6 70.5 76.1 44.4

C18:3n-6 1.79 0.31 8.66

C20:0 0.28 0.20 0.40

C18:3n-3 0.11 0.02 1.09

C20:1n-9 0.01 n.d.a 0.22

C20:3n-6 0.22 n.d. 1.95

C22:1n-9 0.26 n.d. 2.70

C24:0 0.22 n.d. 1.85

C24:1n-9 0.30 n.d. 3.66

Total saturates 13.1 11.3 16.1

Total monoenes 14.2 12.2 27.7
Total dienes 70.5 76.1 44.4
Total trienes 2.12 0.33 11.7
S/U ratio (%)b 15.1 12.8 19.2
n.d.a (not detected)
b Ratio of saturated fatty acids to unsaturated fatty acids

26
4.1Lipid classes

The levels of lipid classes presented in the goldenberry (Physalis

peruviana L.) oils are shown in Table 6.

Table 6. Levels of lipid classes (g/100g total lipids) in the goldenberry oils

MAG DAG TAG FFA STE PL

1.23 1.65 78.2 3.13 0.49 4.15
WBO
1.04 1.36 84.0 2.12 0.34 2.99
SO
2.76 2.46 ± 0.12 60.3 5.16 0.65 7.34
PO

Abbreviations: MAG, monoacylglycerols; DAG, diacylglycerols; TAG,

triacylglycerols; FFA, free fatty acids; STE, sterol esters; PL, polar lipids.

The results showed that WBO and SO contained more NL (ca.

95% of TL) than PO which was characterized by containing high
amount of PL (7.34% of TL). TAG were the predominant NL subclass
in all oils under investigation and constituted ca. 81.6, 86.6 and 65.1%
of total NL in WBO, SO and PO, respectively. MAG, DAG and FFA,
moreover, were found in relatively higher levels in the PO comparing
with the SO and WBO. The results revealed that the fatty acid
composition of the lipid classes resemble each other in the examined
samples. Linoleic acid followed by oleic acid were the major
unsaturated fatty acids detected in the most of lipid classes. Saturated
fatty acids, namely plamitic and stearic, were detected in higher

27
amounts in all lipid classes especially MAG which characterized by
extremely high levels of palmitic acid (>25%). STE in both WBO and
PO were also characterized by excepionally high levels of nervonic
acid, whereas GLA was detected in higher level in PL fraction of PO
(Ramadan and Moersel, 2003).

4.2 Triacylglycerols (TAG)

The actual TAG molecular species of goldenberry oils were

separated with high temperature GC/FID (Ramadan and Moersel,
2003). In these oils, containing ≤16.1% of saturated fatty acids almost
all TAG contain two or three unsaturated acyl groups and a high
proportion of them contain two or three polyethanoid acyl groups.
According to results (Table 7) these oils contain nine TAG molecular
species, but three species, C54:3, C52:2 and C54:6, were presented
to the extent of ca. 91% or above. In goldenberry oils the probable
dominant TAG present are trilinolein, triolein, dioleoyl palmitoyl
glycerol and/or palmitoyl stearoyl linoleoyl glycerol. Chromatographic
analysis of the 0 double bond fraction indicated that its composition
resemble that of total lipids except that C48:0 peak was reduced in
size. This would, of course, have been expected if the oleic and
linoleic acids were presented as dipalmitoyl oleoyl glycerol (C50:1) or
dioleoyl palmitoyl glycerol and/or palmitoyl stearoyl linoleoyl glycerol
(C52:2).

28
 Table 7. Percentages of TAG molecular species in goldenberry oils

Compound WBO SO PO
a
36:0 0.65 0.59 0.96

42:0 0.09 0.07 0.04

48:0 0.69 0.58 0.92

48:3 0.08 0.06 0.17

50:1 2.38 2.33 3.85

52:2 27.8 27.6 33.6

54:0 0.15 0.14 0.26

54:3 8.80 8.53 16.3

54:6 58.1 59.0 41.1

1.26 1.10 2.80

Unknown
a Carbon number : Double bonds

4.3 Minor lipid components

4.3.1 Phytosterols composition

Phytosterols are of interest due to their antioxidant activity and

health impact. The content and composition of free phytosterols
determined in goldenberry (Physalis peruviana L.) oils are shown in
Table 8.

29
 Table 8. Levels of sterols, fat-soluble vitamins and β-carotene in goldenberry oils

Sterols compositiona Fat-soluble vitamins and β-carotene compositiona

Compound WBO SO PO Compound WBO SO PO

Ergosterol 1.16 1.04 8.62 α-Tocopherol 2.38 0.88 22.5
Campesterol 6.70 6.48 11.5 β- Tocopherol 11.7 11.3 13.1
Stigmasterol 1.69 1.32 6.17 γ- Tocopherol 10.4 9.08 50.4
Lanosterol 2.51 2.27 7.44 δ- Tocopherol 8.22 8.44 0.30
β-Sitosterol 5.73 5.71 4.99 Total Vitamin E 32.7 29.7 86.3
∆5-Avenasterol 4.70 4.57 11.8 β-Carotene 2.22 1.30 3.26
∆7- Avenasterol 1.21 1.11 2.68 Vitamin K1 0.19 0.12 2.12
Total Sterols 23.7 22.5 53.2
a
Grams per kilogram of total lipids

Phytosterols were estimated in high levels and data showed that

no remarkable differences between WBO (ca. 6.14% unsaponifiables)
and SO (ca. 5.76% unsaponifiables) in terms of ST content and
composition. By contrast, PO (ca. 15.3% unsaponifables) was
characterized by extremely higher level of phytosterols. In both WBO
and SO, campesterol and β-sitosterol were the sterol markers and
detected at approximately equal amounts (ca. 25-28% of total ST).
The next major components were ∆5-avenasterol (ca. 20%) and
lanosterol (ca. 10%). These four major components were comprised
more than 85% of total ST. In the PO, the major phytosterols were, in
order of decreasing prevalence, ∆5-avenasterol> campesterol>
ergosterol> lanosterol> stigmasterol> β-sitosterol> ∆7-avenasterol. ∆5-
Avenasterol and campesterol were detected at equal levels and
comprised together about a half of sterol content (Ramadan and
Moersel, 2003). Recently, a new frontier in food science and nutrition

30
is developing quickly which is now called “functional food”. One
example of a successful functional food is the incorporation of
phytosterols into vegetable oil spreads. This type of products is now
available in the market and has been scientifically proven to lower
blood LDL-cholesterol by around 10-15% as part of a healthy diet
(Hendriks et al., 1999; Jones et al., 2000).

4.3.2 Fat-soluble vitamins and β-carotene composition

The nutritionally important components such as carotenes (pro-

vitamin A) and tocopherols (vitamin E) improve stability of the oil. The
effectiveness of tocopherols as lipid antioxidants has been attributed
mainly to their ability to break chain reactions by reacting with fatty
acid peroxy radicals. In addition, epidemiologic evidence suggests a
physiologic role for intact β-carotene in cancer prevention (Simpson et
al., 1985). Data about the qualitative and quantitative composition of
vitamins E, K1 and β-carotene are summarized in Table 8. Vitamin E
level was extremely high in PO (ca. 8.6% of TL) whereas estimated in
low amounts in WBO (ca. 3.2%) and SO (ca. 2.9%). Although, there
are certain differences in the levels of the separated individual
tocopherols, β- and γ-tocopherols seem to be the major components in
WBO and SO, while γ- and α-tocopherols were the main constituents
in PO. β-Tocopherol was comprised ca. 35.7% and 38.0% of total
vitamin E content in WBO and SO, respectively. On the other hand, γ-
tocopherol was constituted ca. 58.4% of total vitamin E content in PO
followed by α-tocopherol (ca. 26.0%) (Ramadan and Moersel, 2003).

31
α-Tocopherol is the most efficient antioxidant of these compounds. β-
Tocopherol has 25-50% of the antioxidative activity of α-tocopherol
and γ-tocopherol 10-35% (Dillard et al., 1983). Concerning the
stability issue, high amounts of vitamin E detected in the examined oils
may contribute to great stability toward oxidation of these oils.
Carotenoids, as singlet oxygen quenchers, protect oils from photo-
oxidation, whereas their role in autoxidation is associated with the
presence of tocopherols. The most common and most effecrtive pro-
vitamin A is β-carotene. None of the other pro-vitamin A carotenoids
has more than half the activity of β-carotene and they are less
widespread in nature so that vitamin A from carotenoids is provided
overwhelmingly by β-carotene (Pitt, 1985). Carotenoids are
responsible for the orange hues of goldenberry PO. The level of
pigments, however, depends on the stage of fruit ripeness, the
extraction process and the storage conditions. High amounts of β-
carotene were detected in the studied oils. β-Carotene was measured
in the highest level in PO (0.32% of TL) followed by WBO (0.22%) then
SO (0.13%). The latter being characterized by light yellow hues
(Ramadan and Moersel, 2003).

Goldenberry oils were characterized by high level of vitamin K1

(phylloquinone), which was comprised more than 0.2% of TL in PO,
while detected in less amounts (ca. 0.01% of TL) in WBO and SO
(Ramadan and Moersel, 2003). The phylloquinone requirments of the
adult human is extremely low. However, relatively few values for

32
dietary items are available (Ball, 1998). The vitamin K1 (Figure 2) level
is very low in most foods (<10 mg/100 g), and the majority of the
vitamin is obtained from a few green and leafy vegetables (e.g.
spinach and broccoli).

Figure 2. Vitamin K1 (phylloquinone)

Many studies have shown that some vegetable oils (especially

soybean, cottonseed and rapeseed oils) are important dietary sources
of phylloquinone (Jakob and Elmadfa, 2000; Piironen et al., 1997;
Booth and Suttie, 1998; Koivu et al., 1999). Among edible oils, the
best sources of phylloquinone were rapeseed oil (ca 1.5 ug/g) and
soybean oil (ca 1.30 µg/g). Sunflower oil was the poorest source (ca
0.10 µg/g) of phylloquinone (Piironen et al., 1997). Its levels are also
moderate in olive oil (Cook et al., 1999; Ferland and Sadowski,
1992; Piironen et al., 1997; Jakob and Elmadfa, 2000; Shearer et
al., 1996). Recent study reported that in olive oil, the mean content of
phylloquinone ranged from 12.7 to 18.9 µg/100 g while in human
plasma, phylloquinone content varied between 0.22 and 0.56 ng/ml
(Otles and Cagindi, 2007). The addition of phylloquinone-rich oils in

33
the processing and cooking of foods that are otherwise poor sources
of vitamin K (for example, peanut and corn oils) makes them
potentially important dietary sources of the vitamin.

5 Fruit pomace

The fruit processing industry produce a large amount of agro-

waste products which are a rich source of dietary fibre, protein and oil.
Goldenberry (Physalis peruviana L.) is one of the most promising fruits
and many interesting functional products anticipated to be developed
from it. The pomace (seeds and skins) represent a large portion of the
waste generated during juice processing (ca. 27.4% of fruit weight).
The potential of goldenberry agro-industrial wastes for use as
substrate for production of edible oil was evaluated (Ramadan and
Moersel, 2007, 2009). Fruit pomace, contained 6.6% moisture, 17.8%
protein, 3.10% ash, 28.7% crude fibre and 24.5% carbohydrates. The
n-hexane-extractable oil content of the raw by-products was estimated
to be 19.3%. Aqueous enzymatic extraction was investigated for
recovery of oil from the fruit pomace. The most significant factors
affecting extraction were enzyme concentration, the time of digestion
with enzymes, substrate concentration in water and the particle size of
substrate. The effect of these variables on the oil extractability from
goldenberry waste after juice processing was studied. A broad
variation in extracted oil was obtained depending on the operational
conditions during the enzyme-aided aqueous extraction. The optimum
and economical values were those obtained for 4: 0.02: 1 water:

34
enzyme: substrate ratio. Generally, enzymatic treatment increased the
extraction yield. The more than 42% yield by enzymation compared to
the nearly 3% yield in the control process (without enzyme) implies a
significant relative increase in yield by about 92.8%. In a single-
enzyme trials, cellulase EC gave the best yield. Although proteases
slightly improves yield, the enhancement values are much lower than
those obtained with Cellulase EC and Pektinace L40. Rapid increase
in yield occurred as the enzyme concentration increased from 1 to 2g
/100g substrate. Yield increased with dilution, but it began to fall when
the substrate became more diluted. Moreover, extractability increased
significantly when particle size reduced. Concerning the oil
composition, there were no great changes in the fatty acid pattern of
the oils extracted with different hydrolytic enzymes as compared to
each other or to the solvent extracted oil (Ramadan and Moersel,
2009).

5.1 Oil extractability from enzymatically-treated fruit pomace

The normal industrial oil processing, consisting in pressing or in

solvent extraction, while quite justifiable economically in their results,
have on the other hand certain well-known drawbacks: equipment that
is costly both to install and to maintain, a high danger level due to the
large quantities of solvents involved and undesirable side effects on
the quality of the finished products, above all because of the high
temperatures reached at certain stages. It was therefore thought that a
convenient alternative might be to work with a process based on the

35
idea of an enzymatic attack on the walls of oleaginous cells, so that
the liberated oil could then be separated out mechanically, by simple
centrifugation. Oil is usually inside of vegetable cells, linked with other
macromolecules, so that upon partial hydrolysis, oil extraction can be
enhanced. Since these macromolecules may include proteins and a
wide variety of carbohydrates (starch, cellulose, hemicellulose and
pectin), the hydrolysis treatment should be carried out by means of
appropriate enzymes. The use of various kinds of enzymes was
therefore justified and in particular of three types: protease, cellulase
and pectinolytic enzymes.

The work developed from an original project at the Berlin

University of Technology in Germany to produce nutritive products
from the goldenberry and its by-products (Ramdan and Moersel,
2009). Experiments were carried out mainly to pre-evaluate the
feasibility of enzymatic treatment of fruit pomace and to select the
operational range of the most important variables. Several assays
using the more adequate formulations found in previous reports were
carried out. Enzyme formulations were selected after several runs of
comparative assays among enzymes of different activities: amylases,
glucanases, cellulases, hemicellulases, pectinases, proteases and
multiactivity complexes, all of them commercially available. In the
study on the enzymatic treatment of goldenberry by-products, four
independent variables were considered: the enzyme concentration (g
enzyme / 100 g substrate), the treatment time (h), the moisture content
during the enzymatic treatment (g water /100 g substrate) and the

36
particle size (mm). The criteria for selecting operating conditions is, as
previously, the oil extractability. However the interest of this work was
to obtain a wider range of variation under the different conditions
tested, with the aim of better discerning the effects of both the
enzymatic and operational conditions.

Several investigations have been carried out to analyse the

effects of the pre-treatment on the yield of oil from fruits and seeds
with different microbial enzymes. Taking into account different
compositions and the mode of operation, the effectiveness of the
treatment has to be appropriate for the oil-bearing materials. The
values of temperature and pH should be in the range of maximum
activity of the enzyme.

5.1.1 Enzyme formulation

During preliminary investigations not reported here, over 30

crude enzymes, primarily carbohydrases and proteases, supplied by
commercial manufactures were evaluated for their abilities to
hydrolyse goldenberry by-products and to enhance oil extraction. Each
of the commercial formulations was characterized as having a specific
activity, but most can be demonstrated to act as general
carbohydrases and/or proteases. In effect, each enzyme preparation
was likely a mixed activity with a range of temperature optima. The
most common formulations commercially available are a complex
preparations produced from Aspergillus niger in which enzymes such
as polygalacturonase, pectinesterase as well as hemicellulases,

37
cellulases and proteases, are all present. The impact of various
enzymes (as single and/or mixed preparations) at the 2g enzyme/100g
substrate level (4g water/g substrate, 0.125 mm particle size, 2 h
reaction time, 50 °C and pH 4.3) on extraction yield of goldenberry
pomace oil was studied. Depending on the enzyme formulation,
different yields were obtained. Increments of percentage of
extractability are plotted for the different enzyme formulations.

Cellulase EC+Pektinase L40 + Protease (1:1:1)

Cellulase EC+ Pektinase L40 (1:1)

Pektinase L40 +Protease (1:1)

Enzyme formulation

Cellulase EC+Protase (1:1)

Gammazyme ANP (protease)

Rapidase citrus oil

Pektinase L40

Ropect VR-C

Cellubrix

Cellulase EC

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Extraction yield %

Effect of enzyme formulation and the combination of different enzymatic preparations on the
oil extraction yield from goldenberry fruit pomace. Enzyme-aided aqueous extraction was
carried out under the following conditions: enzyme concentration (2g enzyme / 100g
substrate), dilution ratio (4g water / g substrate), particle size = 0.125 mm, 2 h reaction time,
pH = 4.3 and temperature = 50 °C

38
 Generally, enzymatic treatment increased the extraction yield.
The more than 42% yield by enzymation compared to the nearly 3%
yield in the control process (without enzyme) implies a significant
relative increase in yield by about 92.8%. Mixed activity enzymes or
those with high cellulolytic activity appear to exert a more favourable
action on the oil extractability. There seems to exist a relationship
between the increment of the extractability and the partial breakdown
of the cellular wall, measured as total carbohydrates in the defatted
meal. In a single-enzyme trials, Cellualse EC, an enzyme with different
activities gave the best yield (30.3% extractability). Although
Gammazym ANP (protease) slightly improves yield (20.9%), the
enhancement values are much lower than those obtained with
Cellulase EC and Pektinace L40. Sosulski et al. (1988) also observed
more efficient extraction of canola with a mixture of carbohydrases.
The higher effectiveness of cellulases seems to reflect the general
composition of the goldenberry by-products. It is also possible to see
that the increases that happened due to the action of each enzymes
were in general small in comparison to the action of mixed enzymes.
Although the combination of Gammazym ANP (protease), Cellulase
EC and Pektinase L40 (1:1:1, w/w/w) resulted in a high yield (41%),
Pektinase L40 and Cellulase EC (1:1, w/w) together gave a mean yield
which was the highest (42.1%), under similar extraction conditions. So,
Pektinase L40 and Cellulase EC (1:1, w/w) was chosen to carry out
the following experiments and to study other operational conditions. It
is clear from the analysis that the enzymes used do not have a strong

39
influence on oil extraction compared with solvent extraction. however,
extraction yields around 30-40% of the total extractable oil was
reported for the aqueous extraction of sunflower (Dominguez et al.,
1995).

5.1.2 Enzyme concentration (g enzyme/100g pomace)

The cost of enzyme is one of the most decisive economic factors

of the process, so that the enzyme concentration has to be optimised
during the treatment. It was, therefore, important to determine whether
a higher enzyme concentration could exert a more efficient action.
Based on the best oil recovery, fruit by-products (0.125 mm) were
treated for a period of 2 h at 50 °C with the enzymatic preparation
(Pektinase L40: Cellulase EC, 1:1, w/w) diluted to keep a final
moisture of 4 g water/g pomace at a four enzyme concentrations 1, 2,
3 and 4g /100g fruit pomace. Increasing the enzyme concentration,
generally, increased oil yield. Rapid increase in yield occurred as the
enzyme concentration increased from 1 to 2%. The global effect on the
oil extractability remains almost unaffected when this ratio is raised
from 2 to 4. However, maximum oil recovery of 44% was obtained with
a 4 g enzyme concentration. An additional rise of this variable does not
imply a parallel improvement in oil yield, but an increase of the costs,
not advantageous from the economic point of view. Optimum enzyme
concentrations of 1-2 g enzyme/100g substrate have been reported
with different enzymatic activities. The analysis of these results
indicates that the enzyme concentration should be a compromise

40
between the improvement of the extractability and the cost of enzyme.
Since 2g enzyme/100g substrate was satisfactory for enzymes tested
here, this concentration was adopted for the remainder of the study.

50

45

40
Extractability %

35

30

25

20
1 2 3 4
Enzyme concentration (g enzyme/100 g pomace)

Oil recoveries from goldenberry pomace in function of enzyme concentration.

Enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction was carried out under the following conditions: enzyme
concentration [1-4g enzyme (Cellulase EC : Pektinase L40, 1:1, w/w) / 100g substrate], dilution
ratio (4g water / g substrate), particle size = 0.125 mm, 2 h reaction time, pH = 4.3 and
temperature = 50 °C

5.1.3 Time of hydrolysis (h)

The hydrolysis time would affect the economy of the enzymatic

treatment, so that an evaluation of the influence of the duration of
hydrolysis is of interest. The effect of hydrolysis time was studied and
compared with control samples (without enzyme) processed under the

41
same conditions. For these assays, moisture values were kept at 4g
water/g pomace, particle size = 0.125 mm, pH = 4.3, temperature = 50
°C and enzyme concentration of 2g (Pektinase L40: Cellulase EC,
1:1, w/w) /100g pomace, wherein hydrolysis was performed in a period
ranging from 1 to 4 h. In the case of treatment time, increasing the
time from 1 to 4 h increased the oil yield by about 10% (from 31.5 to
42.6%), whereas further increase to 8 h saw additional increase of
only 2%.

50

45

40
Extractability %

35

30

25

20
1 2 3 4
Time of hydrolysis (h)

Impact of hydrolysis time on the oil extractability from goldenberry fruit pomace.
Enzyme-aided aqueous extraction was carried out under the following conditions: 1-4 h
reaction time, enzyme concentration [2g enzyme (Cellulase EC : Pektinase L40, 1:1, w/w) /
100g substrate], dilution ratio (4g water / g substrate), particle size = 0.125 mm, pH = 4.3 and
temperature = 50 °C

42
 Furthermore, there was almost no effect of incubation time on oil
extractability from control samples, whereas the extractability was
ranged from ca. 3% to 4%. Long period (4 h) do not favour
extractability of pomace oil (42.6%) more than intermediate value (2 h)
and produce undesired effects on odour due to the amount of water
present. Although previous studies were carried out for more
prolonged times, about 2 h is long enough to carry out enzymatic
hydrolysis for goldenberry pomace more efficiently (extractability
=42.1%). Because of that, a period around 2 h was chosen as an
optimum time for the treatment.

5.1.4 Moisture content (g water/g pomace)

The moisture content favours the wall degradation, because

water plays a major role in biohydrolytic reactions, favouring the
diffusion and mobility of both enzymes and the substrate. Since the
subsequent drying of meal after enzymation would constitute one of
the major costs of the process, moisture content should be also
optimised. In order to determine the effect of the water content on the
enzymatic treatment, several experiments at moistures: substrate
ratios ranging from 3:1 to 7:1 (w/w) were conducted at pH 4.3 and 50
°C. An enzyme concentration of 2 g enzyme (Pektinase L40 :
Cellulase EC, 1:1, w/w) /100 g pomace (0.125 mm) and a treatment
period of 2 h were employed in these experiments. Due to the nature
of goldenberry by-products 3g water/g pomace would be the minimum
value needed to moisten the sample and to allow dispersion of the

43
enzyme formulations in the by-products. As regards the influence of
moisture on extractability, the apparent maximum being in the range of
4g to 5g water/g pomace.

50

45

40
Extractability %

35

30

25

20
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Water : pomace ratio (g water /100g pomace)

Effect of dilution ratio on the oil extraction yield from goldenberry fruit pomace. Enzyme-
assisted aqueous extraction was carried out under the following conditions: dilution ratios (3-7g
water / g substrate), 2 h reaction time, enzyme concentration [2g enzyme (Cellulase EC : Pektinase
L40, 1:1, w/w) / 100g substrate], particle size = 0.125 mm, pH = 4.3 and temperature = 50 °C

Yield increased with dilution (from 3:1 to 4:1), but it began to fall
again when the substrate became more diluted. The reasons for this
effect may be due to the acidic pH which would not favour oil-in-water
emulsion formation which is the principle of the separation. The effect
due to meal dilution was also more probably related to both emulsion
formation and emulsion stability. Moreover, increase in dilution ratios

44
means low accessibility of enzymes to cell walls. It is worth to mention
also that higher values than 5g water/g pomace make the particles
lose consistency, mainly during drying of defatted pomace, causing
disaggregation of the particles, as well as undesirable odours after
treatment. Considering that the cost of enzyme and subsequent drying
would be the major expense in the enzymatic treatment, the conditions
of moisture and enzyme concentrations should be minimized to
enhance the economic feasibility of the process. Since a 4g water /g
pomace ratio provided a better oil removal than higher values, this
moisture level was selected and employed in the all experiments.

5.1.5 Particle size (mm)

The degree of particle size reduction is a determining factor in

the role of the enzymation. The effect of particle size on extractability,
determined as the percentage of recovered oil by aqueous process
over the total extractable oil (Soxhlet extracted oil), was studied. The
amount of extracted oil obviously depends on particle size, and after 8
h of extraction (in Soxhlet) of ground samples (0.125 mm) nearly all
the oil present was extracted. Fruit pomace powder (particle sizes=
0.125, 0.250 and 0.500 mm) was enzymatically treated. As expected,
reduction in particle size means more available surface for the action
of enzymes. Furthermore, the effect of the enzyme is more evident at
the lower sizes, indicating that a better accessibility of enzyme to the
cell wall is achieved. The favourable effect of a size reduction on the
amount of obtained oil can be observed, whereas extractability

45
increase more than 13.7% (from 36.3% to 42.1%) when particle size
reduced from 0.500 to 0.125 mm.

50

48

46

44
Extractability %

42

40

38

36

34

32

30
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Particlesize(mm)

Impact of particle size on the oil extractability from goldenberry fruit pomace. Enzyme-aided
aqueous extraction was carried out under the following conditions: particle sizes (0.125,
0.250, and 0.500 mm), 2 h incubation time, enzyme concentration [2g enzyme (Cellulase EC :
Pektinase L40, 1:1, w/w) / 100g substrate], dilution ratio (4g water / g substrate), pH = 4.3 and
temperature = 50 °C

In the principal investigation, intact fruit pomace (without

grinding) were also subjected to enzymatic hydrolysis to study the
effect of enzymation on the intact substrate. Under selected separation

46
conditions [2 g enzyme (Pektinase L40: Cellulase EC, 1:1, w/w) /100
g pomace, treatment period of 2 h, pH = 4.3 and temperature = 50 °C],
hardly any oil could be released from the intact sample, where the
residual oil in the solid phase was not significantly different from the
initial oil content of the sample. Since maximum oil extraction from the
fruit by-products was generally obtained with 0.125 mm particles size,
further increase in oil recovery might be expected if a more reduction
in particle size was employed.

5.2 Impact of processing on composition and quality of oil and

meal

In a recent study, three extraction methods were checked for the

best pomace oil yield (Ramadan et al., 2008). The n-hexane-
extractable oil (expressed as SE) content of the raw byproducts was
estimated to be 19.3%. Enzymatic treatment with Pectinases and
Cellulases followed by centrifugation in aqueous system (expressed as
EAE) or followed by solvent extraction (expressed as ESE) was also
investigated for recovery of oil from pomace fruit. Enzymatic hydrolysis
of pomace followed by extraction with n-hexane reduced the extraction
time and enhanced oil extractability up to a maximum of ca. 7.60%.
Moreover, enzymation followed by solvent extraction increased the
levels of protein, carbohydrates, fiber and ash in the remaining meal.

47
Block diagram of goldenberry juice and oil processing

48
 The study covers also the chemical composition and some
fractional properties of different pomace extract (EAE, SE and ESE).
Concerning the oil composition, there were relatively no changes
noted in the fatty acid pattern of the oils extracted with different
techniques. Slight alterations in the amounts of other fat-soluble
bioactives (i.e. sterols, tocopherols and phenolics) were recorded.
Different obtained pomace oils were tested for their radical scavenging
activity toward the stable 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical
and their oxidative stability. Generally, the quality of solvent extracted
oils (ESE and SE) manifested higher radical scavenging activity and
oxidative stability than the enzyme-extracted oil (EAE). Levels of polar
lipids, unsaponifiables, peroxides and phenolics in different extracts
associated with oxidative stability and radical scavenging activity.

Table 9 summarizes the chemical composition of the meal

obtained from the different processing operations. It was clear that
enzymation followed by drying then solvent extraction increased the
levels of protein, carbohydrates, fiber and ash in the remaining meal.
The contents of macroelements (Ca, K and Mg) and trace elements
(Cu, Fe and Mn) in goldenberry pomace were determined by atomic
absorption spectrometry to investigate the possible changes in mineral
levels after processing.

49
 Table 9. Levels of chemical constituents and minerals in goldenberry pomace (wet
weight) after oil recovery using different extraction techniques

Compound Meal after Meal after solvent- Meal after

enzyme-assisted extraction b enzyme-solvent
aqueous extraction c
extraction a
Total protein % 17.5 18.0 18.1
Total carbohydrates % 24.2 24.6 24.8
Crude fiber % 27.9 28.1 28.3
Ash % 2.95 3.07 3.09
Fe (ppm) 32.5 48.1 48.2
Ca (ppm) 110 140 142
Mn (ppm) 12.3 20.1 20.1
Cu (ppm) 69.7 98.5 99.0
K (ppm) 189 255 259
Mg (ppm) 165 244 250
a
Extraction was carried out under aqueous conditions explained in the material
and method section. The following parameters were used: enzyme concentration
2g (Pektinase L40 : Cellulase EC, 1:1, w/w)/100g pomace, water : pomace ratio
4:1, temperature = 50 °C, particle size = 0.125 mm, time = 2 h.
b
Extraction was carried out in a Soxhlet apparatus using n-hexane for 8 h.
c
Extraction was carried out for enzmatically treated pomace in a Soxhlet
apparatus using n-hexane for 4 h.

Significant decrease in mineral concentrations in the meal was

observed when the oil was extracted using EAE technique. On the
contrary, the highest mineral concentrations were recorded in the meal
remained after enzyme-solvent extraction (ESE). This notable

50
reduction in minerals level in the enzymatically treated meal could be
due to lose of components in waste water after centrifugation.

6 Physalis peruviana bioactive phytochemicals

6.1 Withanolides

Withanolides are a group of steroidal lactones which have been

isolated from the genera Acnistus, Datura, Jaborosa, Lycium, Physalis
and Withania of the family Solanaceae. Withanolides have a limited
distribution, having been first isolated from Withania somnifera (L.)
Dunal, and subsequently being found primarily in 12 genera of the
Solanaceae (Glotter, 1991; Raffauf et al., 1991; Ray and Gupta,
1994). The broad spectrum of biological properties exhibited by
withanolides is responsible for the undiminishing interest in them.
Withanolides have been studied previously for their antifeedant, anti-
inflammatory, antitumor, cytotoxic, and immunomodulating activity,
and for protection against CCl4-induced hepatoxicity (Glotter, 1991).
For example, an insect-antifeedant property of withanolide E isolated
from Physalis peruviana has been demonstrated against Spodoptera
littoralis larvae (Ascher et al., 1980).

51
 R2

OH

O O
OH
O

OH

O
R1

R1 R2
1- 4β-hydroxywithanolide E. -OH Me

2- 28-hydroxywithanolide E. -H -CH2OH

3- Withanolide E. -H Me

Figure 3. Withanolides isolated from Physalis peruviana

Withanolide E and 4β-hydroxywithanolide E have been tested

pre-clinically as anticancer agents by the National Cancer Institute, but
their activity was not sufficient to warrant subsequent clinical
development (Cassady and Suffness, 1980; Glotter, 1991). New
withanolide, 28-hydroxywithanolide E (Figure 3) was isolated from the
calyces of Physalis peruviana. The structure of the compound was
determined primarily on the basis of extensive 1D and 2D NMR
spectral analysis (Dinan, Sarker and Sik, 1997). In addition, two new
withanolides isolated from the whole plant material of Physalis
peruviana have been characterized as (20R,22R)-5α,6β,14α,20,27-

52
pentahydroxy-1-oxowith-24-enolide and (20S,22R)-5β,6β-epoxy-
4β,14β,15α-trihydroxy-1-oxowith-2,24-dienolide.

6.2 Carotenoids

Carotenoids are a class of natural pigments widely distributed in

vegetables and fruits and also added as additives, being responsible
for the yellow-reddish color of many foods. Apart from their colorant
properties, the carotenoids are related to important functions and
physiological actions, provitamin A activity being the most known one.
In addition, a positive correlation has been observed between
ingestion of vegetables and fruits containing carotenoids and
prevention of several chronic-degenerative diseases, such as cancer,
inflammation, cardiovascular disease, cataract, and age-related
macular degeneration, among others (Krinsky et al., 2003; Coyne et
al., 2005; Van den Berg et al., 2000; Fraser et al., 2005). Some fruits
can be considered ideal carotenoid natural sources for consumption or
supplementation because the concomitant presence of high amounts
of oil and carotenoids in these fruits considerably improves the oral
bioavailability of these compounds.

The major and minor carotenoids from physalis, native to the

Amazonia region, were determined by high-performance liquid
chromatography-photodiode array detector-mass spectrometry
detector (HPLC-PDA-MS/MS). The fruit recommended to be
considered good sources of provitamin A. Among 22 compound
identified (Table 10), all-trans-β-Carotene was the major carotenoid,

53
contributing 76.8% to the total carotenoid, followed by 9-cis-β-carotene
and all-trans-α-cryptoxanthin, contributing around 3.6 and 3.4%. All of
the other minor carotenoids represented only 16.2% of the total
content (De Rosso and Mercadante, 2007).

Table 10. Carotenoid composition and vitamin A value of Physalis fruits

Carotenoid concentration (µg/g) total vitamin
carotenoid A
(µg/g) value
(RE/100 g)
all-trans-β-carotene (62.23), 80.89 1108
9-cis-β-carotene (2.91),
all-trans-α-cryptoxanthin (2.65),
all-trans-β-cryptoxanthin (1.87),
all-trans-lutein (1.44),
zeinoxanthin (1.42),
13-cis-β-carotene (1.39),
all-trans-α-carotene (1.25),
5,8-epoxy-β-carotene (1.03),
5,6-epoxy-β-cryptoxanthin (0.61),
cis-phytofluene (0.55),
15-cis-β-carotene (0.49),
all-trans-zeaxanthin (0.40),
cis-lutein (0.35),
all-trans-δ-carotene (0.35),
not identified 4 (0.33),
phytoene (0.30),
5,8-epoxy-β-cryptoxanthin (0.25),
all-trans-phytofluene (0.26),
all-trans-γ-carotene (0.23),
cis-δ-carotene 4 (0.21),
not identified 9 (0.20),
cis- γ-carotene 3 (0.12),
cis- γ-carotene 4 (0.05)

The concentration of carotenoid esters calculated as lutein

dimyristate equivalents was (<0.5 mg/100 g), wherein lutein (β,є-
carotene-3,3′-diol) was the main parent xanthophylls identified

54
(Breithaupt and Bamedi, 2001). In contrast to goldenberry (Physalis
peruviana L.), Chinese lanterns (Physalis alkekengi) is mainly used as
an ornamental plant. The bitter components present in their green
parts may irritate the human intestinal tract; therefore, the berries are
normally not consumed. The carotenoid composition of the fresh red
cups was previously studied by Booth (1964), who found zeaxanthin
dipalmitate as the main component.

7 Volaties and aroma compounds

Knowledge about goldenberry flavor is scarce. As natural

progenitors of cinnamic acid-derived volatiles in fruits, l-O-trans-
Cinnamoyl-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranose (2) was
isolated (47.8 mg/kg) from homogenized fruits of Physalis peruviana
after solid phase extraction (Latza et al., 1996).

55
 The bound volatile fraction of Physalis peruviana L. fruit
harvested in Colombia has been examined after enzymatic hydrolysis
using a nonselective pectinase. Forty bound volatiles could be
identified, with 21 of them being reported for the first time in
goldenberry. Structure elucidation by NMR and optical rotation
enabled the identification of (1S,2S)-1-phenylpropane-1,2-diol 2-O-β-
D-glucopyranoside (1) and p-menth-4(8)-ene-1,2-diol 1-O-α-L-
arabinopyranosyl-(1-6)-β-D- glucopyranoside (2). Both glycosides
have been identified for the first time in nature. They could be
considered as immediate precursors of 1-phenylpropane-1,2-diol and
p-menth-4(8)-ene-1,2-diol, typical volatiles found in the fruit of
goldenberry (Mayorga et al., 2001).

Figure 4. Structures of newly identified glycosides of goldenberry:

(1S,2S)-1-phenylpropane-1,2-diol 2-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (1);
p-menth-4(8)-ene-1,2-diol 1-O-α-L-arabinopyranosyl-(1-6)-β-D-glucopyranoside, (2)

56
 The same group looked for hydroxyester glycoconjugates which
could liberate volatile hydroxyesters as a mechanism of aroma
generation. Isolation and characterization of three new hydroxyester
glycosides: 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranoside of
ethyl 3-hydroxyoctanoate (1); 3-O-α-L-arabinopyranosyl-(1→6)-β-D-
glucopyranoside of butyl (3R)–hydroxybutanoate (2); and 3-O-α-L-
arabinopyranosyl-(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranoside of butyl (3S)-
hydroxybutanoate (3) was reported (Mayorga et al., 2002).

Figure 5. Hydroxyester glycosides isolated from Physalis peruviana

57
8 Changes during fruit ripening (ethylene production,
cell-wall enzymes and pectic polysaccharides)

The ripening of goldenberry (Physalis peruviana) is associated

with a conspicuous climacteric rise in carbon dioxide and ethylene
production. Its respiration rate and ethylene biosynthesis can be
classified as extremely high. Ethylene yields between 7 and 24 nmol/h
per g in the ripe: overripe stages thus compare favorably with
production rates reported for tomato fruit. As the fruit color turns from
green (chlorophyll) to yellowish orange (carotenoids) and a
progressive softening occurs, several cell-wall enzyme changes arise.
Pectinmethylesterase and α- and β-galactosidase reach activity levels
similar to those in tomato fruit. Pectinmethylesterase and α-
galactosidase increase toward the ripe stage. α-Arabinofuranosidase
and β-glucosidase show lower activities but with an increasing pattern
during ripening. On the other hand, polygalacturonase and α-
glucosidase activities were hardly noticeable (Trinchero et al., 1999).

The textural softening in fruits during ripening is characterized by

the hydrolysis of cell wall pectic polysaccharides controlled by
functional pectic degrading enzymes. Pectic substances are
polyuronides in which 1–4 linked α-D-galacturonic acid chains are
interrupted by branches of L-rhamnopyranosyl residues with neutral
side chains consisting basically of L-arabinose, D-galactose and D-
xylose (Saulnier and Brillouet, 1988). They are the major
components of the cell-wall and middle lamella of plant tissues which

58
undergo structural changes during development and ripening of the
fruits and thereby contributing significantly to textural softening of
these organs (Proctor and Peng, 1989).

Water-, oxalate-, acid- and alkali-soluble pectic substances as

well as pectolytic enzymes activity and ethylene evolution were
monitored in cape-gooseberry (Physalis peruviana L.) fruits throughout
their development and ripening. The water- and oxalate-soluble pectic
substances were found to increase while those of acid- and alkali-
soluble pectic substances decreased during ripening. Simultaneously
with the degradation of high molecular weight pectin, there was a 5-6-
fold increase in polygalacturonase activity but pectin methylesterase
activity was not clearly related to fruit ripening. The increased level of
polygalacturonase activity was highly correlated with ethylene
evolution although ethylene evolution occurred prior to
polygalacturonase synthesis in fruit tissue (Majumder and Mazumdar,
2002). Pectic polysaccharides extracted from fruit tissue of Physalis
peruviana at different maturity levels were fractionated and analyzed
for galacturonic acid backbone molecules. Treatment of fruits with
ethephon in accelerated the solubilization process of the polymer
(Majumder and Mazumdar, 2005).

9 Health benefits of fruits and fruit extracts

Extracts of medicinal plants are known to contain different

chemopreventive or chemotherapeutic compounds, which possess
more than one mechanism of actions. Various chemical compounds

59
such as 28-hydroxywithanolide, withanolides, phygrine, kaempferol,
and quercetin di- and tri-glycosides are reported to be present in
Physalis peruviana (Dinan et al., 1997; Keith et al., 1992; Elliger et
al., 1992). Some of these compounds have strong antioxidant property
and prevent peroxidative damage to liver microsomes and hepatocytes
(Wang et al., 1999; Watson and Oliveira, 1999).

9.1 Antihepatotoxic effect

The antihepatotoxic activity of different extracts (water, ethanol,

and hexane) of Physalis peruviana (leaves) and the acute toxicity
studies of the most promising extract were done using rat models. It
was evaluated for its antihepatotoxic, and the acute toxicity of the most
promising extract in rats. Water, ethanol and hexane extracts of
Physalis peruviana (500 mg/kg body weight) showed antihepatotoxic
activities against carbon tetrachloride CCl4 induced hepatotoxicity.
Among the various mechanisms involved in the hepatotoxic effect of
CCl4, one is oxidative damage through free radical generation
(DeLeve and Kaplowitz, 1995). The antioxidant property is claimed to
be one of the mechanisms of hepatoprotective impact (Bhatt and
Bhatt, 1996). The ethanol and hexane extracts showed moderate
activity compared to water extract, which showed activity at a low dose
of 125 mg/kg. Histopathological changes induced by CCl4 were also
significantly reduced by the extract (Arun and Asha, 2007).

60
9.2 Anti-inflammatory activity

Supercritical carbon dioxide (SFE-CO2) method was employed to

obtain three different Physalis peruviana leaves extracts. The total
flavonoid and phenol concentrations, as well as anti-inflammatory
activities of these extracts were analyzed and compared with aqueous
and ethanolic extracts. SFE-CO2 extracts demonstrated high total
flavonoid (234.6 mg/g) and phenol (90.8 mg/g) contents. At
concentrations 0.1–30 µg/mL, SFE-CO2 extracts demonstrated strong
xanthine oxidase inhibitory effect. At 30 µg/mL, SFE-CO2 extracts
significantly prevented lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 1 µg/mL)-induced cell
cytotoxicity in murine macrophage (Raw 264.7) cells. At 10–50 µg/mL,
it also significantly inhibited LPS-induced NO release and PGE2
formation in a dose-dependent pattern. SFE-CO2 extracts at 30 µg/mL
remarkably blocked the LPS induction of inducible nitric oxide
synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression. Taken
together, these results suggest that SFE-CO2 extracts, displayed the
strongest antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities as compared to
other extracts. Its protection against LPS-induced inflammation could
be through the inhibition of iNOS and COX-2 expression (Wu et al.,
2006).

9.3 Antihepatoma activity

Apoptosis is a highly organized process, defined by a number of

morphological and biochemical changes including membrane
bubbling, cell shrinkage, chromatin condensation, DNA fragmentation

61
and appearance of phosphatidylserine in the outer side of the plasma
membrane (Park et al., 2002). Reactive oxygen species (ROS) such
as superoxide anion, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radical, singlet
oxygen, organic peroxide radicals, and nitric oxide generation are
recognized as mediators of the apoptotic signaling pathway (Li et al.,
2003). Mitochondria are known to be a major physiological source of
ROS, which are generated during mitochondrial respiration and have
been implicated as mediators of apoptotic signaling pathway. The
cellular generation of ROS has been associated with, or contributes to,
human disease states such as inflammatory diseases,
neurodegenerative diseases, ischemia-reperfusion injury, cancer and
aging (Zhu et al., 1994; Siraki et al., 2002). Mitochondrial dysfunction
causes energy impairment and/or oxidative stress, and also
contributes to the early and common process of apoptotic cell death.
The diverse pro-apoptosis stimuli converging on mitochondria cause
mitochondrial permeability transition, mitochondrial depolarization,
intracellular glutathione depletion and cytochrome c release, are
critical events provoking a caspase cascade and eventually lead to cell
death (Chang et al., 2002; Mari et al., 2002; Yang et al., 2003).

Studies have shown that the ethanol extract of Physalis

peruviana (EEPP) inhibits growth and induces apoptotic death of
human Hep G2 cells in culture, whereas proliferation of the mouse
normal liver cells was not affected (Wu et al., 2004a). The aqueous
and ethanol extracts prepared from the P. peruviana whole plant were
evaluated for their antihepatoma activity. Three human hepatoma

62
cells, namely Hep G2, Hep 3B and PLC/PRF/5 were tested. The
results showed that EEPP possessed the lowest IC50 value against the
Hep G2 cells. Interestingly, all extracts showed no cytotoxic effect on
normal mouse liver cells. Treatment with carbonyl cyanide m-
chlorophenyl hydrazone, a protonophore, caused a reduction of
membrane potential by mitochondrial membrane depolarization. At
high concentrations, EEPP was shown to induce cell cycle arrest and
apoptosis through mitochondrial dysfunction. Apoptosis was elicited
when the cells were treated with 50 µg/mL EEPP as characterized by
the appearance of phosphatidylserine on the outer surface of the
plasma membrane. The results conclude that EEPP possesses potent
antihepatoma activity and its effect on apoptosis is associated with
mitochondrial dysfunction (Wu et al., 2004). Detailed study to define
the molecular mechanism of EEPP-induced apoptosis in Hep G2 cells
was recently published (Wu et al., 2004)

9.4 Antioxidant and antiradical activities

The phytochemical screening of the crude leaves aqueous

extract of Physalis peruviana revealed the presence of flavonoids,
saponins, and phenols as major components. All these compounds
have antioxidant property (Arun and Asha, 2007). Physalis peruviana
has been proved to have antioxidant activities (Wu et al., 2005). SFE-
CO2 extracts of fruit leaves demonstrated high total flavonoid (234.6
mg/g) and phenol (90.8 mg/g) contents. At concentrations 0.1-30
µg/ml, SFE-CO2 extracts also demonstrated strong superoxide anion

63
scavenging activity (Wu et al., 2006). Free radicals have been
regarded as a fundamental cause of different kinds of diseases,
including aging, coronary heart disease, inflammation, stroke, diabetes
mellitus, rheumatic disease, liver disorders, renal failure and cancer
(Cheng et al., 2003).

10 Health benefits of the oil and oil constituents

The high level of vitamin k1 may be the most unique health

promoting characteristic of goldenberry oil. The significance of dietary
vitamin K is recently increased. Vitamin K is a fat-soluble vitamin that
functions as a coenzyme and is involved in the synthesis of a number
of proteins participating in blood clotting and bone metabolism
(Damon et al., 2005). Vitamin K also plays a role as a co-factor for
post-translational carboxylation of specific glutamate residues to
gamma-carboxyglutamate residues in several blood coagulation
factors and coagulation inhibitors in the liver; as well as a variety of
extra hepatic proteins such as the bone protein osteocalcin (Shearer,
1992). Vitamin K’s importance as a blood-clotting agent is well known.
Moreover, it is demonstrated that vitamin K may play a variety of
health-promoting roles. Vitamin K reduces the risk of heart disease,
kills cancer cells, and enhances skin health and may have antioxidant
properties (Otles and Cagindi, 2007). Recent study concluded also
that high phylloquinone intakes are markers of a dietary and lifestyle
pattern that is associated with lower coronary heart disease (CHD) risk
in men (Erkkilä et al., 2007).

64
 Goldenberry oil appears to be nutritionally valuable, as the high
content of linoleic acid is known to prevent cardiovascular diseases
and to be the precursor of structural components of plasma
membranes and of some metabolic regulatory compounds (Vles and
Gottenbos, 1989). Even less information is available on the
associations of linoleic acid with CHD than is available for PUFA intake
overall. Linoleic acid lowers LDL cholesterol with minimal effects on
HDL cholesterol (Mensink and Katan, 1992). Based on experimental
or in vitro studies, linoleic acid and other n-6 fatty acids have even
been purported to be proinflammatory or prothrombotic (Calder,
2001). Linoleic acid may also decrease arrhythmias (Charnock et al.,
1991) and improve insulin sensitivity (Laaksonen et al., 2002; Erkkilä
et al., 2008). The level of total tocopherols which is significantly higher
than that estimated in other oils rich in linoleic acid identifies the oil as
nutritionally valuable.

11 Medical and edible applications

Physalis peruviana is a medicinal herb used by Muthuvan tribes

and Tamilian native who reside in the shola forest regions of Kerala,
India against jaundice (Arun and Asha, 2007). Physalis peruviana L.
is widely used in folk medicine for treating diseases such as malaria,
asthma, hepatitis, dermatitis, diuretic and rheumatism (Perry, 1980;
Wu et al., 2004). Moreover, many medicinal properties have been
attributed to the goldenberry, including antiasthmatic, diuretic,
antiseptic, strengthener for the optic nerve, treatment of throat

65
affections and elimination of intestinal parasites, amoebas as well as
albumin from kidneys.

In addition to having a future as fresh fruits, the exotic fruit can

be enjoyed in many ways as an interesting ingredient in salads,
cooked dishes, dessert, jam, natural snack and preservers. Its extract
can also be used for preparing health drink (Morton, 1987; McCain,
1993; Rehm and Espig, 1991; Popenoe et al., 1990; Ramadan and
Moersel, 2003). The fruit has been widely used as a source of
vitamins A and C and minerals, mainly iron and potassium, and in folk
medicine as a diuretic, as an antiparasitic remedy, and as a cure for
throat infections (Mayorga et al., 2001).

12 Economic

More than 500 edible fruits grow in the tropical and subtropical
regions, but of these, less than 15 are commercially processed. Fruit
production world wide is estimated to be over 360 million metric tons,
the tropical countries producing less than half and only 15% of the
fruits are used for juice production. Studies have postulated that the
international markets exist for many of tropical fruits, such as banana,
mango, avocado, kiwi and guava. During the last two decades, the
processing of tropical fruits started in many countries. Fruit juices,
nectars and drinks are the most popular products made from tropical
fruits. The consumption of fruit juices from temperate zones (e.g.
apple) is growing more slowly than that of citrus and tropical fruit juices
together, which, today, account for about 70% of the fruit juice present

66
on the market. This trend has caused an upswing in the fruit juice
industries of the fruit growing countries, which endeavour to promote
and improve production, to be competitive for both domestic demand
and export markets (Askar, 1998; Ramadan and Moersel, 2007).

So far, however, it has nowhere become a major crop.

Nonetheless, this interesting and unusual botanical relative of potatoes
and tomatoes has commercial promise for many regions. Goldenberry
single plant may yield 300 fruits and carefully tended plants can
provide 20 to 33 ton per hectare. Fruits are long-lasting, can be stored
in a scaled container and kept in a dry atmosphere for several months
and also freezes well.

Goldenberry already carry prestige in some international

markets. Europeans, for example, often pay premium prices to dip
them in chocolate or decorate cakes and tortes (McCain, 1993; Rehm
and Espig, 1991; Popenoe et al., 1990; Ramadan and Moersel,
2003, 2007, 2009). The pulp has a soft and exotic aroma and is very
much appreciated on the international markets, particularly in France
and Germany where the fruit is considered a delicacy. Presently,
cultivation of cape gooseberry in Colombia is steadily increasing to
satisfy the growing export demands, ranking it second after banana
fruit exports from Colombia (Mayorga et al., 2001).

67
13 Conclosion

Among the natural products of a traditional ration, fruit juices can

be regarded as the most felicitous prototype of functional foods,
because they are naturally concentrated sources of physiologically
precious micronutrients. Goldenberry fruits should attract great interest
because of their nutritional and antioxidant properties. Peoples in
many parts of the world have known goldenberry for centuries, but the
potential of this fruit for intensive cultivation has only just begun to be
explored. As a crop, it has remarkable agronomical potential that has
not fully been appreciated. The development of adequate
agrotechnical and storage practices, can make this fruit a promising
profitable new crop for arid regions. Goldenberry, can be very
interesting candidate for the processing of new functional products.
The yield of juice is extremely high and the juice is a rich sources of
sugars as well as water- and fat-soluble bioactives. Macerating
enzyme preparations, as a processing aid during the manufacture of
goldenberry juice, proved to be a valuable tool. Enzymes are able to
macerate the goldenberry plant cell wall and consequently increased
juice yields. Moreover, physicochemical properties of the juice were
enhanced. On the other side, processing did not significantly affect the
main nutritional (ascorbic acid and polyphenols) and health promoting
properties (antioxidant potential) of goldenberry juices. Goldenberry
could be an extremely attractive addition to the fruit juice industry and
may create interest with producers and consumers. The preparation of
new alcoholic, nonalcoholic and alpha-tocopherol-beta-carotene

68
(ATBC) drinks based on the goldenberry could greatly extent the
distribution and marketing of this delicious fruit.

Useful information for the industerial application of goldenberry

seeds and berries are provided. This will be important as an indication
of the potentially nutraceutical and economical utility of goldenberry as
a new source of bioactive phytochemcials and fruit oils. For a plant to
be suitable for oil production on the scale required today the lipids
content must reach the minimum for commercially viable exploitation
and the plant must be suitable for high acreage cultivation. Unlike
other fruits which must be processed close to the place of harvest,
goldenberry is characterized by a unique storage properties, fruits are
long-lasting and can be stored in a dry atmosphere for several
monthes. Thus, goldenberry could be a suitable plant for oil
production. It could be said that the yield of pulp/peel oil is low, but the
oil is a rich sources of essential fatty acids, phytosterols, carotenes
and fat-soluble vitamins. Utilization of the whole berries makes
commercialization of oil more economic, reduces wastes from seeds to
procure hitherto neglected substances for technological and nutritional
purposes like fatty oil as a valuable contribution to everybody’s diet.
Goldenberry pulp, seed and pomace oils might serve as excellent
dietary sources for α-linolenic acid, essential fatty acids, tocopherols,
and carotenoids. Goldenberry pulp, seed and pomace oils contain also
significant levels of natural antioxidants. Utilization of these berry seed
oils in food and cosmetic products may enhance the profitability of fruit
production and processing industries.

69
 Plant-derived compounds have been an important source of
several clinically useful antioxidant agents. The antioxidant property is
claimed to be the mechanism of hepatoprotective activity in many
plants. Physalis peruviana is a promising candidate herb for the
development of a phytomedicine against liver ailments and further
studies are needed in these directions. Given research goldenberry
could become commercial fruit of particular interest to the world’s up-
scale restaurants and bakeries. This is the strategy that established
markets for kiwifruits in the 1960s and led to a multimillion dollar
annual crop.

70
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 LIST OF AUTHOR PUBLICATIONS

1. Publications in the international peer-reviewed journals

1- Mahmoud Z. Sitohy, Salah M. Labib, Said S. El-Saadany, and Mohamed F.

Ramadan (2000) Optimizing the conditions for starch dry phosphorylation with
sodium mono- and dihydrogen orthophosphate under heat and vacuum.
Starch/Staerke 52 (4): 95-100.
2- Mahmoud Z. Sitohy, Said S. El-Saadany, Salah M. Labib, and Mohamed F.
Ramadan (2000) Physicochemical properties of different types of starch
phosphate monoesters. Starch/Staerke 52 (4): 101-105.
3- Mahmoud Z. Sitohy, and Mohamed F. Ramadan (2001) Granular properties of
starch phosphate monoesters. Starch/Staerke 53 (1): 27-34.
4- Mahmoud Z. Sitohy, and Mohamed F. Ramadan (2001) Degradability of different
phosphorylated starches and thermoplastic films prepared from corn starch
phosphomonoesters. Starch/Staerke 53 (7): 317-322.
5- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2002) Neutral lipid classes
of black cumin (Nigella sativa L.) seed oils. European Food Research and
Technology 214 (3): 202-206.
6- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2002) Direct isocratic
normal-phase assay of fat-soluble vitamins and beta-carotene in oilseeds.
European Food Research and Technology 214 (6): 521-527.
7- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2002) Proximate neutral lipid
composition of niger (Guizotia abyssinica Cass.) seed. Czech Journal of Food
Sciences 20 (3): 98-104.

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8- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2002) Characterization of
phospholipid composition of black cumin (Nigella sative L.) seed oil.
Nahrung/Food 46: 240-244.
9- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2002) Oil Composition of
coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) fruit-seeds. European Food Research and
Technology 215: 204-209.
10- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2003) Lipid profile of prickly
pear pulp fractions. Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment 1: 66-70
(invited contribution).
11- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2003) Analysis of
glycolipids from black cumin (Nigella sative L.), coriander (Coriandrum
sativum L.) and niger (Guizotia abyssinica Cass.) oilseeds. Food Chemistry
80 : 197-204.
12- Mohamed F. Ramadan Hassanien, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2003) Das
Physalisbeerenoel: Eine neuentdeckte Quelle an essentiellen Fettsaeuren,
Phytosterolen und antioxidativen Vitaminen. Fluessiges-Obst 7: 398-402.
13- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2003) Oil goldenberry
(Physalis perviana L.). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 51 (4):
969-974.
14- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2003) Oil cactus pear
(Opuntia ficus-indica L.). Food Chemistry 82 (3): 339-345.
15- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2003) Determination of lipid
classes and fatty acid profile of niger (Guizotia abyssinica Cass.) seed oil.
Phytochemical Analysis 14 (6): 366-370.
16- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2003) Recovered lipids
from prickly pear [(Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill)] peel: a good source of

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 polyunsaturated fatty acids, natural antioxidant vitamins and sterols. Food
Chemistry 83 (3): 447-456.
17- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2003) Phospholipid
composition of niger (Guizotia abyssinica Cass.) seed oil. Food Science and
Technology/Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft und Technologie 36: 373-376.
18- Mohamed F. Ramadan Hassanien, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2003) Agro-
waste products from prickly pear fruit processing as a source of oil. Fruit
Processing 4: 242-248.
19- Mohamed F. Ramadan, Lothar W. Kroh and Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2003)
Radical scavenging activity of black cumin (Nigella sativa L.), coriander
(Coriandrum sativum L.) and niger (Guizotia abyssinica Cass.) crude seed
oils and oil Fractions. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 51:6961-
6969.
20- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2004) Goldenberry: a noval
fruit source of fat soluble bioactives. INFORM 15 (2): 130-131.
21- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2004) Oxidative stability of
black cumin (Nigella sativa L.), coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) and niger
(Guizotia abyssinica Cass.) upon stripping. European Journal of Lipid Science
and Technology 106 (1): 35-43.
22- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2004) Antiradical
performance of some common and nontraditional vegetable oils. INFORM 15
(8): 553-555.
23- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2005) Cape gooseberry, a
golden fruit of golden future. Fruit-Processing 6: 396-400.
24- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2006) Mowrah butter:
Nature's novel fat. INFORM 17:124-126.

85
25- Mohamed F. Ramadan, Sharanabasappa G., Seetharam Y. N., Seshagiri M. and
Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2006) Characterisation of fatty acids and bioactive
compounds of Kachnar (Bauhinia purpurea L.) seed oil. Food Chemistry 98
(2): 359-365.
26- Mohamed F. Ramadan, Sharanabasappa G., Seetharam Y. N., Seshagiri M. and
Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2006) Profile and levels of fatty acids and bioactive
constituents in mahua butter from fruit-seeds of Buttercup tree [Madhuca
longifolia (Koenig)]. European Food Research and Technology 222: 710-718.
27- Ayman M. Gomaa and Mohamed F. Ramadan (2006) Characterisation of fatty
acids and bioactive lipid compounds of Cistanche phelypaea. Electronic
Journal of Environmental, Agricultural and Food Chemistry 5: 1306-1312.

28- Rafaat El-Sanhoty, Tamer Shahwan and Mohamed F. Ramadan (2006)

Application of artificial neural networks to develop a classification model
between genetically modified maize (Bt-176) and conventional maize by
applying lipid analysis data. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 19:
628-636.

29- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2006) Screening of the

Antiradical Action of Vegetable Oils. Journal of Food Composition and
Analysis 19: 838-842.
30- Rafaat El-Sanhoty, Afaf Desoky Abd El-Maged and Mohamed F. Ramadan
(2006) Safety assessment of genetically modified potato Spunta: Degradation
of DNA in gastrointestinal track and carry over to rat organs. Journal of Food
Biochemistry 30: 556-578.
31- Abd El-Rahman M. Sulieman, Attya El-Makhzangy and Mohamed F. Ramadan
(2006) Antiradical performance and physicochemical characteristics of

86
 vegetable oils upon frying of French fries: A preliminary comparative study.
Journal of Food Lipids 13:259-276.

32- Mohamed F. Ramadan, Mohamed M. A. Amer and Abd El-Rahman M.

Sulieman. (2006). Correlation between physicochemical analysis and radical
scavenging activity of vegetable oil blends as affected by frying of French
fries. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology 108: 670-678.

33- Amira E. A. El-Hanafy, Mohamed F. Ramadan, Mohamed H. Ahmed, Hany E.

Showky (2006). Changes in fatty acid composition, cholesterol contents and
quality attributes of bolti (Tilapia nilotica) fingerlings in relation to dietary lipid
levels and sources in feeding regime. Deutsche Lebensmittel Rundschau
102: 518-522.
34- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2007). Impact of enzymatic
treatment on chemical composition, physicochemical properties and radical
scavenging activity of goldenberry (Physalis peruviana L.) juice. Journal of the
Science of Food and Agriculture 87:452-460.
35- Mohamed F. Ramadan and Joerg Thomas Moersel (2007). Kachnar seed oil,
INFORM 18: 13-15.
36- Mohamed F. Ramadan, Rawya Zayed and Hesham El-Shamy (2007) Screening
of bioactive lipids and radical scavenging potential of some solanaceae
plants. Food Chemistry, 103:885-890.
37- Mohamed F. Ramadan (2007) Monitoring deep frying oils, INFORM 18:139-141.
38- Mohamed M. A. Amer, Mohamed F. Ramadan and W. Abd El-Gleel (2007).
Impact of Pulicaria incisa, Diplotaxis harra and Avicennia marina as
hypocholesterolemic agent. Deutsche Lebensmittel Rundschau 103: 320-327

87
39- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel (2009) Oil Extractability from
Enzymatically-treated Goldenberry (Physalis peruviana L.) Pomace: Range of
Operational Variables. International Journal of Food Science and Technology,
in press.
40- Mohamed F. Ramadan, Mahmoud Z. Sitohy, Joerg T. Moersel (2008) Solvent
and enzyme-aided aqueous extraction of goldenberry (Physalis peruviana L.)
pomace oil: Impact of processing on composition and quality of oil and meal,
European Food Research and Technology, 226: 1445-1458.
41- Mohamed F. Ramadan (2008) Quercetin increases antioxidant activity of soy
lecithin in a triolein model system, LWT-Food Science and Technology 41:
581-587.
42- Mohamed F. Ramadan, Mohsen M. S. Asker, Zeinab K. Ibrahim (2008)
Functional bioactive compounds and biological activities of Spirulina platensis
lipids, Czech Journal of Food Science, 26: 211-222.
43- Attya El-Makhzangy, Abd El-Rahman M. Sulieman and Mohamed F. Ramadan
(2008). Darkening of green olives by rapid alkaline oxidation. Journal of Food
Processing and Preservation, 32: 586-599.
44- Mohamed F. Ramadan, Mohamed M. A. Amer and Ahmed Awad (2008)
Changes of lipid profile by dietary vegetable oil blends in rats with
hypercholesterolemia. Food Science and Technology International, in press.
45- Mohamed F. Ramadan, Mohamed M. A. Amer and Ahmed Awad (2008)
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) seed oil improves plasma lipid profile in
rats fed diet containing cholesterol. European Food Research and
Technology, 227: 1173-1182.

88
 46- Mohamed F. Ramadan (2008) Total antioxidant potential of juices, hot drinks and
beverages consumed in Egypt screened by DPPH in vitro assay. Grasas y
Aceites, in press.
47- Mohamed F. Ramadan and Mohsen M. S. Asker (2008) Antimicrobical and
antivirial impact of novel quercetin-enriched lecithin. Journal of food
Biochemistry, in press.
48- Mohamed F. Ramadan, Hany E. Showky and Abd El-Rahman M. Sulieman
(2008) Comparison between the effect of γ-irradiation and roasting on the
profile and antioxidant activity of wheat germ lipid. Grasas y Aceites, 59: 166-
173.

2. Books, book chapters and reviews

1- Mohamed Fawzy Ramadan hassanien (2004) Investigation on lipid composition

and functional properties of some Exotic oilseeds (Untersuchung zur
Zusammensetzung und der funktionalen Eigenschaften der Lipide einger
exotischer Oelsaaten), ISBN 3-8325-0525-3, Logos Verlag Berlin, Berlin,
Germany.
2- Mohamed F. Ramadan (2007) Nutritional value, functional properties and
nutraceutical applications of Black cumin (Nigella sativa L.) Oilseeds: An
Overview. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 42: 1208-
1218.
3- Mohamed F. Ramadan (2009) Niger seed oil (Guizotia abyssinica Cass.). In:
Gourmet and health-promoting oils. Edited by Afaf Kamal-Eldin and Robert A.
Moreau, AOCS press (USA), in press.

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3. Lectures and oral presentations in international conferences

1- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel. Analysis and composition of

some exotic seed oils. Regionalverbandstagung (Nordost Deutschand) der
Lebensmittelchemische Gesellschaft (Fachgruppe in der GDCh), Schwerin
(Germany), 19 April, 2002.
2- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel. Zur Zusammensetzung der
Lipide von Kaktusfeigen. Regionalverbandstagung (Nordost Deutschand) der
Lebensmittelchemische Gesellschaft (Fachgruppe in der GDCh), Potsdam
(Germany), 11 April, 2003 (Lecture in German).
3- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel. Lipid classes, sterols and
tocopherols of clack cumin (Nigella sativa L.), coriander (Coriandrum sativum
L.) and niger (Guizotia abyssinica Cass.) seed oils. 25th World Congress and
Exhibition of ISF (International Society for Fat Research), Bordeaux (France),
12-15 Oct., 2003.
4- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel. Antiradical action and
oxidative stability of clack cumin, coriander and niger crude seed oils and
their fractions. 3rd Euro Fed Lipid Congress and Expo, Edinburgh (Scotland),
5-8 September, 2004.
5- Mohamed F. Ramadan. Goldenberry as a source of novel functional foods and
drinks. Functional foods: scientific foundation and opportunities for the agro-
food sector, Zaragoza (Spain), 3-7 April, 2006.
6- Rafaat El-Sanhoty, Mohamed F. Ramadan and Klaus Werner Boegl. Detect
methods of genetically modified (GMO) foods and feeds. First International
Conference and Exhibition: Food and Tourism, an approach to the world of
tomorrow, Cairo (Egypt) 1-3 March, 2006.

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 7- Mohamed F. Ramadan, Rafaat El-Sanhoty and Joerg-Thomas Moersel.
Goldenberry: Agolden fruit of golden future. First International Conference
and Exhibition: Food and Tourism, an approach to the world of tomorrow,
Cairo (Egypt) 1-3 March, 2006.
8- Mohamed F. Ramadan. Fast antiradical test for monitoring deep-fried oils. 5th
Euro Fed Lipid Congress and Expo, Gothenburg (Sweden), 16-19
September, 2007.

4. Posters and abstracts in international conferences

1- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel. Anaylse der Neutrallipide

und Phospholipide aus Koriander (Coriandrum sativum L.). 30 Deutscher
Lebensmittelchemikertag und Jahreshauptversammlung der GDCh,
Braunschweig (Germany), 10-12 Sep., 2001 (Poster in German).
2- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Mahmoud Z. Sitohy. Degradability of different
phosphorylated starches and thermoplastic films prepared from corn starch
phosphomonoesters. 30 Deutscher Lebensmittelchemikertag und
Jahreshauptversammlung der GDCh, Braunschweig (Germany), 10-12 Sep.,
2001.
3- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel. Analysis of phospholipids
from African oilseeds. 24th World Congress and Exhibition of ISF
(International Society for Fat Research), Berlin (Germany), 16-20 Sep., 2001.
4- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel. Phytosterols and
antioxidants vitamins from goldenberry (Physalis peruviana L.) fruit oils. A
Fresh Look at Antioxidants: Food Applications, Nutrition & Health.
International Conference organized by the SCI Oils and Fats Group,
Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge (UK), 14-16 April, 2002.

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 5- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel. Direct isocratic normal-
phase assay of fat-soluble vitamins and beta-carotene in oilseeds. 31
Deutscher Lebensmittelchemikertag und Jahreshauptversammlung der
GDCh, Frankfurt/Main (Germany), 9-11 Sep., 2002.
6- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel. Oil cactus pear (Opuntia
ficus-indica L.). 32 Deutscher Lebensmittelchemikertag und
Jahreshauptversammlung der GDCh, München (Germany), 6-11 Oct., 2003.
7- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel. HPLC/UV Analysis of
glycolipids from black cumin (Nigella sative L.), coriander (Coriandrum
sativum L.) and niger (Guizotia abyssinica Cass.) oilseeds. 32 Deutscher
Lebensmittelchemikertag und Jahreshauptversammlung der GDCh, München
(Germany), 6-11 Oct., 2003.
8- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel. Oil goldenberry (Physalis
perviana L.). 25th World Congress and Exhibition of ISF (International Society
for Fat Research), Bordeaux (France), 12-15 Oct., 2003.
9- Mohamed F. Ramadan, and Joerg-Thomas Moersel. Oil prickly pear [(Opuntia
ficus-indica (L.) Mill]. 3rd euro Fed Lipid Congress and Expo, Edinburgh
(Scotland), 5-8 September, 2004.
10- Mohamed F. Ramadan. Oil Recovery from Enzymatically-treated Goldenberry
(Physalis peruviana L.) Pomace: Range of Operational Variables. 5th Euro
Fed Lipid Congress and Expo, Gothenburg (Sweden), 16-19 September,
2007.

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