Topics:

 Atoms
 Elements: substances that cannot be broken into simpler substances by chemical
means
 96% of organism’s mass made out of oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and
nitrogen, and some elements are known as trace elements (iron, iodine,
and copper), since they are only required in very small quantities
 Subatomic particles:
 Protons (+) and neutrons (uncharged) are packed inside the core of the
atom, called the nucleus, and electrons (considered massless) spin around
the nucleus.
 Most atoms are neutral (same number of protons and electrons), but atoms
that have the same number of protons, but differ in the amount of neutrons,
are called isotopes.
 Radioisotopes: isotopes that emit radiation when decaying.
 Compounds (when two or more different types of atoms combine in a fixed ratio):
 Atoms of a compound held together by chemical bonds:
 Ionic bond: formed between two atoms when one or more electrons
are transferred from one atom to another, thus the one losing
electrons becomes positive (cation) and the one gaining becomes
negative (anion). The charged forms of atoms are called ions.
 Covalent bond: formed when electrons are shared between atoms.
When they are shared equally - nonpolar covalent. When shared
unequally - polar covalent. One electron pair shared between two
atoms: single covalent bond. Two pairs shared: double covalent
bond. Three pairs shared: triple covalent bond.
 The Water Molecule:
 Hydrogen atoms have a partial positive charge, and the oxygen atom has a
partial negative charge - thus a polar molecule (because of the two partial
charges).
 Called the “universal solvent” (substance capable of dissolving other
substances), opposed to the solute (dissolved substance)
 Hydrogen bond: an intermolecular attraction formed when a hydrogen
atom is covalently bonded to one electronegative atom, but also attracted to
another electronegative atom - water molecules held together by these bonds.
 Individually weak, but strong in large numbers
 Results in many special properties including cohesion, adhesion,
heat capacity, and expansion on freezing.
 Cohesion and Adhesion.
 Water has strong tendency to stick together, demonstrating cohesive forces:
important during transpiration “pull” mechanism moving water up the stem,
and results in high surface tension (intermolecular attraction that pulls water
inward resulting in the least surface area possible).
 Water also has a strong tendency to stick to other substances - called
adhesion.
 These three forces work together to produce capillary action: the ability for
water to rise up in roots, trunks, and branches of trees.
 Heat Capacity:
 Water has the ability to resist temperature change - a high heat capacity (one
has to add lost of heat to increase the temperature of water): results in a fairly
stable ocean temperature, and a constant human body temperature.
 Expansion on Freezing
 Hydrogen bonds cause solid water to expand on freezing (normally
molecules lose kinetic energy, and become more dense), thus making ice
float.
Reproductive, Endocrine, Urinary, Immune Systems

Population genetics (i.e. Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium)
 An extension of Mendel’s laws to the level of a population – basic definition: allele
frequency remains constant
 Hardy Weinberg law - despite the moving of genes in a population, the relative
frequencies of genotypes will stay the same and not get lost in the “shuffle.” Thus,
the dominant gene doesn’t become more prevalent, and the recessive gene doesn’t
disappear.
 Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium – a population will be in genetic equilibrium only if
1) a large population 2) no mutations 3) no immigration or emigration 4) random
mating, and 5) no natural selection. If these conditions are not met, the allele
frequencies will change – otherwise the gene pool is stable.
 Genetic Drift a(a small population moves to a new location altering the gene
frequencies, an example of founder effect– which may cause evolutionary
changes). Change due to random occurrence rather natural selection.
 Large changes to the alleles that greatly impact population size are called
bottleneck events.
 Hardy-Weinberg Equations:
 Assuming simple dominance and the “p” represents the frequency of the
first allele, and “q” represents the frequency of the second.
 p + q = 1 (only works for populations with two alleles with normal
dominant-recessive characteristics)
 One can also determine the frequency of the genotype in a population, letting
p2 = homozygous dominant, 2pq = heterozygous, q2 = homozygous
recessive
Functional groups (in macromolecules)

Cell junctions and some organelles

Types of reactions (endergonic, exergonic)
 Exergonic reactions: products have less energy than the reactants
Specific anatomy of leaves, including types of cells etc.

Photosynthesis: more vocab and specific details

Biotechnology: RFLPs and the Human Genome Project

Viruses: lytic vs. lysogenic

Genetics: gene linkage and Barr bodies
 
Digestion: systems of other animals

Immune system: more vocabulary and specific details

Excretory: systems of other animals and vocab (this, along with the endocrine system, is the last
topic we’ll cover before the test)

Endocrine system: more detail about specific hormones (this is the last topic covered before the
test)

Behavior: types of learning (imprinting etc.) and vocab

Ecology: r-strategies, k-strategies, biomes, succession
