The 2nd Annual Special Educational Needs Summit

22-23 May 2018

Ridges World Square

Sydney NSW

Topic: Dyscalculia

‘With education seemingly increasingly orientated towards STEM

disciplines, where there is naturally an increased emphasis on numerical
ability, what is being done in our education system to support those who
have maths and arithmetic learning difficulties?’

Antonia Canaris1 M. Ed (Literacy& Numeracy) Grad Cert Autism

1 Antonia Canaris runs a busy remedial teaching practice in Kingsgrove, NSW, where
she manages a wide range of learning difficulties, including dyslexia, dysgraphia and
dyscalculia. Antonia is an NDIS provider and cares for those with autism. Antonia
presents professional development seminars to a wide range of professionals.
Antonia’s practice has witnessed a steady increase in those presenting with
Dyscalculia, hence her increased awareness.
SECTION 1 – INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

The requirement that all students who wish to pass the Higher School
Certificate in NSW achieve minimum functional standards in literacy and
numeracy from 2020 is increased recognition literacy and numeracy skills
are critical in a modern society (other States and Territories are following).
And of course there has been an increase emphasis on the STEM
disciplines.

Clearly arithmetic and maths skills are essential for the workplace, but for
approximately 2-5% of the population, those with dyscalculia, even simple
arithmetic presents a seemingly unsurmountable hurdle.

And students who struggle with maths and arithmetic have significantly
worse employment prospects even when literacy levels are good (Soares
& others: 2018).

The concerns of the Australian Government and educational authorities

regarding the maths abilities of Australian children are understandable.
Australia has slipped from 17th to 20th place in the Programme for
Individual Student Assessment (PISA). Between 2003 and 2015 the
percentage of Australian students in the Low performers band increased
from 14% to 22% while our High performers band decreased from 20% to
11% (Thomson & others: 2016).

Students with dyscalculia have fundamental difficulties in grasping

essential maths and arithmetic concepts and merely providing the option
of repeating on-line testing ad infinitum does not help them succeed. As a
result, students with undiagnosed dyscalculia may well be denied their
HSC despite having high level skills in other areas.

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There has been an increase emphasis on literacy and numeracy which is
reflected in the introduction of the Phonics Screener in Year 1 (a federal
government initiative). The adoption of MultiLit intervention, developed by
Macquarie University, by many schools acknowledges children who
struggle with reading require intensive support in the early years.

Numeracy remediation has, however, languished in comparison. Indeed

there is no direct reference to dyscalculia in the NSW syllabus for
mathematics and there are only some very general guidelines under the
heading ‘Supporting Students in Mathematics with Special Education
Needs’.

The Australian Desktop Review of Mathematics School Education

Pedagogical Approaches and Learning Resources (the Review) (Stacey
and others: 2015) does not mention learning disabilities in general or the
word dyscalculia. The Review was commissioned by the Australian
Government Department of Education and Training to analyse and
recommend ways of improving maths instruction in Australian schools.
The Review deals with what is termed ‘large scale improvements’.

As part of the mathematics curriculum there was a call for special reviews
but they really related to the indigenous population and disadvantaged
young people.

So what hope does the dyscalculic student have if they are not even
recognised?

This paper draws on direct clinical experience obtained over many years
and will in turn refer to some of the research in the field of dyscalculia.

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This paper will:

▪ highlight the increasing importance maths and arithmetic plays in

modern society while pointing out that the increased emphasis on
STEM disciplines potentially exposes those with learning difficulties in
maths and arithmetic to discrimination and failure
▪ Provide some brief background on dyscalculia, a definition of
dyscalculia and differentiate between acquired dyscalculia and
developmental dyscalculia
▪ Provide some background on the emergence of dyscalculia as a
recognised specific learning difficulty, eventually incorporated under
DSM-5
▪ explain the prevalence of dyscalculia
▪ Provide some guidance as to how best to identify students with
dyscalculia being that there is a shortage of reliable and simple
screening offering some screening instruments
▪ provide suggestions as to how we can identify and remedially treat
dyscalculia
▪ provide a brief discussion on the neuroscience of dyscalculia, including
brain plasticity
▪ Provide a brief example of how dyscalculia presents itself in a remedial
teaching practice

A bibliography is provided and the author welcomes comments or

requests for further information. Contact details are provided at the bottom
of this paper.

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SECTION 2 – BACKGROUND & DEFINITIONS

Background
Ladislav Kosc a Czechoslovakian psychologist (Kosc: 1970), is generally
credited with the first systematic study of difficulties with numbers and
arithmetic, and in turn coined the term ‘Developmental dyscalculia’.
‘ a structural disorder of mathematical abilities which has its origin in a genetic or congenital
disorder of those parts of the brain that are the direct anatomico-physiological substrate of the
maturation of mathematical abilities adequate to age, without a simultaneous disorder of
general mental funcions ( Kosc: 1970, p 192; as cited in Price and Ansari: 2013)).

However, the condition was well recognised under different names well
before 1974, including the terms ‘number blindness’, ‘mathematical
learning difficulties’ and so on.

Despite such recognition Professor Steve Chinn, in a chapter to a book,

entitled, Dyslexia and Dyscalculia and Maths Learning Difficulties (2012),
noted that when he first commenced work in the field in 1981 in the UK,
he had never heard of the term.

There are many different classification systems for categorising sub-types

of maths difficulties. Mathematical learning difficulties subtypes
classification (Karagiannakis & others: 2014) has some detailed
descriptions that are not overly technical for those interested in this
subject.

For our purposes we must differentiate between acquired dyscalculia and

developmental dyscalculia (DD).

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Acquired dyscalculia is an impairment in which patients, typically older
patients, have difficulties performing simple arithmetic and maths tasks.
Acquired dyscalculia typically manifests when there is damage to the brain
as in a stroke or a head injury.

On the other hand, developmental dyscalculia is a neuro developmental

disorder biological in origin.

Definition
According to the British Dyslexia Association, Dyscalculia is briefly defined
as:
‘…a specific learning difficulty for mathematics or more appropriately, arithmetic’.

In the ‘Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders’ (DSM-5) of

the American Psychiatric Association, dyscalculia is seen as a:
‘neurodevelopmental disorder of biological origin manifested in learning difficulties and
problems in acquiring academic skills markedly below age level and manifested in the early
school years, lasting for at least six months; not attributed to intellectual disabilities,
developmental disorders or neurological or motor disorders’.

In Australia, dyscalculia is recognised as a disability under the Disability

Discrimination Act 1992 (Cth)(DDA). The New South Wales Department
of Education and Communities must offer educational accommodations.
However, an offer to provide an accommodation, however well
intentioned, is not the same as being able to provide effective
accommodation in the classroom. The great challenge for teachers is that
students with dyscalculia have trouble grasping basic concepts, let alone
verbalising them, or putting them on paper, so in a worst-case scenario,
no amount of accommodations can compensate.

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On the other hand, there are many workarounds and accommodations for
students with dyslexia, because writing is basically a right sophisticated
code for speech and as a consequence students with dyslexia have
access to technology such as text-to-speech apps, a C-Pen or even a
reader or writer in exams.

Those with untreated dyscalculia are left to their own devices.

But just how prevalent is dyscalculia in Australia?

Prevalence of Dyscalculia
▪ Approximately 3-7% of the population are considered to have
dyscalculia (Soares & others: 2014) These figures are consistent
worldwide
▪ There are no published figures for Australia as far as this author is
aware, but we can assume our percentages mirror the overseas
experience

The Brain & Dyscalculia

There is a growing consensus that it is important to differentiate between
students with a primary neurological disorder of mathematics,
characterised by impaired brain neurological processing and difficulties
attributable to poor teaching, poverty or attentional difficulties ( Price and
Ansari: 2013).
Research into the involvement of different brain regions in undertaking
mathematical tasks is growing. Although the parietal region is important
there are many complex interactions. Research shows that professional
mathematicians use the same basic pathways as other people rely on to
judge space, time and number awareness. Verbal language may be

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needed while learning maths but mathematical reasoning appears to be
processed in its own dedicated region (Dehaene & Amalric: 2016).

Neurological research into the area of developmental dyscalculia is in its

infancy. Much of the work has been undertaken in subgroups of the
population, for example children born with a low birth weight, children with
Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (and there are quite a few of those in Australia),
children with Fragile X syndrome and so on.

Dr Anna Wilson in an article entitled, What is happening in the brain,

(2018) notes research undertaken on children with dyscalculia who do
not suffer from the above medical syndromes also points to the
importance of the parietal lobe for maths competence (Wilson,
http://www.aboutdyscalculia.org/causes.html).

Equally there is evidence that adolescents appeared to have less grey

matter in the relevant section of the parietal lobe compared with their
matched control tending to support the argument that we are born with a
set of intuitive capabilities allowing us to develop our arithmetic and maths
skills (Butterworth and Yeo: 2004). This research supports the
understanding that the left parietal lobe is particularly important for
undertaking calculations while the right hemisphere is important in
undertaking simpler numerical tasks such as estimating the number of
objects or a set of objects.

Ground-breaking research was published in 2007 which involved inducing

dyscalculia in people who did not have this condition by using neuro-
navigated transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to stimulate the
parietal lobe section of the brain. This electrical stimulation caused
subjects who had normal mathematical abilities to have difficulties in
deciding which of two numbers was the larger. The figure 2 was in larger

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font than the figure 4 (Cohen & others: 2007). This experiment was an
effective identification of the location in the brain responsible for
mathematical difficulties.

Brain Plasticity and Maths Disability

There is growing confirmation that the brain remains ‘plastic’ far longer
than we imagined, and we use this ‘plasticity’ to allow us to impart new
knowledge into the brain when we use remedial teaching such as
multisensory learning (MSL). Indeed, by way of confirmation, research
has demonstrated increased activation of the parietal region (Kessler &
others: 2011) upon appropriate instruction.

The positive message of neuroplasticity following targeted mathematics

instruction was further demonstrated by Cohen & others: 2013, in which
so called atypical brains improved both structurally and functionally with
instruction producing measurable gains in performance. This research
highlights the importance of early identification and remediation of
mathematical difficulties and disabilities.

We no longer have to accept as fate, ‘I am not a maths person. I never

had a head for figures’. For mathematical performance, biology need not
be destiny and for those with dyscalculia, there are ways forward.

How do students with developmental dyscalculia (DD) present?

Students with maths and arithmetic difficulties present in many ways and
the challenge for all practitioners is to sort out those with genuine DD from
those who may be experiencing arithmetic or maths difficulties due to
other factors in their life, such as lack of schooling, family issues and
psychological problems to name a few.

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Some typical symptoms of developmental dyscalculia are:
▪ From an early age the child has difficulty in estimating small numbers
below 5 and counting upwards from 1 (they typically touch each object
such as a dot and work their way upwards)
▪ The child has difficulty remembering basic arithmetic facts despite
devoting a lot of time practising
▪ The child has not developed any strategies to compensate for gaps in
their memory
▪ There is difficulty in generalising from remembered number facts. While
they may know and have learnt that 2+2 = 4, they are stumped when
they are asked to sum up 2+3 which we would think is obvious
▪ There is an overreliance beyond elementary grades on using fingers or
tally marks to add up
▪ Children have difficulty understanding the role of zero as a place holder
in the number system and have difficulty with numbers from 10 to 20
▪ Children have difficulties estimating whether answers appear
realistically accurate. In other words when you multiply 10 x 7 is the
answer 70 or is the answer 700 or even 7000, or 7,000,000?
▪ They have trouble counting backwards
▪ They have trouble in subtraction
▪ The child takes longer to perform simple arithmetic operations

Screening

Lack of suitable universal screening assessments for maths difficulties

Universal screening for oral language, and literacy and numeracy
development is recommended and increasingly mandated for children as
young as three years, although the focus appears to be on Year 1 children.

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The Phonics Screening Check recommended by the Australian
Government for Year 1 children is an example of such a screening
instrument (Buckingham: 2017).

The National Year 1 Literacy and Numeracy Check Expert Advisory Panel
to the Federal Minister for Education & Training, recommended brief
screening checks for both numeracy and literacy in Year 1. The 10-minute
Phonics Screening Check as administered in the UK to all students in
Year 1 (Walker & others: 2015) was chosen for literacy but the Panel
found no suitable screening tool for foundational mathematical knowledge
(Buckingham: 2017). Gersten confirmed this lack of reliable screening
instruments (Gersten: 2004) as did Butterworth, who explained the need
for his Dyscalculia Screening Test (Butterworth: 2003).
Gersten recommend testing for comparative magnitude, checking for
advanced counting strategies, fluent identification of numbers and
working memory tests using reversed digit span.
Processing speed is commonly measured in cognitive assessments such
as the Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV). Maths
performance appears to be disproportionately affected by slow processing
speed in comparison to other skills such as reading.

Maths performance is also measured unhelpfully by fluency, whether in

games, mental arithmetic or times table recall. Children quickly learn
speed is the goal and their inability to answer quickly marks them as
‘failures’. Many ‘fun’ on-line learning applications for arithmetic are equally
based on speed rather than on mastering basic concepts using non-
competitive and non-speed-based demonstrations.

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Maths Skills in Preschool Children

Informal screening for maths difficulties can be undertaken for preschool

children, for example, estimating the number of dots as well, counting and
identifying which object is in a designated position in a line.

Questions could include: “Which car is first’ or ‘Which car is last?’ ‘Which
duck is in the middle?’ ‘Can you give me the fourth card?’ A child of four
should be able to answer such questions.

Early numeracy is part of the preschool curriculum and lends itself to

reinforcement in daily activities at home. The National Quality Standard
Professional Learning Program e-Newsletter states that numeracy
education in preschool years is more than just counting (Touhill: 2013). It
embraces pattern recognition, sorting, marking the passing of time with
days, weeks and seasons. This newsletter promotes the use of blocks and
natural objects for sorting and counting activities and stresses that many
students will need explicit instruction to foster the development of early
maths skills and that educators cannot rely on incidental learning.

Screening for school-aged students

▪ The Dyscalculia Screener (Butterworth: 2003) is a useful screening
instrument providing computer-generated reports. The main items are
a dot counting item and one asking students to discriminate between
the smaller and larger of two numbers that are shown in different size

numerals such as 6 and 3. There is also a short, timed calculation

section to check whether students are relying on their fingers. The

screener takes approximately 20 minutes to deliver and requires a

computer for the student. No reading is required by the student

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▪ Steve Chinn’s More Trouble with Maths (Chinn: 2012) includes
psychometric assessments and observational analysis of student
errors and methods for calculation
▪ The same work also includes screeners for identifying difficulty
connecting words with the corresponding arithmetical operation. For
example, ‘and’ should be placed with the ‘+’ sign

Conditions that may impact on maths performance

There are a range of medical conditions potentially impact on a student’s

maths and arithmetic performance including.

Epilepsy & Tourette’s

Both affect attention, concentration and memory and impact mathematical
performance. They are surprisingly common; prevalence rates for
Tourette’s amongst 13 and 14 year olds is approximately 1.85% (Hornsey
& others: 2003).

Prevalence for epilepsy in children is twice the rate as in adults at

approximately 0.7% (Tidy: 2015).

ADHD
ADHD affects how efficiently someone can ‘juggle’ items in their working
memory and recall key facts. ADHD also affects the ability to switch tasks
and to plan. A student with ADHD may not have difficulty with number
sense but will have difficulty in manipulating multistep processes.

Research on ADHD and mathematical difficulties is less developed than

the corresponding literature on ADHD and reading disability. There is

13
some evidence that the inattentive sub-type of ADHD affects maths
performance more than the hyperactive sub-type (Tosto & others: 2015)
Word problems are particularly difficult for students with attention
difficulties to address because they require someone to shift back and
forth from the part of the brain involved in maths to that involved in
receptive language. Sifting out irrelevant information is also a challenge.

Dyslexia
While research has demonstrated dyslexia and dyscalculia are separate
disorders, comorbidity of around 40% exists, so it is worth bearing this in
mind if screening for dyslexia. Research demonstrates that mathematic
impairment is caused by different brain regions than occur in dyslexia,
however there is some overlap between the two (Patrizio & others: 2007).

Maths anxiety
Maths anxiety has been identified as early as 1954 when the term
Mathemaphobia was coined (Gough:1954). Maths anxiety is a
psychological condition that can cause extreme distress and is specific to
thinking about, or working with, maths. People with maths anxiety are not
just affected in exams but suffer when having to perform mathematical
calculations in everyday life. Maths anxiety is common in students with
dyscalculia because those with dyscalculia are never confident in having
the right answer (Chinn, 2012). Unfortunately, there has been little
attention paid to the social and emotional difficulties that are connected to
maths disability and low achievement in maths (Geary: 2012).

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HOW TO HELP

Multisensory instruction

Interventions for dyscalculia as are those for other learning disorders

including dyslexia and dysgraphia are most effective when multisensory
approaches are used. Manipulating numbers of objects and feeling the
comparative lengths of different rods as in Cuisenaire rods approach and
Math-U-See add the kinaesthetic and visual pathways to the auditory
explanations or the instructor. Scientists are increasingly aware that many
neurons are multisensory in their capabilities rather than simply uni-
sensory, relating to only one sense as was thought but a short time ago
(Alais, Newell and Mamassian: 2010).

Go back to basics
Recognise students with dyscalculia need to go back to basics given
maths progression depends on a logical and hierarchical development of
concepts. Difficulties in understanding basic arithmetic relationships
inevitably impacts on later learning.

Targeted instruction for poor number sense (known as number acuity)

Dyscalculic children have poorer number sense (number acuity) due to
differences in internal representations or conceptualisation rather than
merely differences in strategies chosen by the children (Piazza & others:
2010). Their study, Developmental trajectory of number acuity reveals a
severe impairment in developmental dyscalculia’, recommended
remediation incorporating exercises to retrain the core non-symbolic
sense of number and to then ensure that this knowledge is firmly linked to
the numerical symbols employed to represent it.

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The authors wrote that this interpretation agrees with two major current
theories regarding the causes of dyscalculia: a pure impairment in number
sense and difficulties in linking the numbers with corresponding symbols
which in turn affects the accuracy in which this number sense is
understood. This relationship is compared to the analogous situation with
dyslexia where a deficit in phonological processing is both a fundamental
cause of reading difficulty but also a result of lack of reading.

Numerosity or Number Sense Can be Improved

Children who start school with poor number sense can still make up
ground with targeted interventions. Research from Hungary and Sweden
shows that helping young children to identify the number of objects
(numerosity) and working with small groups of objects helps them to
develop their foundational number sense (Sayers & others: 2015).

Assist students develop innate sense of numbers – conceptual subitising

It is reassuring to learn that students can develop their innate
understanding of number (Sayers & others: 2015). Their article provides
an excellent summary of how to develop fundamental mathematical skills.
The authors mention that conceptual subitising is an important skill which
assists when working with large numbers. Conceptual subitising is the
recognition that a whole is composed of parts and that numerosity can be
expressed in different ways. Thus, the quantity of 9 can be expressed in
multiple ways 8+1, 3x3, 6+3 etc When adding dots on dice with a 3-dot
and a 4-dot pattern, we subitise the patterns on each dice and then have
a one step process rather than adding up each dot each time from the
very beginning.
Again, the waters are muddled because some students with dyscalculia
may well grasp more complex maths including algebra but struggle to

16
perform basic arithmetic. Their mathematical development can be very
uneven. This cohort of students should probably be allowed to use
calculators.

Resources and Strategies

▪ Use counters, dice and maths manipulatives such as Cuisenaire Rods
and Maths- U-See. Cuisenaire Rods are a multisensory maths teaching
tool created by the teacher, Georges Cusenaire and manufactured
from the 1950s. They follow the tradition of using wooden rods in
Montessori schools. Math-U-See is a complete Kindergarten to year 12
Maths propriety program with workbooks, teaching videos and
teaching instruction books. It uses coloured plastic blocks of different
sizes that click together like building blocks as well as related materials
for teaching fractions.
▪ Use stairs to teach number, skip for odd and even numbers Counting
on the stairs also gives children an idea of the relative distance
between numbers. This teaches one more, one less, adding and
subtracting
▪ The use of dice or dominoes can help students get a stronger sense of
number.
▪ Encourage children to use a ruler – a ready-made and handy number-
line, to help with addition and subtraction
▪ Group objects and match with arithmetic signs to show the stability of
number in the first group. Students with dyscalculia fail to notice that a
group is unchanged and will persist in counting from 1 every time.
o Eg 4 counters in 1st group add 2 counters makes 6 counters all
together
o 4 counters in second group add 3 counters makes 7 counters
o Extrapolate to dollars, cars, people or anything else to help
students generalise concepts
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▪ Make relationships more readily discernible and inter-connected by
asking students to build models of closely related operations E.g. 5 +
1 = 6, 5 + 2 = 7
▪ Emphasis should be on understanding rather than speed. Stressing
fluency over everything else will cause anxiety
▪ Ensure that difficulties in maths vocabulary are explicitly addressed
▪ Use diagrams and physical objects to aid understanding word
problems
▪ There are many helpful suggestions in Dyscalculia Guidance
Butterworth & Yeo, 2004) and More Trouble with Maths (Chinn, 2012).

Importance of understanding the ‘little words’

It is relatively easy to grasp the meaning of nouns and verbs but other
types of words are harder to learn as they cannot be represented in a
simple mental picture. For example, most children will be able to tell you
what a dinosaur is. However, the same children often struggle to explain
what the word, ‘between’ means.

It is these ‘little words’, the prepositions or the comparators such as small

or smaller that are vitally important for the development of maths and
arithmetic skills. Prepositions are of vital importance. Many brief
assessments of oral language do not detail whether a student
understands on, by, between, before, under, next, to or adverbs such as
almost and nearly. Comparatives such as small, smaller, smallest or
much, more, most are also important for developing early maths concepts.

A recent paper on the connection between memory and the understanding

of time sequences mentions that even 12-year old may have difficulty with
concepts such as before and after (Blything: 2015).
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It’s worth noting difficulty experienced in telling the time as well as
managing and estimating time are commonly associated with ADHD.

As an aside, in 2004, the author of this paper studied mathematical skills

amongst students of a special purpose high school for students with
behavioural problems. One of the questions asked in the assessment was
‘What is the number between 6 and 8?’ You may or may not be surprised
to know that many students could not answer this question because they
did not understand the meaning of the word ‘between’. It is also worth
noting that none of the students had ever been diagnosed as having a
language disorder.
The message is clear undetected language issues may be impacting on
mathematical performance as well as on behaviour.

Examples of inadequate vocabulary connections to mathematical

concepts from recent assessments at my Neurosensory practice.

Maths has a specialised vocabulary. Many everyday words are used to

signal mathematical concepts and may be poorly understood by students
without explicit instruction. The illustration below shows how 2 students
attempted to group words under their respective mathematical signs.

Here is a demonstration of difficulties associating commonly used words

in the maths classroom with their corresponding arithmetic sign. The
informal assessment activity is from Steve Chinn’s More Trouble with
Maths (2012).

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Both girls are of average intelligence and speak English at home. These
girls have more correct answers than many whom I have not recorded.

The task was to match words with their corresponding sign. This
assessment should then be followed by individual instruction.

Example 1 - Year 5 Girl

The girl placed the six words she was not sure about at the top and places
‘lots of ‘under the + sign. It is concerning that this student could not link
the word ‘makes’ with =.

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Example 2 - Year 6 Girl
Note the words ‘lots of’ is placed under the = sign and ‘makes’ is under
the x sign.

Summary
This brief presentation on dyscalculia has provided some history on the
discovery of dyscalculia as a specific learning disability while pointing out
that there has not been that much research on the subject, certainly not
as much as on dyslexia, and this is reflected in the lack of emphasis in the
state and federal government’s approach on dyscalculia.

This paper briefly spoke about neuropsychological research into the

dyscalculic brain and pointed out that it is possible to see differences in
the brain of those with dyscalculia and those who do not have the
condition.

This paper identified the sorts of problems those with dyscalculia suffered
from and provided some suggestions about how teachers can help

21
remediate by reference to certain programs and teaching material that are
generally available.

This paper proposes that the ‘more of the same in the mainstream
classroom’ strategy does not address the critical and fundamental lack of
mathematical and arithmetical knowledge amongst students with
dyscalculia, that requires specific step by step interventions. Multisensory
instruction and student engagement is the most effective practice for
addressing the effects of dyscalculia.

This paper suggested that while technology is helpful for calculations and
accuracy it does not teach the underlining concepts.

As well as taking care of the academic needs, students of all ages with
dyscalculia require sensitive and supportive assistance to lessen their
anxiety and help them grow in confidence.

Although dyscalculia is a neurological condition appropriate remediation

can make changes to the brain as well as improve their math’s skills and
therefore help them to succeed in those important STEM subjects.

Antonia Canaris
Sydney Australia
May 2018
antonia.canaris@neurosensory.com.au
(02) 9150 6630

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