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BOOK - Anthropology and Security Studies
BOOK - Anthropology and Security Studies
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Foreword by Luis Álvarez Munárriz
Universidad de Murcia
Nottingham Trent University
College of William and Mary (USA)
2013
1ª Edición, 2013
Reservados todos los derechos. De acuerdo con la legislación vigente, y bajo las sanciones en ella previstas, queda
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ISBN: 978-84-16038-00-8
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1
Prof. Fina Antón H u rtad o and Dr. Giovanni Ercolani w ou ld like to thank Ms.
Marina Miron (MA War & Contem p orary Conflict) for the translation of this
Forew ord .
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Lu is Álvarez Mu nárriz
polysem ous and am biguous term . This is precisely the reason w hy w e need
to establish w hat is m eant by security.
Thus, security is und erstood as the feeling that people have w hen they
are able to live in peace and harm ony w ith other m embers of the social
group, to w hich they belong, and enjoy the good s offered by the inhabited
territory. It is a state of w ellbeing that ad vances the achievem ent of the life
project every hum an being w ants to execute in ord er to give a true m eaning
to her or his life. In a negative sense it can be d escribed as the absence or
exclusion of any contingency, threat or d anger that could d estroy that s ense
of calmness and tranquillity. To d o this end it is necessary to avoid all those
factors that m ay generate uncertainty, uneasiness, fear or pain in people's
d aily life.
Anthropology is a know led ge that m ust inevitably ad d ress this topic
insofar as it exam ines those issues related to people’s concerns and interests.
Its contribution is im portant since it provid es a vision of the hum an being
that constitutes a solid basis for constructing a com prehensive security
m od el. A robust and prod uctive m od el consists of four key variables. Let us
exam ine each one of them separately.
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Forew ord : Anthrop ological Ap p roach to Secu rity
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Lu is Álvarez Mu nárriz
In this d om ain w e m ust not only reject but also ensure the elim ination
of both prod uction and use of antipersonnel land m ines, w hich struggles
against hum an trafficking, organ trad ing, kidnapping, slave or forced
labour, etc. We m ust be aw are that violation of this right leaves people w ith
an ind elible im print, w hich inevitably generates hatred and violence. And
third ly, in d eveloped societies the right to satisfy one’s basic need s is
associated w ith the right to w ork w hich its possessor can satisfy.
Econom ic globalization is prod ucing the opposite effect of w hat it w as
supposed to achieve, nam ely, to free both d eveloped (pockets of pove rty)
and und erd eveloped countries from hunger and m isery. In the latter case
poverty has been increasing by leaps and bound s, being further aggravated
by post-colonial conflicts and internal w ars w hich for a num ber of people
resulted in a w ish to escape from inhum an cond itions because they did not
find their w ay out of this situation in their ow n country. This leads to
form ation of areas of insecurity that w ill ultim ately endanger security of
both the und erd eveloped countries and the m ost d eveloped ones.
The m ajor part of security stud ies neglect this d im ension focusing
instead on national and international security. Military forces serve as a
guarantor of the territorial integrity and political sovereignty against
external aggression. The m easures for prev enting internal as w ell as
external conflicts take preced ence. H ow ever, hum an security im plies more
than just m ere absence of those conflicts. We have to be aw are that security
of hum an lives is m uch m ore fund am ental. It is so essential that failure to
ensure this type of security w ill actually endanger any other kind of
security. N ot having a guarantee for her survival for w hatever reason and
know ing she w ill d ie sooner or later a person has no d ifficulty to kill w hile
d ying. By avoiding w ar and fam ine, w h ich threaten to cause d eath to
people’s lives or even cause it in m any cases, is a contribution to increase of
our security.
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Forew ord : Anthrop ological Ap p roach to Secu rity
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situations of unlaw ful use of nonlethal force. And m ore, citizens should be
m ore concerned w ith their d em and of the legal fulfillm ent of the alread y
established security m easures, than requesting a n increase of num ber of
security m easures.
We live in a society that is highly preoccupied w ith the issue of
security. Anthropology has been observing that people are becom ing m ore
vigilant, w ary and cautious both in public and private spheres. There is a
num ber of thinkers w ho talk about obsession and henceforth the m yth of
security. It is d escribed not as fear but as anxiety referring to an
unid entifiable threat that can arise from any part of the w orld . All of us
need to be aw are of the fact that absolute security is im possible and that the
w ay to reach a fair d egree of security can be achieved by m aintenance of
trad itional custom s seeking to preserve confid ence in people. But it is
precisely the d ysfunction that exists betw een w hat w e think and w hat w e
practice in social life preventing us from reaching that id eal. Therefore, w e
m ust convince ourselves that it is precisely that m istrust w hich generates
the tension that can gradually und erm ine the security w e all d esire.
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Forew ord : Anthrop ological Ap p roach to Secu rity
d isagree w ith both the id eas and the proposals suggested by this political
scientist, but by no m eans can w e d eny the existence of the tension, w hich
end angers citizens’ security, betw een people belonging d ifferent cultures.
The feeling of belonging is a vital need of people. It is m uch m ore com plex
than the d ichotom y presented by the aforem entioned author; it is expressed
in a w ay of cultural or ethnic id entity, and is consid ered to be a value all of
us have to respect.
Presence of tensions or cultural clashes generates pressing social
problem s, w hich threaten harm ony am ong the mem bers of our increasingly
m ulticultural societies, on a national level. They affect specific political
issues such as im m igration legislation, rules of cond uct of everyd ay life, by -
law s of an orthod oxy and legitimization of violence and / or insurrection.
Also, on the international level the d efense of cultural id entity, w hich is
consid ered to be und er attack, is put forw ard by the populists, especially,
and taken as a fighting w eapon of their politics in the d om estic realm s as
w ell as the exterior. We are also aw are of the difficulties that the military
has had both in peace build ing m issions and in w ars, in o rd er to resolve
conflicts confronting a cultural shock (clash) they have had to overcom e
w hen interacting w ith people from d ifferent cultures.
People are not m iniature reprod uctions of their ow n society. The
experience of their relationship w ith m em bers of their social group
generates a self-conception that is resolved in a consistent sym bolization of
w hat one thinks one is and should d o. Sociocultural factors are a condicio
sine qua non, i.e. an essential condition, for their d evelopm ent. A living
culture is the one w hose m em bers d ecid e to take charge of the social process
to m ould their ow n future, nam ely, to generate a sense. They can achieve it
w hen they respect other com m unities and , w ithin the global context, w hich
overw helm s us, negotiate w ith the rest for being able to freely build their
ow n history. It is the one that, w ithout rejecting its ow n cultural identity,
d ecid es to appropriate its fate and to seek the m eaning as a com m unity
w ithin the w id e range of possibilities offered by hum an nature.
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Forew ord : Anthrop ological Ap p roach to Secu rity
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Lu is Álvarez Mu nárriz
m eans is the “polarization” betw een the tw o superpow ers. For a long tim e
they have been fighting the battle of the so-called cyber w ar, i.e. the use of
d igital technologies to find out and , thus, to enable them to attack and
d estroy each other’s vital centres and those of their allies respectively. Both
pow ers are preoccupied w ith cyber-security. Thus far this only w ar is being
w aged in cyberspace, and its real im pact is very lim ited and , in ad d ition,
know n and agreed upon by them . But, in any case, w e cannot ru le out the
d anger a military confrontation if that, w hat is presently confined to the
virtual sphere only, becom es reality. And w e m ust acknow led ge it in ord er
to be able to avoid it for otherw ise the risk of nuclear threat, w hich w e have
alread y consid ered as past, w ould re-em erge. This threat is m uch more
d angerous than the non -id entifiable threat that is posed by the international
terrorism . Let us be aw are that nuclear threat w ill be present as long as
nuclear w eapons continue existing.
14
Prólogo: enfoque antropológico de la seguridad
La segurid ad es una aspiración universal d e los seres hum anos que está
presente en tod as las épocas y en todas las culturas. Esta taxativa afirm ación
se pued e entend er y aceptar si reflexionam os sobre el significad o y la
función que desem peña en la vid a d e cualquier persona. En efecto, tod o ser
hum ano d esea vivir en paz en un m edio socio-ecológico agrad able y evitar a
tod a costa las am enazas y los riesgos que la ponen en p eligro. La seguridad
es un estad o d e bienestar que garantiza el ejercicio d e la libertad para pod er
d esarrollar el proyecto de vid a que tod o ser humano aspira a realizar.
En nuestra socied ad , d efinid a com o la sociedad d el riesgo, se valora la
segurid ad com o el bien m ás preciad o. Sin em bargo una parte consid erable
d e la población vive en la m ayor insegurid ad porque tem e perd er el alto
grad o d e d esarrollo económ ico y social alcanzad o, es d ecir, a tener que
cam biar su estilo d e vida. El d esastre d e las torres gem elas d e N ew York el
11 d e septiem bre es un ejem plo que nos puede servir para entend er la
im portancia que la gente otorga a la segurid ad . ¿Por qué se com etió este
atentad o terrorista? ¿Se pud o evitar? ¿Qué falló? Son preguntas relevantes
que se hace la gente y que d ebem os abord ar porque nad ie pud o imaginar
que en el país m ás pod eroso y seguro d el planeta pud iera ocurrir sem ejante
catástrofe. Y tam bién nos ayud a a entend er que existan m uchas disciplinas
y m uchas teorías sobre la naturaleza y el alcance d e la segurid ad . N o
d ebería extrañarnos puesto que se trata d e una aspiración que afecta a todos
los ám bitos d e la vida hum ana. Pero este tratam iento m ultid isciplinar ha
convertid o el concepto de segurid ad en un térm ino polisémico y am biguo.
De ahí la conveniencia de fijar qué entend em os por segurid ad .
La segurid ad se entiend e aquí com o el sentim iento que tienen las
personas d e pod er vivir en paz y arm onía con los m iembros d el grupo
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Lu is Álvarez Mu nárriz
16
Prólogo: enfoque antropológico de la seguridad
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Lu is Álvarez Mu nárriz
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Prólogo: enfoque antropológico de la seguridad
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Prólogo: enfoque antropológico de la seguridad
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Prólogo: enfoque antropológico de la seguridad
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24
Introd u ction: Anthrop ology and Secu rity Stu d ies
‘Know thyself’
Since the fall of the Berlin Wall and a set of equally im portant other
changes in the global system around 1989-92, w hich includ ed the
acceleration of change in China and in the Midd le East as w ell as in East -
West relations, there has been a transform ation of the concept of security
aw ay from a relatively fixed ‘trad itional’ image. But, m uch m ore than
changes in a concept alone, there have been transform ations in social
practice and in the political and d iscursive practices w hich prod uce and
sustain id eas of security. These shifts have ranged from the everyd ay d etail
of quotid ian life to the grand narratives of conflict, ‘w ar on terror’, fear and
anxiety. They touch the m anagem ent of international institutions and civil
society as w ell as states and governm ents. They reach w ell beyond the
trad itional bound aries of acad em ic political science and acad em ic
international relations, although th ey have engaged w ith both. What this
unpred ictable –and unpred icted - event revealed to us is that all those
previous authenticated reports, w hich w ere sold as know led ge d uring the
cold w ar, w ere not innocent narratives or w ord s w ithout responsibilities,
but m ost of the tim e, all the d iscourses, concepts, and id eologies based on
that narrative, w ere structures for them selves. This begs questions about the
relationships betw een w hat is und erstood as know led ge and received
w isd om , w hat everyd ay behaviour and everyd ay practices im ply, and the
2
The au thors w ou ld like to thank Prof. Christop her Farrand s for his constru ctive
com m ents and his ed iting contribu tion.
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Fina Antón H u rtad o and Giovanni Ercolani
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Introd u ction: Anthrop ology and Secu rity Stu d ies
particular historical social events like the Bosnian War, the Kosovo conflict,
and the terrorist attacks of Sept. 11th , and w hich accom panied , and justified ,
particular w estern policy and / or m ilitary operations like the Kosovo
intervention, the w ar in Afghanistan and Iraq, or the recent w ar in Libya
against the inhum an authoritarian regim e of Gadd afi, then w e w ill notice a
d ram atic gap betw een the a priori narrative texts w hich justified the
intervention, and the a posteriori realities present in the territories of the
‘other’ w hich w ere transform ed in the theatre of m ilitary -hum anitarian
operations. Whenever these a priori narratives had the function to d escribe
blood y events and m obilize an international political support for som e
specific hum anitarian and m ilitary operations, in the end they participated
in the prod uction of a set of specific ethnocentric values w hich reinforced
the official narrating structures of know led ge. If those d ram atic events w ere
translated through interpretive und erstand ing, the translation stand s as an
exercise of pow er w hich prod uces a d om inant language and a new w orld of
id entities of exclusion and inclusion.
The problem here is ambivalent in the sense that not only the prod uced
translations and narratives w hich d epicted the actors and the events (the
others) w ere far from the truth, but the main point is that the broad casted
d ram atic d iscourses had to convince a specific target, the ‘w e-aud ience’, and
then for this reason, in ord er to persuad e, they had to be constructed o n a
set of com prehensible stereotypes fram ed in a specific social and cultural
value, language system : thus Um berto Eco is right to say that it is alw ays
the read er w ho w rites the book.
H ow ever, once the ‘w e’ international military hum anitarian m ission
puts its foot on the ‘others’ theatre of operation, and the ‘w e’ sold iers
experienced the d angerous d istance betw een the reality in w hich they had
to operate, and the one narrated in their m ission m anual, it w as
d em onstrated that a ‘theory is alw ays for som eone and for som e purpose’.
Each perspective d erives from a position in time and space, specifically in
social and political tim e and space. The w orld is seen from a stand point
d efinable in term s of nation, or social class, of d om inance or subord ination,
of rising or d eclining pow er, of colonial history, of a sense of imm obility or
of present crisis, and of past experience, and of hopes and expectations for
the future’ (Cox 1981:126).
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Fina Antón H u rtad o and Giovanni Ercolani
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Introd u ction: Anthrop ology and Secu rity Stu d ies
sim ultaneously revealing that w hat w as em erging from the ashes of the
Cold War w as a com pletely d ifferent picture from the one w hich sym bolises
the end of the Secon d World War w hen an ord er w as established on a w orld
d ivid ed as chessboard w ith only tw o players.
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Fina Antón H u rtad o and Giovanni Ercolani
pow er that also controls the use of arm ed forces, to w hich it has a full
m onopoly. Tod ay, this is no longer the case even though m ajor sta tes retain
enorm ous pow er. If w e had to look now , for exam ple, at a set of m ore recent
pictures of a major global conference, it w ould be m ore com plicated . This is
the case w ith the picture w hich catches the perm anent m embers of the
United N ation Security Council, w ith the one of the participant to the
Group of Eight (G8) forum , and finally w ith the official photograph o f the
Group of Tw enty Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors (G20).
Like a rapid sequence of a m ovie, w e w ill see and und erstand that not only
the appearance of the politicians and the essence and quality of pow er
behind them has changed , but even how the geographical location of pow er
has shifted aw ay from the centres of pow er of the geopolitical chessboard of
the Cold War period . Thus the G-20 econom ies collectively account for
m ore than 80 percent of the gross w orld prod uct, 80 percent of w orld trad e
(includ ing EU intra-trade), and tw o-third s of the w orld population. N ew
lead ers not present at such a sum m it includ e the lead ers of Al Q aed a and
the CEOs of m ajor banks and corporations. We can say that at least on sole
occasions the old centres of pow er of the w orld are the new peripheries and
the old peripheries are the new centres of pow er; or, as Zygm unt Bauman
w rites: ‘on such a plan et, the past separation betw een the “insid e” and the
“outsid e”, or for this m atter betw een the “centre” and the “periphery” is no
longer tenable’ (Baum an, 2006: 125).
At the sam e time, w e can ad d that if d uring the colonial period the
m ain actors of the colonizing process w ere the various Empires, w ith the
post-colonial period w e see and perceive the end of the trad itional im perial
pow er. Consid ering now the new neoliberal political economical global
context (launched after the im plosion of the Soviet Union by the Western
Pow ers), w e can affirm that a neo-colonial period has been inaugurated by
new neoliberal im perial pow ers. If the face of the old Empires has changed ,
the intention, the aim to ‘im perare’ (to com m and and to rule) of the new
em pires has not. But there are not sim ply new state actors; new institutions,
and classes of actors com plicate and transform the nature of pow er
relations.
This calls into question the mainstream , and still som etim es popular,
International Relations theory of Realism , w hich recognizes the sovereign
30
Introd u ction: Anthrop ology and Secu rity Stu d ies
state as the m ajor actor in the international system . This theory overlaps the
concept of security w ith that of state pow er, and w hich identifies external
w ar as the prim ary source of insecurity for the state, and thus m aintains as a
protocol of action solutions through m ilitary m eans. Of course, som e states
are sovereign in the old sense, and a few are hyper -sovereign. But a good
proportion of the 196 states in the global system have only bare vestiges of
sovereignty, and many key actors in the new order are not states at all. We
can com e to the logical conclusion that an analysis of this sort is not valid
any m ore in the globalized system . The reasons are various, and first of all
w e have to look at the concept of pow er and how it has changed of essence
in the last years.
During the Cold War, pow er w as generally understood as d omination
in a ‘one-dim ensional view ’ (A has pow er over B to the extend that he can
get B to d o som ething that B w ould not otherw ise d o; Lukes, 2005: 16), a nd
w as quantified accord ing to the number of nuclear w eapons, the
conventional arsenal, and the number of sold iers possessed by each of the
opposing block. H ow ever this vision d oes not reflect the new capacities and
potentialities of pow er in the new historical context. While the state in the
pre-globalized w orld w as still in a position to provid e and prom ise security
through military pow er (follow ing the Realist form ula) for its ow n territory,
populations, and structures, tod ay, the ‘liquid ’ (using an expr ession d ear to
Zygm unt Baum an) threats posed by non -state actors and non-state pow ers
to the social, economic, political, environm ental, and m ilitary sectors of a
state, encounter the bord er of a country as com pletely vulnerable and
penetrable. As Ulrich Beck puts it, ‘the nation-state has ceased to be the
source of a fram e of reference that encom passes all other frames of reference
and enables political answ er to be found . Moreover, the terrorist attacks of
11th September 2001 teach us that pow er d oes not translate into security’
(Beck, 2006: xii). The sam e argum ent can be applied to m igration, to
crim inal organizations’ transnational activities, to the m arket in organs, and
even to legal and illegal financial activities to w hich the bord ers of a state
are largely perm eable. Thus the com plex realities of the post cold w ar
period , w ith the restructuring of the international system and w ith the
arrival on the stage of new great pow ers (m ore than states but less than
‘superpow ers’) im pose a new vision of the n ational and international
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Fina Antón H u rtad o and Giovanni Ercolani
3
The recent N ATO AJP-3.4.9 Allied Joint Doctrine for Civil-Military Coop eration on
21st centu ry threats says: ‘0101. Large-scale conventional aggression against the
Alliance is u nlikely in the near fu tu re bu t the p ossibility of su ch a threat em erging
over the longer term rem ains. Meanw hile the secu rity of the Alliance w ill be
challenged by a w id e variety of risks, m ilitary as w ell as non -m ilitary, that w ill be
often d ifficu lt to p red ict. These risks inclu d e u ncertainty and instability in and
arou nd the Eu ro-Atlantic area and the p ossibility of regional crises at the p erip hery
of the Alliance, both of w hich cou ld d evelop rap id ly. Ethnic, p olitical and religiou s
rivalries, territorial d isp u tes, d isp u tes over vital resou rces, inad equ ate or failed
efforts at reform , the abu se of hu m an rights and the d issolu tion of states w ill lead to
local and regional instability. The resu lting tensions cou ld create a w id e sp ectru m
of consequ ences, ranging from the need to p rovid e hu m anitarian assistance to
arm ed conflict. They cou ld also affect the secu rity of the Alliance by sp illing over
into neighbou ring cou ntries, inclu d ing N ATO m em bers and cou ld affect the
secu rity of other states. 0102. Any arm ed attack on the territory of the Allies w ou ld
generate a resp onse u nd er Articles 5 and 6 of th e N orth Atlantic Treaty. H ow ever,
Alliance secu rity interests cou ld be affected by other extant or em erging risks
32
Introd u ction: Anthrop ology and Secu rity Stu d ies
inclu d ing acts of terrorism , sabotage, organized crim e, u ncontrolled m ovem ent of
large nu m bers of p eop le (p articu larly as a consequ ence of arm ed conflict) or
d isp u tes over often d w ind ling vital resou rces. The variou s foru m s in the Alliance
give m em ber states p latform s to d iscu ss m u tu al secu rity issu es u nd er article 4 of
the N orth Atlantic Treaty and the op p ortu nity to coord inate their resp onses to risks
of this kind . 0103. The evolving strategic environm ent. Alliance d octrine m u st take
into accou nt the changing context in w hich arm ed forces are u sed . The strategic
environm ent w ill becom e increasingly d ynam ic and com p lex. There w ill be a
variety of factors that d irectly influ ence or cau se change, as w ell as d iscernable
p atterns in that change. There w ill also be a hand fu l of key strategic d rivers of
change: globalization of society, p olitical geom etry, d em ograp hic and
environm ental change and the im p act of technology’. The N ATO AJP-3.4.9 Allied
Joint Doctrine for Civil-Military Coop eration is available at:
http s:/ / w w w .gov.u k/ governm ent/ u p load s/ system / u p load s/ attachm ent_d ata/ fil
e/ 142538/ 20130306_ajp 3_4_9_jd p 3_90_cim ic.p d f.
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Fina Antón H u rtad o and Giovanni Ercolani
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Introd u ction: Anthrop ology and Secu rity Stu d ies
coincid e w ith the factual hom ogenous presence of one specific group in a
d eterm ined territory. Due to the social engineering policy w hich w as one of
the m ain characteristic of the form er soviet com m unist countries’ politics,
population patterns m ost of the tim e d id not correspond to any historical
and cultural original territory (as w as often also the case w ith the artificial
colonial-created boundaries of new states in Asia and Africa). This is w hy
the new ly-released aspirations for id entity and territory expressed by
d ifferent ethnic groups contributed to those ethnic conflicts w hich broke out
around the bord ers of Europe in the 1990s.
If w estern countries (and their security structures) w ere taken by
surprise by these d ram atic events, it is because they w ere still looking at the
w orld , protected insid e our fortress, w ith the naïve id ea that w e had ‘w on’
the Cold War, and that the future of m ankind w ould be to m ove t o a
prosperous m arket-led stability, perhaps forgetting the fact that the m ost
d eveloped territories of the w estern w orld had since the beginning of the
tw entieth century experienced tw o World Wars and the unforgettable, and
ind efensible d ram a of the H olocaust. H ow ever a further m ajor source of
w estern surprise w as d ue to sim ple ignorance of w hat w as going on behind
our d efend ed bord ers.
So far w e can sum m arise the m ain critical points w hich em erged from
an analysis of the events related to the relation bet w een the end of the Cold
War, and the prod uction of know led ge referred to the concept of security,
and w hich are of interest for this introd uction. What em erges from this
hum an laboratory is:
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Fina Antón H u rtad o and Giovanni Ercolani
These claim s form the starting point for an analysis, but are not
sufficient on their ow n to ground a stronger approach to re-thinking
security. We now turn to the elaboration of a m ore specific approach, w hich
w ill lead to an anthropological approach.
The problem outlined here is not only related to the d efinition of the
referent object of security, the ind ivid uation of the threat, the id entification
of enem y, and how to respond to this m enace, but it is som ething m ore
broad , d eep, and com plex. ‘Security is profound ly political’ (Dalby, 1997:
22), and as Bradley S. Klein (1997: 362) says ‘security stud ies w as entirely a
prod uct of the post-World War II environm ent, w hen liberal societies
und ertook projects of both d ecolonizing and m aintaining global ord er
und er Western protection and coord ination. In Gram scian term s, security
becam e a crucial elem ent in the construction of hegem ony – a hegem ony
that operated not sim ply betw een states but below them as a m echanism for
binding the civil societies of the West and its aspiring allies. Its self-
representation, in H obbesian term s of an anarchic security dilem ma,
m asked the d eeper global politics of state build ing, elite recruitm ent,
m od ernization , m ilitary-police training, and societal incorporation. Security,
in other w ord s, w as never sim ply about preparing against m ilitary threat
“out there”. It w as alw ays intend ed as a w ay of defending com m on w ays of
life. It w as an inherently cultural practice that w as alw ays about m ore than
just the d eploym ent of w eapons system ’.
36
Introd u ction: Anthrop ology and Secu rity Stu d ies
37
Fina Antón H u rtad o and Giovanni Ercolani
38
Introd u ction: Anthrop ology and Secu rity Stu d ies
‘out there’ on the ‘hom o sacer’ planet, and som etim e he/ it appears to
threaten our security.
This ind ubitably d angerous parad igm of interpretation m akes us forget
that up to tod ay w e have only one planet ‘Earth’ to live in, and that our
existence is, and w ill continues to be, insid e a fram ew ork d efined by the
‘anthropos’ (hum an being), the ‘ethos’ (the d isposition, character, or
fund am ental values peculiar to a specific person, people, culture, or
m ovem ent), the ‘oikos’ (the space, the territory, house, etc), and the
‘chronos’ (tim e). It is a d im ension w hich basically d em onstrated how the
construction of the human being ‘other’ as a sim ple bod y is a result of the
com plex of pow er-know led ge relations.
39
Fina Antón H u rtad o and Giovanni Ercolani
40
Introd u ction: Anthrop ology and Secu rity Stu d ies
41
Fina Antón H u rtad o and Giovanni Ercolani
42
Introd u ction: Anthrop ology and Secu rity Stu d ies
5
‘The em ic ap p roach investigates how local p eop le think. H ow they p erceive and
categorize the w orld , their ru les for behavior, w hat has m eaning for them , and how
they im agine and exp lain things. The etic (scientist-oriented ) ap p roach shifts the
focu s from local observations, categories, exp lanations, and interp retations to those
of the anthrop ologist. The etic ap p roach realizes that m em bers of a cu ltu re often are
too involved in w hat they are d oing to interp ret their cu ltu res im p artially. When
u sing the etic ap p roach, the ethnograp her em p hasizes w hat he or she consid ers
im p ortant’. Conrad Kottak, M irror for Humanity, N ew York: McGraw -H ill, 2006, 47.
43
Fina Antón H u rtad o and Giovanni Ercolani
44
Introd u ction: Anthrop ology and Secu rity Stu d ies
‘enem y’, and even before to ask w hat reality is and w hat real know led ge is.
And again from this lim inal physical and intellectual position, the
anthropologist of security w ill be able to id entify those elem ents of fear,
honour, and self interest, to d econstruct the w ay they interact, and then to
point to those actors w ho play in and out the spaces of the security concept,
m otivated by these three factors.
H ow ever, there is another d im ension that the anthropologist of security
should take into consid eration. We alread y know that ‘security is
profound ly political’, so any good political anthropological analysis should
look at the political and / or pow er structur e in ord er to d econstruct its
apparently solid form and to isolate its single com ponents. ‘Analysis, then,
is sorting out the structures of signification’ (Geertz, 1973: 9), and in this
process of d econstruction w here the structures of signification of lea d ership,
hierarchy, clientelism , and political violence are spotted and sorted out,
there is one w hich plays an especially im portant role for the social
anthropologist. This is the elem ent of ‘m em ory’ w hich is attached to the
roles of culture, m yth, and sym bols. Orw ell in his ‘N ineteen Eighty-Four’
(1990 [1949]) invented the structure of the Ministry of Truth. The Ministry
of Truth's function w as to m ake sure that language, art, books, and the mass
m ed ia echoed the approved narrative offered by the State. This involved the
invention of language (N ew speak) and a rew riting of history to serve som e
present need . Am ong the various slogans of IN GSOC political id eology
there w as one in particular w hich serves to our reasoning and it is the
follow ing: : "Who controls the past controls the future; w ho controls the
present controls the past”. At the sam e tim e the political action of the
IN GSOC w as accom panied by continuous political rituals and celebrations.
Every form of pow er has its rituals, celebrations, m yths, sym bols, and
m em ory.
Then, if security, in its national dim ension, is an am biguous sym bol, the
sym bol itself suggests protection through pow er (Wolfers, 1991: 149). As a
result of this relation, w e can construct another d im ension in w hich the
security concept constructs its ow n space of signification w here its
narrative, through a sym bolic and ritualistic activity, is experienced by the
‘hom o ritualis’ (Lisón Tolosana, 2012) and linked to pow er. This is because,
if the m eaning of security is etym ologically tied to an em otional cond ition
45
Fina Antón H u rtad o and Giovanni Ercolani
(freed om from anxiety), then the rituals w hich are constructed around it
they m ust have the form , shape, and consistency of healing cerem onies
w here pow er fights against fear to re-establish ‘securitas’. As a consequence,
security as a sym bol then becom es a key elem ent in the d imension of
political religion, w here for political religion w e und erstand a w ay to
interpret life, and history, a w ay to conceive politics beyond pow er
calculations and interests, up to com prise in it the d efinition of the meaning
and the ultim ate aim of hum an existence (Gentile, 2007: 214). Therefore the
anthropologist of security has to take an observant participation position in
these rituals of political religion (interpreted as a cultural system ), a nd
‘analyses’ (follow ing the vision of Geertz) how fear is represented ,
perceived , and w hich are the healing m essages.
To sum up, all the above visions can be d eployed to revalid ate the three
levels of investigation d epicted by Claud e Lévi-Strauss: ethnography,
ethnology, and anthropology. And if in recent years w e have seen the
em ergence of an ethnography of conflict w hose aim is to stud y the ‘other’ in
ord er to w in battles, and w ar, the purpose of an anthropology of security is
to stud y a com m on hum an value in ord er to help both ourselves and the
other to be free from anxiety. This is all the m ore significant because if
‘liquid m od ern life is lived on a battlefield’, w e have to accept the fact that
‘all liquid m od ern victories are (…) tem porary. The security they offer
w on’t outlast the current balance of pow er, w hich is expected to be as short -
lived as all balances: just as m om entary snapshots of things on the m ove are
know n to be’ (Baum an: 2006: 49). The m essage here is that security is not
just a strategy, but a need that results in a feeling from w hich people give
m eaning to each one of the actions that takes place both in the private and
in the public fields, both ind ivid ually and collectively. Then, d espite the fact
that security structures w ant to legitim ate their position on the bases that
their activities red uce risks, w hat it is certain is that at the end w hat people
feel and experience is a d isturbing sentim ent generated by their ow n
perception of insecurity. As Deleuze and Parnet (1997: 71) w rote ‘pow ers
m ost need to d istress us than to repress us’. So, like in the field of
Anthropology of Emotions, w hat it is seen as necessary here is to stud y
anthropologically security as a sentim ent w hich is culturally built in the
close relationship betw een the ind ivid ual and his com m unity. Because w e
46
Introd u ction: Anthrop ology and Secu rity Stu d ies
47
Fina Antón H u rtad o and Giovanni Ercolani
victim s) w hich help to em ancipate the security stud ies analyst from security
concepts w hich prod uce interpretative autom atism . For this reason the
posture ad opted by the authors in their papers is the one that in general
sees security in w orld politics as ‘an instrum ental value that enables
people(s) som e opportunity to choose how to live. It is a m eans by w hich
ind ivid uals and collectivities can invent and reinvent different id eas about
being hum an’ (Booth, 2005: 23).
In Consid erations on Anthropology and Critical Security Stud ies in a
Globalized Context: The NATO Civil-Military Co-operation (CIMIC)
Doctrine as an Anthropological Space, Giovanni Ercolani aim s to integrate,
in a critical fram ew ork the contribution of anthropologic m ethod ologies
w ith the approaches d eveloped by the environm ent of Critical Security
Stud ies. H is stud y w ants to und erline the necessity of a d ynamic focus on
the w ay conflicts, humanitarian interventions, and com plex em erge ncies
have been analysed , and cond ucted by N ATO. If the external military
interventions found their m oral justifications in the id ea of the construction
of a ‘positive peace’ in the territories d isrupted by violent events, then the
research w ant to ask the follow ing question: now that the conflict has end ed
are w e in a positive peace environm ent or a negative one? If the ‘bad ’
authority has been d estroyed or replaced , w hat about the various local
structures of pow er/ violence? Are w e still in front of a repr od uction of a
structural violence (and then a pre-intervention status quo situation) w hich
provoked the conflict or the affected society now is free to reorganise itself?
Then, according to the author, w e need not only to focus on the territory of
the crisis (anthropological contribution) but w e have to enlarge our focus
and consid er that the local conflict (new w ar) has a m ap, a ramification
outsid e its ow n territory. It is only by com bining the Anthropological lens
w ith the Security Stud ies global vision that w e can arrive to a more
sophisticated , em ancipatory analysis, and cosm opolitan outlook of the
‘m ultiple stress zones’ and their ‘crisis m anagement’ in a globalized context.
Ercolani ad opts a position in w hich the NATO security concept is
consid ered as a cultural text, and the Civil-Military Co-operation Doctrine
as an anthropological space.
Can photography provid e any basis for know led ge claim s? This is a
question that Chris Farrand s asks in his paper on ‘Visual Ethnographies,
48
Introd u ction: Anthrop ology and Secu rity Stu d ies
49
Fina Antón H u rtad o and Giovanni Ercolani
m ovem ent that has spaw ned num erous d em onstrations across the United
States, Canad a, and now the w orld . Yet the ind ivid uals behind OWS ar e
skilled at using the Internet and social m ed ia to organize coord inated
com m unity action in an attem pt to effect societal change. By tapping into
w id espread d iscontent associated w ith econom ic and w orld politics aspects
of the OWS m ovem ent have been both embraced and rejected by political
lead ers and the press. Citing "security" as in issue, coord inated and violent
crackd ow ns against OWS cam ps in cities throughout the United States,
d uring the late fall of 2011, suggest the d egree to w hich the m ovem ent is
view ed as a national threat. This paper explores the genesis of the
m ovem ent through the lens of Critical Security Stud ies as w ell as exam ines
the use of anthropological research m ethod s—particularly those of Rapid
Ethnographic Assessm ent—to stud y this d yn am ic social m ovem ent and
w hat is portend s for em ancipatory politics.
Specifically focused on ‘Anthropology and Conflicts’, Marco
Ram azzotti w ants to intervene in the d ebate on:
1) The m od ern analysis of w ar by anthropologists (Anthropology of
conflicts and w ars);
2) The legitimacy of the use of anthropology in the cond uct of w ars (use
of social and econom ic anthropology in analysing a w ar situation).
Ram azzoti w rites that w ar and social attitud es to w ar have changed.
While the d istinction betw een just and unjust w ars has been alw ays present
in Western cultures, but lim ited to a State's evaluation of w ars, now ad ays
peoples' reactions to w ars are not lim ited to m oral jud gm ents but involve
their acceptance of and participation in w ars. Therefore people can accept
and refuse w ars, and sold iers can accept and refuse w ars. We cannot forget
that a num ber of Am erican servicem en refused involvem ent in the Vietnam
War. At the sam e tim e the author w ants to rem em ber the European fighters
w ho joined their countries' Resistances against the Fascist and N azi
oppression. Accord ing Marco Ram azzotti, the anthropologists w ho refuse
all w ars d o not recognize the d ifference betw een just and unjust w ars. It is a
reality that w ar has changed . We live in a period of asym metrical w ar fare.
H ow ever the author asks: d o w e analyze these asym m etrical w ars w ith the
sam e instrum ents as the sym m etrical w ars of the past? Accord ing Marco
Ram azzotti, the d ifference in culture betw een the conventional arm ies and
50
Introd u ction: Anthrop ology and Secu rity Stu d ies
the unconventional ones require th e und erstand ing of d ifferent cultures and
d ifferent w ar cultures: w e need anthropology.
Strongly based on the author's field w ork experience in Bosnia and
H erzegovina, ‘Anthropological Method s in Counter -Trafficking Activities:
Analysis of Criminal Netw orks and Victim -Oriented Approach’ Desirée
Pangerc, looks at hum an trafficking as a global crim inal phenom enon and
the necessity to com bat it as a fund am ental issue in the International
Com m unity agend a. The author ask: w hy aren't all the im plem ented
counter-trafficking activities sufficient to stop it? And in this paper she
d escribes the anthropological m ethod s em ployed to analyze this human
rights violation and to fight it.
From the netw ork analysis of the crim inal groups involved in this
illegal m arket to the d ifferentiation of sm uggled and trafficked persons
fluxes, the paper show s the im portance of qualitative approach in counter -
trafficking activities and the strong lim its of quantitative analysis. The
research also focuses on the d elicate question of the victim status from the
psychological aspects to the legal ones, relying on evid ence from the victim s
and the social operators. In conclusion, Desirée Pangerc d em onstrates how
im portant crim e perception is in the Eastern Europe civil society and how it
is fund am ental in prevention activities, investigations and victim
rehabilitation program s.
The conclusion w as provid ed by Maurizio Boni w ho, although not
present at the Conference Panel, kind ly accepted to participate in this
intellectual effort. Due to the fact that at the end of the d ay ‘security’ is a
practical m atter, Boni w as the right person (for his military and acad emic
experiences) to prod uce the conclud ing chapter. In ‘A new gram m ar for
international relations in a new w orld ord er’, the author w rite s that security
is a m ultifaceted concept load ed w ith assum ptions, structures, solutions
and functional id eas w hich varies accord ing to d ifferent realities. The
d ebate on security should therefore be tailored to specific geopolitical and
social contexts. Conventional/ trad itional form s of societal organization
express ‘orthod ox’ approaches to security, w hile ‘fluid’ and evolutionary
trend s require m ore com prehensive and elaborated policies. Each social
actor d ealing w ith security issues is acting alongsid e a spectrum of
possibilities in w hich the m ilitary d im ension of security and the tenets of
51
Fina Antón H u rtad o and Giovanni Ercolani
the critical security stud ies offer their respective potentials accord ing to the
position that geopolitical and social factors d eterm ine in a given phase of
history. Therefore, broad ening the security agenda should n’t be consid ered
as an isolated aim per se, since it m ust be confronted w ith each specific
situation. Taking into consid eration the m ain them es presented by the
contributors to this book in their respective w orks, the paper elaborates
som e specific topics related to the d ebate on security, and offers tw o
scenarios that present the prospective, for each author, to apply her/ his
specific skills in und erstand ing evolutionary trend s w hich m ay challenge
conventional w ay of thinking.
In presenting this book to a larger, m ultid isciplinary aud ience, the
authors hope to have actively contributed to this recent d ebate w here
Anthropology and Security Stud ies can prod uctively cooperate together,
and provid e new perspectives and analysis, in ord er to prod uce a valid
know led ge free from pow er influences, political orientations, and cultural
stereotypes. If there is a w ay to approach ‘security’ analysis, this should
take in consid eration that the success of the hum an species w ould be
allocated in the acquisition of the culture that facilitates our creative
transform ation of unstable environments, often ad verse and som etim es
hostile. We have alw ays sought to secure the insecure, the hum ans m anage
very bad ly uncertainty and chaos, but the uniqueness of the m om ent is that
insecurity has becom e planetary, both from the socio-physical (ecological
risk, nuclear risk, genetic risk, etc.), and from the cultural point of view
(consum erism and unsustainable lifestyle). In this context w e m ust raise
aw areness that w e all depend on each other and , therefore, recognize that
the com plexity of the problem s facing hum anity can only be solved in a
global context. Security is a com m on hum an value, and the safety of people
passes through the cooperation of all the inhabitants of planet Earth.
52
Introd u ction: Anthrop ology and Secu rity Stu d ies
Bibliography
53
Fina Antón H u rtad o and Giovanni Ercolani
H ansen, Lene (2007), Security as Practice: Discourse analysis and the Bosnian
W ar, Lond on and N ew York: Routled ge.
Klein, Bradley S. (1997), ‘Conclusion: Every Month is “Security Aw areness
Month”’, in Krause, Keith and William s, Michael C., Critical Security
Studies: Concepts and Cases. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,
359-368.
Kottak, Conrad (2006), M irror for Humanity, N ew York: McGraw -H ill.
Krause, Keith and William s, Michael C. (1997), Critical Security Studies:
Concepts and Cases. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
H arris, Marvin (2011), Antropología Cultural, Madrid : Alianza Ed itorial.
Ignatieff, Michael (1994), Blood and Belonging: Journeys into the N ew
N ationalism, Lond on: Vintage.
Lisón Tolosana, Carm elo (2012), ‘Rito, funciones y significad o’, M úsica oral
del Sur: M úsica hispana y ritual. Nº 9, 22-28.
Lukes, Steven (2005), Power: A Radical View, N ew York: Palgrave
Macm illan.
N orth Atlantic Treaty Organization (2013), A JP-3.4.9 Allied Joint Doctrine
for Civil-M ilitary Cooperation, available at: https:/ / w w w .gov.uk.
Young, Robert J. C. (2003), Postcolonialism, Oxford : Oxford University Press.
Orw ell, George (1990 [1949]), N ineteen Eighty-Four, Lond on: Penguin Books.
William s, C. Michael and Krause, Keith (1997), ‘Preface: Tow ard Critical
Security Stud ies’, in Krause, Keith and William s, Michael C., Critical
Security Studies: Concepts and Cases. Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota Press, vii-xxi.
Wolfers, Arnold (1991), Discord and Collaboration: Essays on International
Politics, Baltim ore and Lond on: The Johns H opkins University Press.
54
Consid erations on Anthrop ology and Critical Secu rity Stu d ies...
Giovanni Ercolani
6
Marc Au ge’, An Anthrop ology for Contem p orary World s, Stanford University
Press, 1999, p . 89.
55
Giovanni Ercolani
“Lad ies and gentlem en your attention please, w e are flying over the
city of Sarajevo, the Gold en Valley of Bosnia and H erzegovina. Do not look
out the w ind ow . There is nothing to see other than m isery and poverty. In
any case the pilot has increased our speed and w e w ill m ove aw ay as far as
possible”
Fikret (the m ain character of the m ovie is on the roof of a building,
looking at the airplane passing overhead and talking to his girlfriend ): “It
(the airplane) shines w hile w e are in the d ark. That’s becau se it carries
happy people. That’s w hy it shines so m uch ”.
7
“Ljeto u zlatnoj d olini” (Su m m er in the Gold en Valley) is a 2003 Bosnian film by
Srđ an Vu letić , p rod u ced by Ad em ir Kenović . The m ovie is abou t a 16 year old boy
w ho has to rep ay his d ead father's d ebt. In ord er to collect m oney, his friend and he
get involved in Sarajevo's u nd ergrou nd crim e. The p lot: at the trad itional Mu slim
fu neral service for his father Fikret Varu p a, sixteen year old boy from Sarajevo,
learns that his father ow es m oney to H am id , a m an he d oes not even know . The
d ebt is consid erable and H am id d oes not w ant it to go to th e grave w ith the bod y,
so the d ebt au tom atically p asses from the father to the son. Since in Bosnia this w ay
of collecting d ebts, at a fu neral, is consid ered to be u tterly hu m iliating, it is never,
ever ap p lied . Fikret and his entire fam ily becom e su bjects of rid icu le. Fikret, w ho is
p ractically still a child , is d ecisive to “red eem his father's sou l” . Wishing to rep ay
56
Consid erations on Anthrop ology and Critical Secu rity Stu d ies...
his father's d ebt and to secu re the forgiveness, Fikret w and ers into the real w orld of
Sarajevo, the w orld that is ru led by p ost-w ar chaos, m isery and p overty and
becom es an id eal target for tw o corru p ted p olicem en w ho w ish to "help " him : they
p lant the kid nap p ed girl on him .
8
“The rhetorical territory (here “rhetorical” is intend ed in the classical sense, as
d efined by su ch rhetorical acts as p lea, eu logy, p raise, censu re, recom m end ation,
w arning, and so on). The character is at hom e w hen it at ease in the rhetoric of the
p eop le w ith w hom he shares life. The sign of being at hom e, at ease, is the ability to
m ake oneself u nd erstood w ithou t too m u ch d ifficu lty, and to follow the reasoning
of others w ithou t any need of long exp lanation. The rhetorical cou ntry of a
character end s w here his interlocu tors no longer u nd erstand the reasons he gives
for his d eed s and actions, the criticism s he m akes or the enthu siasm s he d isp lays. A
d istu rbance of rhetorical com m u nication m arks the crossing of a frontier, w hich
shou ld of cou rse be envisaged as bord er zone, a m archland , rather then a clearly
d raw n line.” In Marc Au ge’, N on Lu oghi, Milano: Eleu thera, 2009, p . 97.
9
Mary Kald or, H u m an Secu rity – Reflections on Globalization and Intervention,
Cam brid ge: Polity, 2007, p .11
57
Giovanni Ercolani
1.1. Place
In listening to Fikret and in und erstand ing his territory , w hich becom es
for us an anthropological place, it w ill help to read , d ecod e the social
relations (structured , m olecular, form al and inform al) and the com mon
form s of belonging to him and of his environm ent, and to und erstand how
his society perceive “totalities” w hich d o not belong d irectly to their
environm ent.
Even if the airplane, w hich in the m ovie is flying over Sarajevo, d oes
not belong to the specific State of Bosnia H erzegovina, by the sim ple fact
that is entering in an existential space (Fikret’s Sarajevo) it has an im portant
position in the sym bolic environm ent of Fikret’s anthropological place.
This anthropological place, d espite its specific id entitarian -relational-
historical traits is not a closed -isolated one, it is a “situation” too, and th e
airplane too speaks because this can sym bolize the “globalized w orld ”, the
international-d eveloped com m unity, w hich for the sim ple fact of flying over
Sarajevo, is contributing to creating a relation, even sym bolically (and full of
m eanings) betw een the global environm ent and the local territory of Fikret.
Once d econstructed both d iscourses (the one of the shiny plane and
Fikret’s), w e face som e particular elem ents w hich are part of opposite
perceptions of the sam e “situation”. H ow ever, m ost of the tim e, it is the
pow erful perception w hich is not only translated in political serm ons and
aptitud es vis a vis the beliefs and construction of the “other”, but prod uces
a hegem onic parad igm of interpretation.
Let us start this d econstructing exercise w ith the sh iny airplane’s
d iscourse: “We are flying over the city of Sarajevo. Do not look out of the
w ind ow . There is nothing to see other than m isery and poverty. In any case
10
“An anthrop ological p lace is a p lace intensely sym bolized , lived by ind ivid u als in
w hich they fou nd their sp ecial, tem p oral, ind ivid u al and collective benchm arks. For
the anthrop ologist, at the sam e tim e, it is a sp ace in w hich he can read , and d ecod e
the social relations and the com m on form s of belonging.” Marc Au ge, Straniero d i
m e stesso, Torino: Bollati Boringhieri, 2011p . 158.
58
Consid erations on Anthrop ology and Critical Secu rity Stu d ies...
the pilot has increased our speed and w e w ill m ove aw ay as far as
possible”.
“We are flying over the city of Sarajevo”: in this case the m ovie-
reality is referred to a post-conflict Sarajevo (Bosnia). We are in the
year 2003 (the year of the m ovie prod uction) after exactly seven
years follow ing the end of the Siege of Sarajevo 11. A city that ju st
recently, on April 6, 2012, w ith a line of 11,541 red chairs, one for
each victim of the Siege of Sarajevo, rem em bered w hen w ar broke
out 20 years ago and the West dithered in the face of the w orst
atrocities in Europe since World War II. Can w e really and sincerely
call it a perception of peace even w hat w e are told that “this is
peace”?
“Do not look out of the w ind ow ”: this w as the general attitud e
ad opted by various and neighbouring countries in the 1992 as the
arm ed conflict erupted in form er Yugoslavia. Quoting another
m ovie, Sarajevo w as d eclared by the United N ations to be only “the
14th m ost d angerous place on earth” 12.
“There is nothing to see other than misery and poverty. In any case,
the pilot has increased our speed and w e w ill move aw ay as far as
possible”: Despite the fact that the Bosnian w ar end ed officially on
Decem ber 14, 1995, and w ith it peace, still the current situation is of
poverty and political uncertainty. The 2012 anniversary of the
Sarajevo Siege, found the Balkan country still d eeply d ivid ed , pow er
shared betw een Serbs, Croats and Muslim s in a single state ruled by
ethnic quotas and united by the w eakest of central governm ents.
11
The Sarajevo Siege lasted from Ap r 5, 1992 to Feb 29, 1996. The Bosnian w ar w as
brou ght to an end after the signing of the General Fram ew ork Agreem ent for Peace
in Bosnia and H erzegovina in Paris on 14 Decem ber 1995.
12
A startling exam ination of the Bosnian w ar of the m id -1990s and the role of
jou rnalists in covering it, “Welcom e to Sarajevo” is a British w ar film from 1997. It
is d irected by Michael Winterbottom . The screenp lay is by Frank Cottrell Boyce and
it w as based on real-life jou rnalist Michael N icholson's book N atasha's Story.
59
Giovanni Ercolani
1.2. Time
Fikret’s w orld itself is tem porarily situated in an histor ical tim e w hich
stretches from the im plosion of the Soviet Union (1989) and , for the purpose
of this research, the year 2010 (the year of the ad option of the N ATO New
Strategic Concept, Lisbon, 19 Decem ber 2010).
Then Fikret’s tim e (2003) has a position in a tim e space betw een the
year 1989 and 2010, and this tim e is not ind epend ent or w aterproof. H is
60
Consid erations on Anthrop ology and Critical Secu rity Stu d ies...
13
Ed w ard A. Kolod zij, Secu rity and International Relations, Cam brid ge University
Press, 2005.
61
Giovanni Ercolani
14
Robert Cox, “Social Forces, States and World Ord ers: Beyond International
Relations Theory”, M illennium, 10 (2), 1981, p . 126-155.
15
http :/ / w w w .nato.int/ lisbon2010/ strategic-concep t-2010-eng.p d f
62
Consid erations on Anthrop ology and Critical Secu rity Stu d ies...
its ow n vision of security, it d oes not provid e any id ea of w hat peace should
be.
16
David Keen, Com p lex Em ergencies, Cam brid ge: Polity, 2009, p p . 171-172.
63
Giovanni Ercolani
17
Fabio Mini, La Gu erra d op o la Gu erra – Sold ati, bu rocrati e m ercenari nell’ep oca
d ella p ace virtu ale, Torino: Einau d i, 2003, p p . 142-143.
18
Jonathon W. Mosses & Torbjorn L. Knu tsen, Ways of Know ing – Com p eting
Method ologies in Social and Political Research, N ew York: Palgrave Macm illan,
2007, p . 10.
64
Consid erations on Anthrop ology and Critical Secu rity Stu d ies...
the im portant role of the observer and society in constructing patterns that
w e stud y as social scientists” 19.
Ow ing to the fact that the m ajority of conflicts that have erupted ,
experiencing an international hum anitarian intervention, have been
classified as “id entity conflict” since the im plosion of the Soviet Union, I
w ant to highlight the importance of focusing on the hum an being because,
as Max Weber noted, “We are cultural beings, end ow ed w ith the capacity
and the w ill to take a deliberate attitud e tow ard s the w orld and to lend it
significance” 20.
Consequently, “because social contexts are filled w ith m eaning,
constructivists find utility in a m uch broad er set of epistem ological tools,
includ ing em pathy, authority, m yths and so on. (…) If som ething appears
m eaningful or real to a social agent, then it m ay affect his behaviour and
have real consequences for the society around him ” 21.
This is the reason w e have to learn to listen to our local inform ants and
their stories because “truth lies in the eyes of the observer, and in the
constellation of pow er and force that supports that truth. (…) For the
constructivist, that battle is not so m uch about truth as it is about the pow er,
interests and id entities of those involved ” 22.
Then:
19
“Constru ctivists recognize that w e d o not ju st ‘exp erience’ the w orld objectively
or d irectly: ou r exp eriences are channeled throu gh the hu m an m ind – in often
elu sive w ays. It is in this short channel betw een the eye and the brain – betw een
sense and p ercep tion and the exp erience of the m ind – that w e find m any
challenges to natu ralism . When ou r scientific investigation is aim ed at p ercep tions
of the w orld rather than the w orld ‘as it is’, w e op en the p ossibility to m u ltip le
w orld s (or, m ore accu rately, m u ltip le p ercep tions). Consequ ently, constru ctivists
recognize that p eop le m ay look at the sam e thing and p erceive it d ifferently.
Ind ivid u al characteristics (su ch as age, gend er or race) or social characteristics (su ch
as era, cu ltu re and langu age) can facilitate or obscu re a given p ercep tion of the
w orld ”, Ibid ., p p . 10-11.
20
Ibid , p . 11.
21
Ibid , p . 11.
22
Ibid , p . 12.
65
Giovanni Ercolani
23
“To rep resent m eans at one and the sam e tim e both to m ake absent things,
p resent and to p resent things in su ch a w ay as to satisfy t he cond itions for
argu m entative coherence, rationality and the norm ative integrity of the grou p . That
this is com m u nicative and d iffu sive is all the m ore im p ortant, since there are no
other m eans excep t d iscou rse and the m eanings it carries throu gh w hich
ind ivid u als and grou p s are able to orient and ad ap t them selves to it. Consequ ently,
the statu s of the p henom ena of social rep resentation is that of the sym bolic:
establishing a bond , m aking an im age, evoking, saying and cau sing to be said ,
sharing a m eaning in som e transm issible p rop ositions, and in the best of the cases
su m m arizing in a cliché’ w hich becom es an em blem .” Serge Moscovici, Social
Rep resentations – Exp lorations in Social Psychology, Cam brid ge: Polity, 2000, p .
157.
24
“Secu rity as an id iosyncratic concep t is the resu lt of the com bination of tw o
elem ents -cu ltu ral id iosyncrasy and ind ivid u al id iosyncrasy - in w hich anxiety acts
as a catalyst. For cu ltu ral id iosyncrasy, I consid er w hat is p ecu liar of a cu ltu re that
can sp ark p articu lar anxiety-fear em otions in ind ivid u als in its geop olitical context.
Then being a cu ltu ral p henom enon, it carries w ith it its ow n p articu lar cu ltu ral
relativism . Whereas for ind ivid u al id iosyncrasy, I consid er the p articu lar natu re of
the p olitical lead er, or agency, to w hich is recognised an au thority and then can
p erform the sp eech-narrative act. The com bination of cu ltu re, sym bolism , m yth,
p olicy, and interests, together w ith the p olitical activity and natu re -character of the
lead er-agency and the em otional elem ent, bring as a resu lt a cu ltu ral concep t of
secu rity w hich is consciou s of its cu ltu ral relativism .” Giovanni Ercolani, “Keep ing
Secu rity and Peace: Behind the Strategicalization of N ATO’s Critical Secu rity
Discou rse”, The Jou rnal of Secu rity Strategies, Year 7, Issu e: 14, Decem ber 2011, p p .
72-73.
66
Consid erations on Anthrop ology and Critical Secu rity Stu d ies...
“’Security’ is the m ove that takes politics beyond the established rules
of the gam e and fram es the issue either as a special kind of politics or as
above politics. Securitization can thus be seen as a m ore extrem e version of
politicization. In theory, any public issue can be located on the sp ectrum
ranging from non -politicized (m eaning the state d oes not d eal w ith it and it
is not in any other w ay m ad e an issue of public d ebate and d ecision)
through politicized (m eaning the issue is part of public policy, requiring
governm ent d ecision and resource allocations or, m ore rarely, som e other
form of com m unal governance) to securitized (m eaning the issue is
presented as an existential threat, requiring em ergency m easures and
justifying action outsid e the norm al bound s of political proced ure)” 26.
25
Peter Barry, Beginning theory: an introd u ction to literary and cu ltu ral theory,
Manchester: Manchester University p ress, 2002, p . 35.
26
Barry Bu zan, Ole Waever and Jaap d e Wild e, Secu rity – A N ew Fram ew ork for
Analysis, Lond on: Lynne Rienner Pu blishers, 1998, p . 23-24.
67
Giovanni Ercolani
27
Ibid , p . 26.
28
The Pengu in English Dictionary, Lond on: Pengu in Books, 2004 2 nd Ed ition.
29
“First of all w e note that the term ‘secu ritas’, like all fem inine nou ns in ‘tas’,
belongs to the category of abstract nou ns, su ch as ‘libertas’, ‘hu m anitas’, ‘civitas’,
and so on. It is, therefore, a p u rely theoretical concep t, w hich d id not corresp ond to
any real objectivity in the eyes of m ost ord inary citizens or Rom an sold iers. Even if
w e stop to consid er th e etym ological root of the nou n or ad jective, w e see that it is
d erived from ‘sine’ (= w ithou t) + ‘cu ra’ (= anxiety, w orry). The ‘secu ra’ p erson w as
thu s at the origin of the “sine cu re” ind ivid u al, that is w ithou t anxieties, w ithou t
w orries, and then free from thou ghts or anxieties. The safety cond ition, therefore, is
conceived as the absence of som ething: it is a cond ition that cou ld be called 'of
d efau lt'.” David e Cam p acci, Il concetto d i sicu rezza nel m ond o rom ano: sp u nti d i
riflessione, p ap er not p u blished , 2009, p . 1.
30
Daniel Golem an, Em otional Intelligence, Lond on: Bloom sbu ry, 1996, p . 6.
68
Consid erations on Anthrop ology and Critical Secu rity Stu d ies...
Regard ing this relation betw een the etym ological m eaning of security,
its use in parallel w ith a m ilitary m eaning and practice as w ell as its political
pow er, I have created tw o contending visions: one d efined as the Orthod ox
Security Stud ies (OSS) vision and the other as the Critical Security Stud ies
(CSS) vision.
Accord ing to the OSS vision: “Security stud ies m ay be d efined as the
stud y of the threat, use, and control of m ilitary forces” 31, and w ithout d oubt
this Cold War vision w as supported by a political apparatus interested to
link the m eaning-use of security to the construction of a particular enem y’s
id entity. Then, it w as, as still it is, a ped agogic and learning process in
w hich stereotyping the “enem y” enforces the construction of our ow n
id entity: consid ering the other our enem y, w e w ere forced to d efine us as
the opposite of the supposed enem y. In this orthod ox, rigid opinion of
security, our id entity w as constructed on this side of the w all w hile, on the
other sid e, another opposed id entity w as constructed .
At the political and m ilitary level, this particular use of security w as
em bod ied by Articles 5 (and 6) of the N orth Atlantic Treaty Organisation
w hich still fram es security and insecurity insid e the id ea of an arm ed attack
against the territory and on the forces, vessels, or aircraft of any of the
agreem ent signing Parties. 32
Therefore, w hile it w as im possible to check the intention of the “other”
enem y (Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact) thoroughly, the containm ent and
d eterrence policies prevented the tw o sides from com ing into a direct armed
confrontation w ith catastrophic results.
What becom es im portant at this point is the fact that w e have to
reconsid er the etym ological m eaning of “security” (Latin “securitas”:
freed om from anxiety) because it is in this that w e can find the seed s of a
parad igm shift, and the m ove from a concept to a hum an value.
By confronting the above incontestable meaning w ith the im posed
“im aging” and parad igm of security (security = m ilitary forces) w ith recent
historical events, w e w elcom e the em ergence of CSS w hich contributed to
31
Step hen M. Walt, “The Renaissance of Secu rity Stu d ies”, International Stu d ies
Qu arterly, Vol. 35(2), 1991, p p . 211-39.
32
The N orth Atlantic Treaty is available at:
http :/ / w w w .nato.int/ d ocu / basictxt/ treaty.htm .
69
Giovanni Ercolani
33
Ken Booth, Ed ., Critical Secu rity Stu d ies and World Politics, Lond on: Lynne
Rienner Pu blishers, 2005, p . 181.
34
Barry Bu zan, Peop le, State and Fear: An Agend a for International Secu rity Stu d ies
in the Post-Cold War Era, Lond on: H arvester Wheatsheaf, 1991.
35
Barry Bu zan, B., Waew er O., and De Wild e J., Secu rity: A new Fram ew ork for
Analysis, Bou ld er, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1998.
70
Consid erations on Anthrop ology and Critical Secu rity Stu d ies...
36
Ernst Cassirer, An Essay on Man, N ew H aven and Lond on: Yale University Press,
1974 (1944), p . 32.
37
Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics, Read ing, MA: Ad d ison -Wesley,
1979.
38
Cynthia Weber, International Relations Theory – A Critical Introd u ction”,
Lond on: Rou tled ge, 2005, P. 32.
39
Id entity” in English has its origin in the Latin idem: sam e.
40
“’Flu id s’ are so called becau se they cannot keep their shap e for long, and u nless
they are p ou red into a tight container they keep changing shap e u nd er the
influ ence of even the slightest of forces. In a flu id setting, there is no know ing
w hether to exp ect a flood or a d rou ght - it is better to be read y for both
eventu alities. Fram es, w hen (if) they are available, shou ld not be exp ected to last for
long. They w ill not be able to w ithstand all the leaking, seep ing, trickling, sp illing –
sooner rather than later they w ill d rench, soften, contort and d ecom p ose.” In
Zygm u nt Bau m an, Id entity, Cam brid ge: Polity, 2004, p . 51.
71
Giovanni Ercolani
41
For old w ars w e u nd erstand the w ar betw een states in w hich t he aim is to inflict
m axim u m violence; this old w ars are becom ing an anachronism . Accord ing to
Mary Kald or w ith the concep t of “new w ars” w e are in front of a new typ e of
organized violence w hich cou ld be d escribed as a m ixtu re of w ar, organized crim e
and m assive violations of hu m an rights. For Kald or new w ars actors are both
global, and local, p u blic and p rivate. These new w ars are fou ght for p articu laristic
p olitical goals (Kald or talks of Id entity Politics: m ovem ents w hich m obilize arou nd
ethnic, racial or religiou s id entity for the p u rp ose of claim ing state p ow er) u sing
tactics of terror and d estabilization that are theoretically ou tlaw ed by the ru les of
m od ern w arfare. Mary Kald or, N ew & Old Wars – Organized Violence in a Global
Era, Cam brid ge: Polity, 2006.
42
“War am ongst p eop le it is the reality in w hich the p eop le in the street and hou ses
and field s – all the p eop le, anyw here – are the battlefield . Military engagem ents can
take p lace anyw here: in the p resence of civilians, against civilian, in d efence of
civilians. Civilians are the targets, objectives to be w on, as m u ch an op p osing
forces.” In contrast to w hat Gen. Ru p ert Sm ith d efines as “interstate ind u strial
w ar”, the new p arad igm of w ar am ongst p eop le is based on the concep t of a
continu ou s criss-crossing betw een confrontation and conflict, regard less of w hether
a state is facing another state or a non -state actor. Rather than w ar and p eace, there
is not p red efined sequ ence, nor is p eace necessarily either the starting or the end
p oint: conflicts are resolved , bu t not necessarily confrontations.” Ru p ert Sm ith, The
Utility of Force – The art of War in the Mod ern War, Lond on: Allen Lane, 2005.
43
“Large grou p id entity-conflict”, in w hich a threat against a large grou p id entity
brings a p sychological regression w hich can sp ark an id entity conflict. H ere “the
concep t of large-grou p id entity d escribes how thou sand s or m illions of ind ivid u als,
m ost of w hom w ill never m eet in their life-tim es, are bou nd by an intense sense of
sam eness by belonging to the sam e ethnic, religiou s, national, or id eological
grou p .” “When large grou p s are threatened by conflict, m em bers of the grou p cling
72
Consid erations on Anthrop ology and Critical Secu rity Stu d ies...
everm ore stu bbornly to these circu m stances in an effort to m aintain and regu late
their sense of self and their sense of belonging to a large-grou p . At su ch tim es,
large-grou p s p rocess becom e d om inant and large-grou p id entity issu e and ritu als
are m ore su scep tible to p olitical p rop agand a and m anip u lation. Political, econom ic,
legal, m ilitary, and historical factors u su ally figu re p rom inently in any attem p t to
m anage and solve large-grou p conflicts, bu t it is also necessary to consid er the
p rofou nd effect of hu m an p sychology, esp ecially sp ecific large -grou p p rocesses that
evolve u nd er stress or after m assive trau m a and are m anip u late d by lead ers.”.
Vam ik Volkan, Blind Tru st – Large Grou p s and Their Lead ers in Tim es of Crisis
and Terror, Charlottesville, Virginia: Pitchstone Pu blishing, 2004.
44
“Althou gh conventional in form , the d ecisive battles in tod ay's hybrid w ars are
fou ght not on conventional battlegrou nd s, bu t on asym m etric battlegrou nd s w ithin
the conflict zone p op u lation, the hom e front p op u lation, and the international
com m u nity p op u lation. Irregu lar, asym m etric battles fou ght w ithin these
p op u lations u ltim ately d eterm ine su ccess or failu re. H ybrid w ar ap p ears new in
that it requ ires sim u ltaneou s rather than sequ ential su ccess in these d iverse bu t
related ‘p op u lation battlegrou nd s.’ (…) Thu s, hybrid w ars are a com bination of
sym m etric and asym m etric w ar in w hich intervening forces cond u ct trad itional
m ilitary op erations against enem y m ilitary forces and targets w hile they m u st
sim u ltaneou sly--and m ore d ecisively--attem p t to achieve control of the com bat
zone's ind igenou s p op u lations by secu ring and stabilizing them (stability
op erations). H ybrid conflicts therefore are fu ll sp ectru m w ars w ith both p hysical
and concep tu al d im ensions: the form er. a stru ggle against an arm ed enem y and the
latter, a w id er stru ggle for, control and su p p ort of the com bat zone's ind igenou s
p op u lation, the su p p ort of the hom e fronts of the intervening nations, and the
su p p ort of the international com m u nity. In hybrid w ar, achieving strategic
objectives requ ires su ccess in all of these d iverse conventional and asym m etric
battlegrou nd s. At all levels in a hybrid w ar's cou ntry of conflict, secu rity
establishm ents, governm ent offices and op erations, m ilitary sites and forces,
essential services, and the econom y w ill likely be either d estroyed , d am aged , or
otherw ise d isru p ted . To secu re and stabilize the ind igenou s p op u lation, the
intervening forces m u st im m ed iately rebu ild or restore secu rity, essential services,
local governm ent, self-d efense forces and essential elem ents of the econom y.
H istorically, hybrid w ars have been w on or lost w ithin these areas. The y are
battlegrou nd s for legitim acy and su p p ort in the eyes of the p eop le.” John J.
McCu en, “H ybrid Wars”, Military Review , March -Ap ril, 2008.
45
“These w ars have fou rs d istinct characteristics: (1) the loss of the state’s m onop oly
of w ar and on the first loyalty of its citizen; (2) the rise of non -state entities that
73
Giovanni Ercolani
Once d efined , the relation betw een the m eaning of security and its
em otional characteristics, together w ith the changing nature of the most
recent conflicts (w hich have id entified the centrality of th e hum an being, his
id entity, alongsid e his culture as the m ain m otivations behind the reason of
com m and p eop le’s p rim ary loyalty and that have the ability to w age w ar. These
entities m ay be gangs, clans, religiou s grou p s, races and ethnic grou p s, tribes,
bu siness enterp rises, id eological actors and terrorist organizations – the variety is
alm ost lim itless; (3) a retu rn to a w orld of cu ltu res, not, m erely of states, in conflict;
and (4) the m anifestation of both d evelop m ents – d e d ecline of the sate and the rise
of alternate, often cu ltu ral, p rim ary loyalties.” And y Knight, Civil-m ilitary
coop eration and hu m an secu rity, in Christop her Ankersen, Ed ., Civil Military
Coop eration in Post-Conflict Op erations – Em erging theory and p ractice, Lond on:
Rou tled ge, 2008.
46
Ken Booth, Ed ., Critical Secu rity Stu d ies and World Politics, Lond on: Lynne
Rienner Pu blishers, 2005, p . 3.
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Consid erations on Anthrop ology and Critical Secu rity Stu d ies...
the com bats), I now need to illustrate these social representations’ em otional
d iscourses on a m ap.
This is justified by the fact that “one of the characteristics of the ‘new
w ars’ is that pre-conflict and post-conflict phases increasingly resem ble each
other. Agreem ents stabilize the violence but tend not to provid e solutions.
Moreover, the ‘new w ars’ have a tend ency to spread through crim inal
netw orks, refugees, and the virus of exclusivist id eologies. The risk is that
the just w ar and the hum anitarian peace positions could end up prolonging
these w ars, perhaps ind efinitely” 47.
Linking the pre-conflict phase to the post-conflict situation takes us
back to the discourse initiated before on the concept of peace and virtual
peace because, as David Keen says: “the kind of peace that prevails w ill be
linked to the kind of violence that preced ed it. (…) Therefore, there should
be other routes to peace that m ight w ork better than the ‘security approach’,
particularly in the medium and the long term . One is the attem pt to
question the d efinition of the enem y that has been sanctioned and
propagated by officialdom (in w hatever form ) and perhaps also by rebels
and terrorists. That questioning w ill need to includ e an attem pt to
d econstruct the process by w hich a particular enem y cam e to be d efined as
the enemy. (…) A second approach is to try to m ap the various functions of
violence for the various parties w ho have contributed to violence (…), and
then to use this analysis as a w ay to trying to reduce violent behaviour ” 48.
I have alread y d em onstrated the im portance of d iscourse analysis in
d efining the term security and how it is used by the state or agencies in
ord er to prod uce the im age of the “enem y”. N ow is the m om ent to m ove to
the second pillar of m y m ethod ology: the m apping approach.
H ow ever, I believe that there are som e problem s w ith this approach
d ue to the fact that it should provid e a valid , d ynam ic and open
representation of the rhetorical space-anthropological place w here the
actors-inform ants interact. Unfortunately, this has not been the case. My
47
Mary Kald or, H u m an Secu rity – Reflections on Globalization and Intervention,
Cam brid ge: Polity: 2007, p . 71.
48
David Keen, Com p lex Em ergencies, Cam brid ge: Polity, 2009, p p . 172-173.
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Giovanni Ercolani
interest is, und oubted ly, to provid e a w ay to map w hat I call the “ virtual
peace space”:
For this reason, even if the m apping approach and conflict m apping are
regard ed as the classical m od us operand i, I consid er them unable to
reprod uce the “qualitative” reality w hich they suppose to r epresent and
thus the base for a structured analysis, w hich I w ant to set in m otion here
w ith the id ea of “virtual peace space”.
Ind eed , “the m apping approach has been subject to a very particular
(and very narrow ) interpretation in the form of analysis an d interventions
based around the id ea of ‘rebel greed’. Accord ing to this lim ited
perspective, the m ost useful interventions are those that constrain the
m oney that rebels can make, thereby rem oving the cause of civil w ar and of
its perpetuation” 49.
Despite the fact that “conflict m apping is a first step in intervening to
m anage a particular conflict” 50, in m y opinion, how ever, there are still som e
49
Ibid , p . 173.
50
“Conflict m ap p ing is a first step in intervening to m anage a p articu lar conflict. It
gives both to the intervenor and the conflict p arties a clearer u nd erstand ing of the
origins, natu re, d ynam ics and p ossibilities for resolu tion of t he conflict. (…) H aving
m ap p ed the stru ctu re of the conflict, the next step is to u se the inform ation in the
m ap to id entify the scop e for the conflict resolu tion, p referably w ith the help of the
p arties or em bed d ed third p arties. Su ch an analysis w ou ld id entify: changes in the
context w hich cou ld alter the conflict situ ation, inclu d ing the interests and
cap acities of third p arties to influ ence it; changes w ithin and betw een the conflict
p arties, inclu d ing internal lead ership stru ggles, varying p rosp ects fo r m ilitary
su ccess, the read iness of general p op u lations to exp ress su p p ort for settlem ent;
p ossible w ays of red efining goals and find ing alternative m eans of resolving
d ifferences, inclu d ing su ggested step s tow ard s settlem ent and eventu al
76
Consid erations on Anthrop ology and Critical Secu rity Stu d ies...
transform ation; likely constrains on these; and how these m ight be overcom e. (…)
A conflict m ap is an initial snap shot. Analyst m ay then w ant to keep u p d ating it by
regu lar ‘conflict tracking’”. In Oliver Ram sbotham , Tom Wood hou se and H u gh
Miall, Contem p orary Conflict Resolu tion, Cam brid ge: Polity, 2005, p p . 74-75.
51
Ju an Ignacio Rico Becerra, El inm igrante “enferm o” – ap u ntes y reflexiones d ese
u n trabajo antrop ológico, Mu rcia: Ed iciones Isabor, 2009, p p . 68-83.
52
Peter Conrad and Kristin K. Barker, “The Social Constru ction of Illness: Key
Insights and Policy Im p lications”, Jou rnal of H ealth and Social Behavior, 2010, 51:
S67. p . S74.
53
“A ‘geop olitical-narrative-fram ew ork’ is a p hysical and intellectu al-sym bolic
sp ace (as a herm eneu tical circle w here the three elem ents of the Aristotle’s Rhetoric
are p resent: Ethos, Pathos and Logos), in w hich em otions and p ercep tions are
elaborated throu gh an hegem onic narrative (narrative is a re-p resentation of real or
invented events, then a p arad igm ), in ord er to p rod u ce a p articu lar im age and
m eaning (and p rotocol of interp retation) to be attached to the w ord secu rity”. In
Giovanni Ercolani, “Keep ing Secu rity and Peace: Behind the Strategicalization of
N ATO’s Critical Secu rity Discou rse”, The Jou rnal of Secu rity Strategies, Year 7,
Issu e: 14, Decem ber 2011, p . 54.
54
Barry Bu zan, Ole Waever and Jaap d e Wild e, Secu rity – A N ew Fram ew ork for
Analysis, Lond on: Lynne Rienner Pu blishers, 1998, p . 23-24.
77
Giovanni Ercolani
55
Ju an Ignacio Rico Becerra, El inm igrante “enferm o” – ap u ntes y reflexiones d ese
u n trabajo antrop ológico, Mu rcia: Ed iciones Isabor, 2009, p p . 84-85.
56
Ibid , p p . 83-84.
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evid ence plays a m ajor role. In treating and attend ing to the patient as a
hum an being, w ith his ow n id entity, culture, em otion, a nd in listening to
him , perm its us to exit from the bio-m edical protocol.
Then, consid ering the local population as hum an beings, in listening to
their voices w hich verbalize their em otions, in und erstand ing them and
their cultural-social environm ent, and not pretend ing that they and their
“existential place” are contagious, these represent the first steps for a
reinterpretation of the “m apping approach”.
Dom inique Moisi, a lead ing authority on international affairs, in his
2009 book “The Geopolitics of Emotion – H ow Cultures of Fear,
H um iliation, and H ope are Reshaping the World ”, reports his experiences
of travelling and interview ing people around the w orld , and explains that
in ord er to und erstand our changing w orld , w e need to confront em otion.
“Emotions m atter. They im pact the attitud es of the peoples, the
relationship betw een cultures, and the behavior of nations. N either political
lead ers nor stud ents of history nor ord inary concerned citizens can afford to
ignore them ” 57 . For this reason Dom inique Moisi suggests that “such a
m apping involves bringing together elements as diverse as surveys of
public opinion (how people feel about them selves, their present, and their
future) the statem ents of political lead ers, and cultural prod uction such as
m ovies, plays, and books” 58. Taking into consideration the globalization 59
57
Dom iniqu e Moisi, The Geop olitics of Em otion – H ow Cu ltu res of Fear,
H u m iliation, and H op e are Reshap ing the World , N ew York: Anchor Books, 2010,
p . 29.
58
Dom iniqu e Moisi, The Geop olitics of Em otion – H ow Cu ltu res of Fear,
H u m iliation, and H op e are Reshap ing the World , N ew York: Anchor Books, 2010,
p . 16.
59
“Tod ay (…), qu ests for id entity by p eop les u ncertain of w hom they are, their
p lace in the w orld , and their p rosp ects for a m eaningfu l fu tu re have rep laced
id eology as the m otor of history, w ith the consequ ence that em otions m atter m ore
than ever w here m ed ia are p laying the role of a sou nd ing board and a m agnifying
glass. (…) In an age of globalization, em otions have becom e ind isp ensable to grasp
the com p lexity of the w orld w e live in. (…) Unlike the Cold War system ,
globalization is not static bu t a d ynam ic ongoing p rocess, involving the inexorable
integration of m arkets, nation -states, and technologies to a d egree never w itn essed ,
in a w ay that is enabling ind ivid u als, corp orations, and cou ntries to reach arou nd
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Giovanni Ercolani
process and the various sentim ents w hich have been aroused by the im pact -
relation betw een the local and the global, the author focuses geopolitically
on three em otions of culture: fear, hope, and hum iliation. Follow ing the
m apping approach d eveloped by Prof. Dom inique Moisi, it is very
interesting how different the culture of em otions takes place in various
geopolitical areas of this planet.
While the culture of hope is an Asian hope 60, and the culture of ‘bad
hum iliation’ is m ost present in large parts of the Arab -Islam ic w orld 61, the
culture of fear is “the d om inant em otion of the West is, above all, a reaction
to the events and feelings taking place elsew here. For the first tim e in m ore
than tw o centuries, the West is no longer setting the tune. This perception of
our vulnerability and of our relative loss of centrality is at the very center of
our id entity crisis” 62.
the w orld farther, faster, d eep er, and cheap er than ever before. This sam e p rocess is
also p rod u cing a p ow erfu l backlash from those bru talized or left behind by the n ew
system . (…) The p rim ary reason that tod ay’s w orld is the id eal fertile grou nd for
the blossom ing or even the exp losion of em otions is that globalization cau ses
insecu rity and raises the qu estion of id entity. In the Cold War p eriod there w as
never any reason to ask, “Who are w e?” The answ er w as p lainly visible on every
m ap that d ep icted the tw o ad versarial system s d ivid ing the globe betw een them .
Bu t in an ever-changing w orld w ithou t bord ers, the qu estion is intensely relevant.
Id entity is strongly linked w ith confid ence, and in tu rn confid ence, or the lack
thereof, is exp ressed in em otions – in p articu lar, those of fear, hop e, and
hu m iliation. Econom ically, globalization can be d efined sim p ly as the integration of
econom ic activities across bord ers throu gh m arkets. The d riving forces of
globalization, m asterfu lly analyzed by Martin Wolf, are technological and p olicy
changes that red u ce the cost of transp ort and com m u nication and encou rage
greater reliance on m arket forces. Bu t this free flow of good s in econom ic term s also
im p lies in p olitical term s the free flow of em otions, inclu d ing both p ositive
em otions (am bition, cu riosity, yearning for self-exp ression) and evil ones, inclu d ing
the angry p assions that lead to hatred betw een nations, religions, and eth nic
grou p .” Dom iniqu e Moisi, The Geop olitics of Em otion – H ow Cu ltu res of Fear,
H u m iliation, and H op e are Reshap ing the World , N ew York: Anchor Books, 2010,
p p . 4-13.
60
Ibid , p p . 30-55.
61
Ibid , p p . 56-89.
62
“This crisis m ight be d escribed in the follow ing term s: ‘What’s hap p ening to u s?
We u sed to be in charge of the rest of the w orld . Even if, in the tw entieth centu ry,
80
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Giovanni Ercolani
64
Jim Soligan, “The Transform ation of Defence: N ATO Persp ectives”, in Sait
Yilm az. Ed ., The N ational Defense in the 21st Centu ry, Istanbu l: Beykent
University, 2009, ISBN : 978-975-6319-06-2;
65
At: http :/ / w w w .nato.int/ strategic-concep t/ p d f/ Strat_Concep t_w eb_en.p d f
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To sum up, the three pillars on w hich the security (freed om from
anxiety) of the NATO Alliance w ill be based are: Collective Defence, Crisis
Management, and Cooperative Security. This is because on the “N ATO’s
Fear Mapping approach” there is an em otional d irect relationship betw een
the security-securitization of the NATO-States territories and the
securitization of “Multiple Stress Zones” w hich w ere regard ed (if not
ignored at all) until recently as the “periphery of non -im portance”.
Then, for N ATO, the “bio-m ed ical” tool “for the d efence and security of
the m em bers of the N orth Atlantic Treaty Organisation”, becom es the
“Crisis m anagem ent” 67 operations.
66
“(a) Collective d efence. N ATO m em ber s w ill alw ays assist each other against
attack, in accord ance w ith Article 5 of the Washington Treaty. That com m itm ent
rem ains firm and bind ing. N ATO w ill d eter and d efend against any threat of
aggression, and against em erging secu rity challenges w here the y threaten the
fu nd am ental secu rity of ind ivid u al Allies or the Alliance as a w hole. (b) Crisis
m anagem ent. N ATO has a u niqu e and robu st set of p olitical and m ilitary
cap abilities to ad d ress the fu ll sp ectru m of crises – before, d u ring and after
conflicts. N ATO w ill actively em p loy an ap p rop riate m ix of those p olitical and
m ilitary tools to help m anage d evelop ing crises that have the p otential to affect
Alliance secu rity, before they escalate into conflicts; to stop ongoing conflicts w here
they affect Alliance secu rity; and to help consolid ate stability in p ost -conflict
situ ations w here that contribu tes to Eu ro-Atlantic secu rity. (c) Coop erative secu rity.
The Alliance is affected by, and can affect, p olitical and secu rity d evelop m ents
beyond its bord ers. The Alliance w ill engage actively to enhance international
secu rity, throu gh p artnership w ith relevant cou ntries and other international
organisations; by contribu ting actively to arm s control, non -p roliferation and
d isarm am ent; and by keep ing the d oor to m em bership in the Alliance op en to all
Eu rop ean d em ocracies that m eet N ATO’s stand ard s.” N ATO 2010 N ew Strategic
Concep t, at: http :/ / w w w .nato.int/ lisbon2010/ strategic-concep t-2010-eng.p d f
67
“Secu rity throu gh Crisis Managem ent”, at http :/ / w w w .nato.int/ strategic-
concep t/ p d f/ Strat_Concep t_w eb_en.p d f.
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Giovanni Ercolani
Christop her Ankersen, “Interrogating civil-m ilitary coop eration”, in Christop her
68
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Giovanni Ercolani
69
“A ‘Com p rehensive Ap p roach’ to crisis m anagem ent. N ATO’s new Strategic
Concep t, ad op ted at the Lisbon Su m m it in N ovem ber 2010, u nd erlines that lessons
learned from N ATO op erations show that effective crisis m anagem ent calls for a
com p rehensive ap p roach involving p olitical, civilian and m ilitary instru m ents.
Military m eans, althou gh essential, ar e not enou gh on their ow n to m eet the m any
com p lex challenges to Eu ro-Atlantic and international secu rity. Allied lead ers
agreed at Lisbon to enhance N ATO’s contribu tion to a com p rehensive ap p roach to
crisis m anagem ent as p art of the international com m u nit y’s effort and to im p rove
N ATO’s ability to contribu te to stabilization and reconstru ction. “The
com p rehensive ap p roach not only m akes sense – it is necessary,” says N ATO
Secretary General Rasm u ssen. “N ATO need s to w ork m ore closely w ith ou r civilian
p artners on the grou nd , and at a p olitical level – esp ecially the Eu rop ean Union and
the United N ations.” The effective im p lem entation of a com p rehensive ap p roach
requ ires all actors to contribu te in a concerted effort, based on a shared sense of
resp onsibility, op enness and d eterm ination, taking into accou nt their resp ective
strengths, m and ates and roles, as w ell as their d ecision -m aking au tonom y. N ATO
is im p roving its ow n crisis-m anagem ent instru m ents and it has reached ou t to
strengthen its ability to w ork w ith p artner cou ntries, international organizations,
non-governm ental organizations and local au thorities. In p articu lar, N ATO is
bu ild ing closer p artnership s w ith civilian actors that have exp erience and skills in
areas su ch as institu tion bu ild ing, d evelop m ent, governance, ju d iciary and p olice.
In March 2012, N ATO agreed on an Up d ated List of Tasks to u p d ate its
Com p rehensive Ap p roach Action Plan. These tasks are being im p lem ented by a
d ed icated civilian-m ilitary task force that involves all relevant N ATO b od ies and
com m and s.” At: http :/ / w w w .nato.int/ cp s/ en/ natolive/ top ics_51633.htm .
70
At: http :/ / w w w .nato.int/ im s/ d ocu / m c411-1-e.htm .
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The above activities should contribute tow ard s the follow ing three core
functions of the CIMIC activity: civil-m ilitary liaison, support the civil
environm ent, and support the Force.
Because of m y interest in the tactical level, it is necessary to know that
the principles governing the N ATO Civil-Military relationship are: cultural
aw areness, com m on goals, shared responsibility, consent, transparency, and
com m unication. Ind eed , I can say that the tw o pillars on w hich the human
relationship w ith the “locals” is based (cultural aw areness, and
com m unication) is highlighted by the fact that “the m ilitary m ust acquire a
sound und erstand ing of local culture, custom s and law ”, and that “effective
71
At: http :/ / w w w .nato.int/ im s/ d ocu / ajp -9.p d f.
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Giovanni Ercolani
72
Clifford Geertz, “Thick d escrip tion: Tow ard and Interp retative Theory of
Cu ltu re”, in The Interp retation of Cu ltu res: Selected Essays, N ew York: Basic
Books, 1973.
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73
“’Conflict ethnograp hy’ m ethod ology can be su m m arized as follow s: Cond u ct the
research, as far p ossible, u sing sou rces in the local langu age; Get as close as p ossible
(in tim e and sp ace0 to the actu al events, id eally by being p resent w hen th ey u nfold
bu t, at the very least, by seeking firsthand d escrip tions from eyew itnesses; Use
d ocu m entary sou rces (inclu d ing op erational and intelligence rep orts, cap tu red
d ocu m ents, qu antitative d ata, m ap s and su rveys, m ed ia content analysis, and the
w ork of other researchers) to create a p rim ary analysis of the environm ent; Use this
p rim ary analysis to id entify a m ore lim ited nu m ber of “com m u nities” (local areas,
p op u lation grou p s, villages, or fu nctional categories) for fu rther d etailed p ersonal
analysis at the case-stu d y level; Cond u ct firsthand , on -the-sp ot field stu d ies
(ap p lying an extend ed resid ential field w ork ap p roach w herever p ossible) of these
second ary com m u nities; Work from u nstru ctu red , face to face, op en -end ed
interview s (rather than im p ersonal qu estionnaires and su rveys) d u ring field w ork,
bu t integrate this su bjective qu alitative p ersp ective w ith qu antitative d ata from the
p rim ary analysis; Revisit, in an iterative fashion, the resu lts of earlier field w ork
and analysis u sing follow -u p interview s and contextu al stu d ies; Und erstand and
accep t the p resence of p ersonal and research bias, bu t act to com p ensate for it by
u sing the greatest p ossible variety of hu m an and d ocu m entary sou rces and by
exp licitly id entifying and exam ining the sou rces of bias; Treat analogies (w ith other
conflicts, societies, or regions) w ith extrem e scep ticism : seek to u nd erstand the
conflict in its ow n term s rather than by analogy w ith som e other w ar; Accep t the
fu nd am ental ethical resp onsibility to p rotect the id entity, a nd w ork to fu rther the
w ell-being, of any key sou rces and inform ants, seek their inform ed consent to
research and p u blication, and ad vocate for p olicies that enhance their w elfare.”
David Kilcu llen, The Accid ental Gu errilla – Fighting Sm all Wars in the Mid st of a
Big One, Oxford University Press, 2009, p p .304-305.
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“bod y” of the patient, does not listen to him , focusing his attention only on
the “d isease” w hich m ust be confronted .
In this regard , it is interesting to note that w hat I have called a
“m ed icalization-m apping approach” is d epicted by Kilcullen w hen he
proposes the “m ed ical” m ap of the “Accid ental Guerrilla Synd rom e” 74.
Consequently, accord ing to the above “represen tation”, the infection is
spread by the diseased bod y of a terrorist-fighter-rebel, and so on.
At this point, I should recall m y previous com ment w hen I d iscussing
the m ed ical anthropology approach, w hich id entifies in the
“health/ illness/ treatm ent-attention” process a protocol w hich:
As a result, in treating (“to treat” in the hum an sense) and attend ing to
the patient as a hum an being, w ith his ow n id entity, culture, em otion, and
in listening to him , permits us to exit from the bio-m ed ical protocol.
Then, the problem of the “conflict ethnography” encapsulated in an
“Accid ental Guerrilla Synd rom e” is that it is not interested in listening to
the im age of the “sick” person w hich has been prod uced .
On the contrary, this is w hat an “Italian approach” d oes to CIMIC
d eveloped by Col. Fabiano Zinzone, Com m and er of the Multinational
CIMIC Group (Motta d i Livenza, Italy) w hich I think puts into practice a
74
“Based on field observation in several theatres of the ‘War on Terrorism ’ since
2001, I theorize that the accid ental gu errilla em erges from a cyclical p rocess that
take p lace in fou r stage: infection, contagion, intervention, and rejection. (…)
Infection: Al Qaed a (AQ) establishes a p resence in a rem ote, u ngoverned or
conflict-affected area; Contagion: AQ u ses the safe haven to sp read violence and
takfiri id eology to the others regions; Intervent ion: ou tsid e forces intervene to d eal
w ith the AQ threat and d isru p t the safe haven; Rejection: local p op u lation reacts
negatively, rejecting ou tsid e intervention and allying w ith AQ”. Ibid , p p .34-38.
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environm ent, and in a second phase penetrating and securing the area”. The
tw o opposite view s (Achilles and Ulysses) can resem ble tw o d ifferent w ays
of looking at the CIMIC (old and new ).
Accord ing to Col. Zinzone, a new CIMIC concept is:
Ind eed , w hat can d raw a line betw een the old and the new concept of
CIMIC is the im plem entation of the “Ulysses’ parad igm for CIMIC” w hich
is based on a “Listening-Influence-Interact” (LII) m od el.
Thanks to this new parad igm , the CIMIC operational activity becom es
an operational d esign in a balanced com prehensive approach, becom ing a
sm all local centre w here all the com prehensive approach ca pabilities are
present.
Then, it is in restructuring the basis of the of the CIMIC operational
d esign that w e are able best to appreciate the evolution it brings bottom -up
to the id ea of com prehensive approach.
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Once the CIMIC operations are put into practice using the Ulysses’
parad igm , its m ain purpose is to create a locally -secured “Centre of
Influence”, end ow ed w ith centrifugal and centripetal energy in ord er to
spread security, and attract people from “unsecured ” surround ing areas.
Then, the CIMIC local base becom es a centre w here the “Und erstand
and Shape-Penetrate and Secure-Expand and Develop” project is
continually sustained by the com prehensive app roach capabilities and the
local tactical d octrine of the “Listening-Influence-Interact” (LII) m od el.
If w e look m ore carefully at the above representation of “centre of
influence-penetrate-expand ” and take into consid eration the fact that the
Ulysses’ parad igm gives prim ary im portance to the interaction w ith local
people, w ith the purpose of securing the area, and then attracting people
from surround ings area, I w ould say that w e are d ealing w ith the putting
into practice of specific critical security stud ies and anthropological
m ethod ologies.
Thus, it is necessary to structure and enrich the Ulysses’ Parad igm w ith
the concept of “societal security”, and the m ethodology of the anthropology
of life m od es for the follow ing reasons. N ot only d oes the centre of
influence becom e an “em ancipated ” place w hich has been freed from the
insecurity-conflict dim ension, but also the local people becom e the main
actors. Then, the centrality of the concept of “societal security” is restored ,
and w ith it the “live m odes” of the com m unity.
It is in this combination of the “Ulysses’ Parad igm ” w ith “societal
security” concept, and Life Mod es m ethod ology, that w e can have a
d efinitive parad igm shift w ith a practical adaptation of this new com bined
parad igm to the nature of the new conflicts (and post-conflict situations),
w hich are, as w e have seen before, id entity conflict, then, societal conflict.
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75
Barry Bu zan, Peop le, State and Fear: An Agend a for In ternational Secu rity Stu d ies
in the Post-Cold War Era, Lond on: H arvester Wheatsheaf, 1991.
76
Pau l Roe, “Societal Secu rity”, in Alan Collins (Ed .), Contem p orary Secu rity
Stu d ies, Oxford University Press, 2007, p . 169.
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77 Philip Bobbitt, The Shield of Achilles – War, Peace, and the Cou rse of H istory,
N ew York: Anchor Boos, 2003 [2002], p xxxi.
78 “It is only in civil society’s ow n u nd erstand ing (…) that civil society can be
consid ered as self d eterm ined or as an end in itself w hile the state is a d erivative or
m eans (…) This m eans that the state is not sim p ly a social contract in w hich
ind ivid u als ensu re them selves against civil w ar and the violation of their right. The
state is cu ltu re’s su bstantial fou nd ation. Withou t the state su bject, no ind ivid u al
and p articu lar su bjectivity or social relation can be conceived . (…) Cu ltu re is p art of
the concep t of the state”. In Thom as H øjru p , State, Cu ltu re and Life Mod es,
Ald ershot: Ashgate, 2003, p 160.
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at the d om estic level in w hich the ind ivid ual-citizen has to recognize
the state and the state has to recognize the ind ivid ual-citizen as
term inal elem ents of a relationship. This m utual recognizing affair is
constructed through the “interpellation process” 79 (fusion theory);
at the international level in w hich m utual recognition is a perm anent
struggle for recognition w hich has becom e the accepted “rule of the
gam e” am ong a plurality of state subjects (fission theory).
As the author says, cultural history contains both the struggle for
recognition and interpellation, and this is not a novelty if w e read history
w ith the right eyes.
In this interpellation -recognition conflicting-exercise in w hich the
“citizens-state-states” are involved a catalyst elem ent is inserted in this
laboratory: w ar.
This is because w ar activates a variety of elem ents w hich, at the
international and d om estic levels, plays a d ecisive role in this interpellation -
recognition process.
“Only the recognized state subject, w hich possesses the defence
capability in the struggle for recognition (d uring w ar) to exclud e others
from its d om ain of sovereignty, can interpellate its ow n citizens. (…)
Sovereignty is forged in w ar. State subjects are not pre -existing entities, but
w ills w hich are forged and recognised as sovereign in th e struggle for
recognition. Cultures are forged and selected in this struggle” 80.
Thus, it is here that the theory of w ar d eveloped by Carl von
Clausew itz com es into play in this fram ew ork: w ar is struggle for life and
166-167.
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d eath betw een w ills, each of w hich attem pts to subord inate each other. War
is the effort of w ills to d estroy each other’s plans.
Accord ing to the w ork of Danish philosopher and peace researcher
And ers Boserup, at one point “Clausew itz’ theory contains the key to a true
infinity, i.e. the infinite struggle for recognition w hich never culminates in
som e all-encom passing d om inant Will, and w hich resolves the
contrad ictions of the H egelian state theory. In his Krieg, Staat und Frieden,
Boserup outlines the w ay in w hich w ar theory’s initial sequen ce of
specifications explains w hy the struggle for recognition is a truly infinite
process w hich w ill continue to split up into a plurality of states, i.e. generate
state system ” 81
It is at this point that H øjrup, in ord er to sustain his reasoning, m akes
use of Clausew itz’s point that the w ar com prises tw o form s of struggle:
offensive (O) and d efensive (D), of w hich the d efensive struggle is stronger
(D>O).
In this D-O (defensive-offensive) period of confrontation, the
im portance of pauses (of peace) is of essential significance, but the D>O
(suprem acy of d efensive on offensive) struggle is only possible if the
capabilities of the d efend ing state are just w ell enough to sustain the pauses
period s. H aving at its disposal m ore capabilities is equal to the bene fit of
“pauses tim e”, and thus peace tim e.
Then D>O is possible only if the d efend ing state is really able not only
to interpellate his citizens to sustain the state struggle, but even to provid e
m aterial capabilities to the state itself. In military term inology, I can say
that, as far as the d efend ing state has a strong logistic structure, then it is
able to live in pauses-peace tim e.
Consequently, w e can assum e that the struggle for recognition am ong
states has its found ation on the d efence capability of the states them selves.82
81
Ibid , p . 169.
82
“The state, then, is d efined in the system of states as a cap ability for d efence. (…)
As the d efence cap ability rests u p on the state’s ability to generate and renew the
internal social stru ctu re w hich p rovid es the d efence cap ability and the w ill to
d efence, this stru ctu re is cond itioned by the concrete cond itions of p ossibility in the
state system . The social stru ctu re, therefore, are qu ite varied and d efined concretely
by the context of the state system ”. Ibid , p 173.
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1. given goals;
2. given means;
3. the ability to activate these m eans purposefully in relation to the
goals85.
Consequently, using the Aristotelian problem atique of polis, oikos, and
etikos, H øjrup constructs his d om estic structure in w hich this state d efence-
w ill capacity is constructed in com bining three levels:
83
We d o not have to forget that w ars and conflicts are cond u cted at fou r levels:
p olitical, strategic, theatre and tactical.
84
Ru p ert Sm ith, The Utility of Force – The Art of War in the Mod ern World ,
Lond on: Pengu in Books, 2005, p p . 241- 242.
85
Thom as H øjru p , State, Cu ltu re and Life Mod es, Ald ershot: Ashgate, 2003, p 176.
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86
Pierre Bou rd ieu , Langu age & Sym bolic Pow er, Cam brid ge: Polity Press, 2005, p .
12.
87
Ibid , p . 51.
88
Thom as H øjru p , State, Cu ltu re and Life Mod es, Ald ershot: Ashgate, 2003, p 180.
100
Consid erations on Anthrop ology and Critical Secu rity Stu d ies...
citizens, and I argue a political w ill that sees security as a value and not as
an open concept.
This process, w hich w orks both as a centrifugal force (struggle for
recognition at international level) and as a centripetal force (d omestic
interpellation process), finds its explanation in the fission and fusion
theories.
In fusion theory “the state em erges as an am algam ation of pre -existing
concepts. This theory is an effect of the given properties w hich em erge
w hen certain object-concepts are put together. In fission theory, states
appear in a process of splitting on the global level” 89.
These tw o theories open the path to the conclu ding analysis in w hich
the capacity of the state to generate a d efence capability (based on internal
interpellation) and its D>O struggle for recognition at an international level
(ecosystem) is seen as a biological evolutionary theory in w hich the notion
of the “survival of the superior d efence” is eradicated .
Therefore, if w e apply the above concepts at societal security level, it is
the ability of the local society, helped by the CIMIC operation, to prod uce
that w ill w hich is inside the “centre of influence” and thus becom es a
d efence capability d uring the “pauses tim e”.
When w e talk about “pauses tim e”, I refer here to the Conflict
Management Continuum because I take into consid eration the continuum
of tim e w hich is present in the idea of “the w ar after the w ar” in a “virtual
peace space”.
Then, on m y ad vice, it is only integrating the Ulysses’ approach w ith
the concept of societal security together w ith the m ethod ology of Life
Mod es in a “culture-state-form ation” process, fram ed in a tem poral
d im ension of Conflict Managem ent Continuum (w ar after the w ar), that w e
are able to prod uce the follow ing in the “centre of influence”:
89
Ibid , p 219
101
Giovanni Ercolani
“Tod ay, the planet has shrunk; inform ation and im ages circulate
read ily, and because of this the others’ m ythic d im ension is fad ing. The
‘others’ are in fact not so very d ifferent, or rather, their otherness rem ains,
but the prestige of their erstw hile exoticism is gone. (…) We are
experiencing an ‘acceleration of history’ – another expression for the
‘shrinking of the planet’ – that involves both objective interactions w ithin
the ‘w orld system’ and the instantaneity of inform ation and image
d issem ination. Each m onth, every d ay, w e experience ‘historical’ events;
each d ay the bord er betw een history and current events becom es a bit m ore
blurred . The param eters of tim e, like those of space, are changing, and this
is an unpreced ented revolution ” 90.
Accord ing to the French anthropologist Marc Auge’, anthropology,
because of its d im ension in w hich is established a relation w ith the object of
its observation, and in the context in w hich the object is observed , it
becom es a privileged path for the observation of the contem porary w orld s.
It is the contem porary situation w hich forces anthropology to d efine itself
not only as “just ethnography”: the context today is increasingly global and ,
although it rem ains necessary to stud y the local and regional m icro -
90
Marc Au ge’, An Anthrop ology for Contem p oraneou s World s, Stand ford
University Press, 1999, p . 14.
102
Consid erations on Anthrop ology and Critical Secu rity Stu d ies...
91
Marc Au ge’, Che fine ha fatto il fu tu ro?, Milano: Eleu thera, 2009, p .87.
92
Marc Au ge’, An Anthrop ology for Contem p oraneou s World s, Stand ford
University Press, 1999, p . 53.
93
Ibid , p . 110.
94
Ibid , p p . 101-102.
103
Giovanni Ercolani
95
Roland Barthes, Cam era Lu cid a, Lond on: Vintage Classics, 2000, p p . 10-12.
96
“In the p hysics of p hotograp hy, the brighter the light, the sm aller the ap ertu re of
the lens; w ith m ore light, a sm aller hole is su fficient to transm it the im age to the
film . And the sm aller the ap ertu re, the larger is the d ep th of the field . That is, the
p hotograp her can inclu d e in focu s the backgrou nd and the foregrou nd of the object
as w ell the object itself. If this field cou ld be extend ed infinitely, it cou ld inclu d e
even the cam era. Anthrop ology is not im p risoned in the law of op tics, nor is
exclu sively visu al; bu t a visu al analogy m ay help u s think concretely. Im agine a
p hotograp her w ho favors bright, harsh light – cond itions w here glare is intense.
Im agine also that he seeks d ep th of field – to inclu d e in focu s the foregrou nd and
backgrou nd as w ell th e su bject itself. Anthrop ology seeks cond itions of harsh light;
this m ay be literally tru e (…) bu t is also tru e m etap horically in that anthrop ologists
104
Consid erations on Anthrop ology and Critical Secu rity Stu d ies...
1. Unrestricted w arfare;
2. The 2010 G20 Seoul Meeting;
3. A m ultiple stress-zone-Pentagon m ap;
4. The w orld’s population grow th rate;
5. Consum ption factor;
6. A d em and for food ;
7. Water, food and clim ate changes;
8. Life expectancy rate;
9. The globalization of m igration;
10. The changing character of conflict.
u su ally seek to their w ork in cond itions that are in som e sense harsh, so as to
exp ose the raw and elem ental, the fu nd am entals of hu m an natu re strip p ed of the
flu ff of civilization. Within those settings, anthrop ology focu ses softly rather than
sharp ly: rather the focu s narrow ly on the object, anthrop ology blu rs the bou nd ary
betw een object and m ilieu so as to inclu d e not only the object bu t also its
backgrou nd , and foregrou nd ; this p ercep tion of the total m ilieu w e call holism .
Were this holistic field of vision extend ed far enou gh, it w ou ld inclu d e the
p erceiver as w ell as the object p erceived , and this too is a concern of anthrop ology,
w hich recognizes the su bjective as w ell the objective asp ect of know led ge.” Jam es
L. Peacock, The Anthrop ological Lens, Cam brid ge University Press, 2001 (1986) p p .
xi-xii.
105
Giovanni Ercolani
2. At the G20 Seoul m eeting (2010), even the m ap of the w orld financial
crisis w as changed . Despite the w estern countries d epicted the financial
crisis as a global one, its perception from other global actors and em erging
econom ies w as com pletely d ifferent. Accord ing to O'N eill (G old m an Sachs),
policy m akers in Asia w ere referring to the global cred it crisis as the "N orth
Atlantic Crisis" 98 Thus, and for the first tim e, the “others” d efined our
m ilitary alliance as a financial system .
97
Qiao Liang and Wang Xiangsu i, Unrestricted Warfare, Beijing: PLA Literatu re
and Arts Pu blishing H ou se, Febru ary 1999, at: http :/ / cryp tom e.org/ cu w .htm
98
BBC N ew s - Tod ay - West 'p aranoid ' abou t w orld econom y, N ov 11, 2010 at:
http :/ / new s.bbc.co.u k/ tod ay/ hi/ tod ay/ new sid _9179000/ 9179739.stm
99
Thom as P.M. Barnett, The Pentagon's N ew Map : War and Peace in the Tw enty -
First Centu ry, Pu tnam Ad u lt, 2004.
106
Consid erations on Anthrop ology and Critical Secu rity Stu d ies...
Furtherm ore, it can be seen as a tentative to ethnicalize the w orld 100. And if
w hat can happen in the N on -Integrated Gap can prod uce security concerns
to the N ATO countries (w hich are part of the Functioning Core) and justify
a m ilitary intervention in their internal affairs, then “fear is som ething that
is actually m issing in a situation of international anarchy, and because it is
m issing, it m ust be invented and skilfully d eployed ” 101.
4. World Population Grow th Rate: “By 2003, the com bined population of
Europe, the United States, and Canad a accounted for just 17 percen t of the
global population. In 2050, this figure is expected to be just 12 percent. (…)
Tod ay, roughly nine out of ten child ren under the age of 15 live in
d eveloping countries. (…) Ind eed , over 70 percent of the w orld ’s population
grow th betw een now and 2050 w ill take place in 24 countries, all of w hich
are classified by the World Bank as low income or low er -m id dle income,
w ith an average per capita incom e und er $ 3,855 in 2008” 102. Data, w hich
have been confirm ed recently by the USA N ational Intelligence Council
100
Marco Aim e, Eccessi d i Cu ltu re, Torino: Einau d i, 2004, p p . 73-100.
101
Cynthia Weber, International Relations Theory – A Critical Introd u ction,
Lond on: Rou tled ge, 2005, p . 23.
102
Jack A. Gold stone, “The Fou r Megatrend s That Will Change the World ”, Foreign
A ffairs, Janu ary/ Febru ary 2010. And the recent article of Georges Minois, “Une
Planète trop p eu p lée ?” , Le M onde Diplomatique, Ju in 2011.
107
Giovanni Ercolani
5. Consum ption factor. “The estim ated one billion people w ho live in
d eveloped countries have a relative per capita consum ption rate of 32. Most
of the w orld ’s other 5.5 billion people that constitute the d eveloping w orld ,
103
N ational Intelligence Cou ncil, Global Trend s 2025: A Transform ed World ,
Washington: US Governm ent Printing Office, N ov 2008, p p . vii-viii.
104
Ibid , p . 19.
108
Consid erations on Anthrop ology and Critical Secu rity Stu d ies...
w ith relative per capita consum ption rates below 32, are m ostly d ow n
tow ard 1” 105.
H ow w ill it be possible to “secure our future” (the estim ated one billion
people w ho live in d eveloped countries coincid entally is the sam e num ber
of N ATO people, the “our”) and then m aintain a consum ption factor of 32
w hen the “others” w ill w ant to consum e like us? “The World Bank has
pred icted that by 2030 the num ber of m id dle-class people in the developing
w orld w ill be 1.2 billion – a rise of 200 percent since 2005. This means that
the d eveloping w orld ’s m id d le class alone w ill be larger that the total
populations of Europe, Japan, and the United States com bined . From now
on, therefore, the m ain d river of global econom ic expansion w ill be the
econom ic grow th of new ly-ind ustrialized countries, such as Brazil, China,
Ind ia, Ind onesia, Mexico, and Turkey” 106.
6. “Dem and for food : The World Bank estim ates that d em and for food w ill
rise by 50 percent by 2030, as a result of grow ing w orld population, rising
affluence, and the shift to Western d ietary preferences by a larger m id dle
class. Lack of access to stable supplies of w ater is reaching critical
proportions, particularly for agricultural purposes, and the problem w ill
w orsen because of rapid urbanization w orldw id e and the roughly 1.2
billion persons to be add ed over the next 20 years. Tod ay, experts consid er
21 countries, w ith a combined population of about 600 m illion, to be either
cropland or freshw ater scarce. Ow ing to continuing population grow th, 36
countries, w ith about 1.4 billion people, are projected to fall into this
category by 2025” 107.
105
Jared Diam ond , What’s You r Consu m p tion Factor?, The N ew Y ork Times, Janu ary
2, 2008, at
http :/ / w w w .u n.org/ esa/ p op u lation/ p u blications/ w p p 2006/ WPP2006_H ighlight
s_rev.p d f
106
Jack A. Gold stone, “The Fou r Megatrend s That Will Change the World ”, Foreign
A ffairs, Janu ary/ Febru ary 2010.
107
N ational Intelligence Cou ncil, Global Trend s 2025: A Transform ed World ,
Washington: US Governm ent Printing Office, N ov 2008, p . viii.
109
Giovanni Ercolani
8. Life expectancy rate. Will the people living in the “m ultiple stress zone”
(the non- integrated gap) accept their d ram atic living cond itions, and live
less than the people living in other parts of the globe? Will they accept the
status quo that has prod uced their m isery or w ill they rebel? And the peace
that N ATO w ill im pose on them w ill be a “positive peace” or a “negative
peace” w hich w ill reprod uce the sam e “structural violence” that provoked
unrest and internal conflict, and not seeing instead the “civil w ar as a
system ” 109?
108
Ibid , p . 51.
109
David Keen, Com p lex Em ergencies, Cam brid ge: Polity, 2009, p p . 11-24.
110
ESPAS Rep ort, Global Trend s 2030 - Citizens in an Interconnected and
Polycentric World , 27 Ap ril 2012.
110
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changes in the d rivers of m igration. The m ost important trad itional d rivers
of m igration – the d ifferences in economic opportunity and/ or personal
security betw een source and d estination countries – w ill be increasingly
com plem ented by d ifferences in d epend ency ratios that encourage changes
in im migration policy in m any host countries. Clim ate change m ay also
have m ore of an influence on future migration flow s. While the d om inant
m igration d estinations of the latter half of the tw entieth cent ury w ill
continue to attract people (N orth Am erica, Western Europe and the Persian
Gulf), increasing num bers of m igrants w ill m ove tow ard new d estination
zones in quickly d eveloping countries” 111.
The sam e scenario of m igration is confirm ed by the US N ationa l
Intelligence Council, Global Trend s 2025: A Transform ed World 112: “The net
m igration of people from rural to urban areas and from poorer to richer
countries likely w ill continue apace in 2025, fuelled by a w idening gap in
econom ic and physical security betw een ad jacent regions”.
Although the d ocum ent d oes not m ention the concept of “societal
security”, it talks about Id entity Dem ography: Where ethno-religious
groups have experienced their transition to low er birth rates at varying
paces, lingering ethnic youth bulges and shifts in group proportions cou ld
trigger significant political changes. Shifts in ethno-religious com position
resulting from m igration also could fuel political change, particularly w here
im m igrants settle in low -fertility ind ustrialized countries”.
Ibid , p p . 65-67.
111
111
Giovanni Ercolani
113
Ibid . , p . 71.
114
“Strategicalization of global p olitics’ – the rend ering of events as su bject to
hu m an m astery at the hand s of statesm an and to the logic of a p ecu liarly
contem p orary, i.e. p ostw ar strategic d iscou rse.” And “by talking of
‘strategicalization’, w e id entify p rocesses by w hich p olitical d om ain is extend ed
beyond realm s of im m ed iate sovereignty.” Brad ley S. Klein, Strategic Stu d ies and
World Ord er: The Global Politics of Deterrence, Cam brid ge: Cam brid ge University
Press, 1994, p . 27.
115
“What is d istinctive abou t ‘strategicalization’ is the extent to w hich state
behavior becom es encod ed w ithin w orld view s and then becom es the basis of the
w hole bu reau cratic ap p aratu ses – of secu rity analysis, intelligence estim ates, and
international su rveillance.” Ibid , p .127.
116
Ulrich Beck, Pow er in the Global Age – A N ew Global Political Econom y,
Cam brid ge: Polity, 2006, p p .110-115.
112
Consid erations on Anthrop ology and Critical Secu rity Stu d ies...
our w ay tow ard s a w orld of general hum an benevolence. Ind eed , just the
opposite is the case: d isasters lurk at every turn, and yet there is also an
enticing glim m er of new beginnings – usually it is im possible to tell
w hether or not the future hold s both at once. The m ain feature of the
cosm opolitan outlook is sim ply that it is d ifferent” 117.
5. Concluding Thoughts
117
Ibid , p . 110.
118
“Cou ntries rebu ilt by the so-called international com m u nity, bu t d ep end ent on
the w orld charity in term s of econom y and secu rity are d ou bly enslaved : they are in
the cond ition of d ep end ency and in the im p ossibility to rebel against overw helm ing
and ind efinite p ow er. Therefore w ar is strictly tied to the p ost conflict and to the
m ilitary and civil com p onent. These tw o d im ensions intertw ine and influ ence each
other in a continu ity w hich shou ld alread y be m anifest before the w ar. These tw o
com p onents shou ld be alread y in set in the p re-w ar p hase, in the p lanning, and
cond u ct of the w ar. The need of transform ation and reconstru ction, the costs, the
d u ration, the sacrifices w hich w ill be im p osed , the socio-econom ic m od el w hich
shou ld be im p lem ented , and the id entification of the p ersonnel in charge of the
p ost-conflict p hase, all these are all those elem ents w hich shou ld even ind icate w hat
to d estroy and w hat to safegu ard . Mod ern w ar is w on or lost in relation to the
resu lts of w hat is d one after the end of the conflict, and not in relation to the
elim ination of the op p onent. It is from the p ost-w ar p hase that w e can u nd erstand if
the w ar and the op erations w ere w orthy and if they w ere necessary for som ething
or not. If those w ho m ad e the w ar w anted p eace, stability and w elfare as an
assertion of civilizations and solid arity, or if they ju st w anted to m ake a show of
p ow er, exercising au thority, d estroy, p lu nd er, and gain extra exp enses and leave.
H ow d id som e barbarian hord es and all ad ventu rers.” Fabio Mini, La Gu erra d op o
la Gu erra – Sold ati, bu rocrati e m ercenari nell’ep oca d ella p ace virtu ale, Torino:
Einau d i, 2003, p p . 172-173.
113
Giovanni Ercolani
Accord ing to the Italian Arm y Gen. Mini, w hat is then of big
im portance in these operations w hich take place in “virtual peace space” is
the tem poral aspect, that tim e w hich continues to play a role after t hat the
conflict has end ed . This is ind eed the concept of the “after -afterw ards”
(“d opo” in Italian) w hich broad ens the structured Ulysses’ parad igm , puts
it in a state of super-m od ernity, and creates the link w ith that cosm opolitan
outlook w hich participates in a construction of possible life-m od es
m ethod ology at a global level.
Therefore, taking the id ea of “after-afterw ard s” as a system of
m easurem ent, w e can go back to the ontological and epistem ological
questions of (of w hat??) and ask again:
What is reality?
What is real know led ge?
What can w e d o?
And after, d ue to the fact w e are d ealing w ith “security” issue, w e can
ask the follow ing questions:
Therefore, the reality is m ore com plicated then the one presented on the
N ATO’s fear m ap and our m ethod ology has presented a “picture” w hich
can be accepted as know led ge.
After these results, there is m ost d efinitely som ething that w e have to
d o. First of all, the referent object of security has to be consid ered .
The structured Ulysses’ parad igm puts at the centre of its activity the
security of the local society. The creation of a centre of influence is a
practical exam ple of how to im plem ent at best CIMIC cooperation activities
in areas w here the “enem y” is the situation created by the “virtual peace”
w here a w ar after the w ar is going on, and w here the society is slow ly
trying to reconstruct its life-m od es. Indeed , hard security is need ed .
114
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119
Shannon D. Beebe and Mary Kald or, The Ultim ate Weap on Is N o Weap on –
H u m an Secu rity and the N ew Ru les of War and Peace, N ew York: Pu blic Affairs,
2010, p p . 7.
115
Giovanni Ercolani
120
Ibid , p p . 7-9.
116
Consid erations on Anthrop ology and Critical Secu rity Stu d ies...
121
Ibid , p p . 89-106.
122
Izasku n Chinchilla and Fabián Mu niesa, “La controversia com o herram ienta
p royectu al”, Boletin CF+S, Mad rid , 2004, at:
http :/ / habitat.aq.u p m .es/ boletin/ n32/ aichi01.htm l
117
Giovanni Ercolani
“controversy” starts at the very m om ent w e look at the events, the m oment
w e label them w ith term inologies, w e d efine their m eaning and their
existence.
It is the anthropologist w ho, in contact w ith local post -conflict realities,
looks, listens, und erstand s, com pares, w rites, and proves that w hat has
been d efined as “peace”, in reality is still a “w ar after the w ar”. Thus, it is in
this space that the m ilitary and the civilian have to operate to secure people
and re-establish a secure life-m od es, provid ing dignity and hope for a better
future. This is not an acad em ic exercise. It is a hum an responsibility
because, quoting Sherlock H olm es, “it can be d angerous to theorize before
one has d ata. Insensibly, one begins to tw ist facts to suit theories, instead of
theories to suit facts”.
118
Visu al Ethnograp hies, Conflict and Secu rity
Chris Farrands
123
I shou ld like to acknow led ge help and / or ad vice at d ifferent tim es from Eva
Katsaiti, Roland Bleiker, Ilknu r Baltaci, David King, Jenny Matthew s, Step hen
Chan, Pau l Sheeran, H u gh Mosley, and esp ecially to Cerw yn Moore and Giovanni
Ercolani. Som e of the research for this p ap er w as su p p orted by N ottingham Trent
University research fu nd s. A m u ch earlier version w as given to a conference at
Birm ingham University in Ju ly 2009 and I am gratefu l for com m ents from the
conference organisers, Jill Steans and Cerw yn Moore, and to all those p articip ants
w ho offered d etailed com m ents and su ggestions on that d raft.
119
Chris Farrand s
120
Visu al Ethnograp hies, Conflict and Secu rity
‘perhaps’ because this is im portant, but not a d iscussion for this paper.
These evolutions in turn have effects on w hat people m ight experience as
security or insecurity, in w ays w hich w ill be explored shortly. What counts
as security m akes sense to a com m unity in the context of a w hole raft of
social assum ptions, expectations and practices, how ever unjustified or
prejud iced these m ay (som etim es) be. This w hole context is difficult to
separate from the specific political anthropology of security closely d efined
–includ ing the gossip, new m ed ia exchanges, Facebook postings and blog
entries, as w ell as m uch m ore longstand ing social assum ptions.
Visual ethnography has several d im ensions here. One m ain id ea is the
use of visual im ages m ad e by the researcher as a tool in her w ork. In this
context, the researcher is m ore in control both of the context and the w ays in
w hich im ages are m ad e and reprod uced . In this paper I am concerned w ith
the question of how visual im ages m ight m ake sense and contribute to an
und erstanding of violence w hen the photography w as not d one by the
researcher. There are good reasons for this w hich are d iscussed through the
paper. Although som e critics m ay see this is imm ed iately invalid ating the
w hole effort, by the end of this essay, I trust that the read er m ay be
d issuad ed from hold ing that view .
Visual ethnography or m ore generally uses of the visual in
anthropology, are as old as those field s them selves. El Guind i (2004)
provid es a useful history of this end eavour explaining the interest of many
of the found ers of anthropology in film and still im ages. H ow ever, El
Guid i’s ow n stud y is prim arily concerned w ith film and vid eo, and
although som e of these argum ents carry into discussion of still photography
m any of them are only tangentially relevant here. Banks (2001) suggests a
range of specific research strategies in the id entification of visual d ata and
the ground ing of an analytic fram e for ethnograp hic research to w hich this
paper ow es som e acknow led gem ent. But it is Sarah Pink (2003, 2007, 2008)
w ho has probably d one m ore than anyone else in the recent acad em ic
literature to d evelop strategies and bound aries for the use of film , vid eo and
still im ages in ethnography, and her w ork provides a pow erful im petus for
further stud y, includ ing this paper.
The starting point for this argum ent is that photography in conflict
situations provid es an im portant potential resource for the researcher, that
121
Chris Farrand s
122
Visu al Ethnograp hies, Conflict and Secu rity
m aker but also their ow n ed itor. One dim ension of the paper is to ask w hat
value the im m ed iate images gathered and diffused through the new m ed ia
such as Facebook and tw itter have in the analysis of contem porary conflict –
if any.
We m ight argue that security and insecurity have been central concepts
in alm ost all political debate, as w ell as in m uch sociology, for centuries,
and then still recognise that since roughly the end of the Cold War, the
term s of that d ebate have significantly changed . An und erstanding of
insecurity and securitization has evolved w hich is m uch m ore com plex and
sophisticated that that generally held by w riters in acad em ic international
relations in the Cold War period , and perhaps earlier (there is a d ebate to be
had here w hich I am not going to engage now ). The prim ary reason for the
d ebate to w hich this paper contributes is that there is a sense that the d ebate
on critical security stud ies (see Fierke, 2007, Dannreuther, 2007) w ithin
international relations has gone about as far as it can, and that the baton can
be taken up and m oved forw ard by a dialogue betw een critical security
stud ies and som e form of anthropological stud ies (political anthropology,
ethnography, analysis of the rituals and everyd a y practices of form s of
violence and so on). Giovanni Ercolani has mad e a significant contribution
to the d ebate on how political anthropology m ight illuminate (or in his
view , perhaps, supplant?) critical security stud ies as a w ay of making sense
of hum an experience of security and insecurity (Ercolani, 2012). This
touches on the relationship betw een anthropology and international
relations, an interesting but very large question w hich this paper d oes not
try to pursue.
Barry Buzan (1991) initiated a thorough-going revision of concepts of
security in international relations at the end of the Cold War, a debate
w hich he furthered in later publications and in collaborative w ork w ith
others (e.g. Buzan, Waever and d e Wild e, 1998). The shift of focus is one of
content –from state security to hum an or societal security. But it is also a
shift to a different set of ethical concerns. And if presents a distinctive
know led ge parad igm . It integrates d om estic d ebates about risk and security
123
Chris Farrand s
w ith international politics, w here trad itional approaches to security stud ies
(‘m ilitary strategy’) had generally kept d ebate about the tw o separated . It
takes questions about id entity, risk and technology m uch m ore seriously
alongsid e trad itional questions w hich have not d isappeare d , includ ing
appropriate force structures, institutional arrangem ents for security and the
econom ic basis of military capability. These new security agend as have
includ ed the com plex issues of food , energy, w ater and environm ental
security, all of w hich have both m arket d im ensions and social psychological
and political d im ensions w hich can lead to the conclusion that they are the
focus of a process of ‘d ouble securitization’ (Farrand s, 2010b). In this w ork
there is a shift tow ard s a (contend ed ) notion of hu m an security and a m uch
greater priority put on the risks and d angers w hich has com e to m atter as
part of the norm al agenda of acad em ic international relations.
Buzan and others (Buzan, 1991, Buzan, Waever, d e Wild e, 1998, Dillon,
1996, Fierke, 2007, MacSw eeney, 1999) have argued that security is
constructed in specific contexts and w ithin the bound aries of certain kind s
of know led ge. Security is at the sam e tim e a m atter of everyd ay experience
and of fund am ental id entity. In m ore philosophical language, it concerns
both being-in-the-w orld and Being. It is possible to point to security
d iscourses and their interaction w ith how people und erstand insecurity
(Dillon, 1996) but it is not possible to pin d ow n w hat counts as security
except in an id eal (unrealisable) sense. But it is possible to ask basic
questions about security w hich help to take the d ebate forw ard aw ay from
the lim iting fram ew ork of state security und erstood as a m ilitarised
hegem onic regim e or as an apparatus for the im position of the pow er of the
state on its unconsenting (and , often, unknow ing) citizens. These questions
open up a critical space: security for w hom ? Security as the elimination of
risk or as its arbitrage –if the latter in w hose favour, if the form er, by w hat
m eans has risk been elim inated if that is possible at all? Does the assertion
of security tend tow ard s the construction of a sovereign subject identity or
d oes it listen to the subjectivity of those it confronts (Ed kins et al, 1999, Jabri,
1998)? H ow are resources m anaged in insecurity d iscourses and how does
that in turn create inequalities (the question can be reform ed as ‘w hat is the
political econom y of insecurity?’) (Farrand s, 2010b). Does the focus on the
political or political econom y of security underm ine the possibility of a
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Visu al Ethnograp hies, Conflict and Secu rity
coherent social being (MacSw eeney’s critique of Buzan et al)? The purpose
of these questions is to reform ulate an und erstand ing of global social and
political relations aw ay from the trad ition of state centred security stud ies.
It vastly extend s the scope of w hat is at issue in thinking about security, and
creates an intellectual space w ithin w hich non -governm ental organisations,
private interests, global corporations and social m ovem ents contend to
securitize particular issues and to shape governm ent policies w hich relate to
their concerns. The concept of hum an security d raw s attention to the global
interests of hum ankind in food , d isease and clim ate change issues as
security questions w hich d em and quite different kind s of und erstanding
and quite d ifferent kind s of action from the trad itional agend as (Fierke,
2007, Dannreuther, 2007). ‘H um an security’ is also supposed to put
ind ivid uals and their experience in a central place in these d ebates, but this
is not alw ays the case. The attention to individ uals interacting in small
groups w hich has alw ays been a focus of ethnographic stud y is one reason
w hy a specifically ethnographic approach to visual im ages of conflict and
insecurity brings som ething new to the d ebate –even m ore rad ical
approaches to con flict stud ies tend tow ard s institutional analysis w hich,
und eniably im portant, tend s to contrad ict the claim s of those w riters on
critical security stud ies w ho aim to set hum an experience at the heart of
their w ork (for a broad er d iscussion of conflict stu d ies, see H o-Won Jeong,
2008).
Security in this m ore recent und erstand ing is precarious and com plex.
Insecurity represents a set of risks w hich are m uch broad er than specific
threats. Insecurity d oes not only arise from the ‘clear and present d angers’
w hich form the rhetoric of m uch Am erican foreign policy. Insecurity is at
once system ic and im med iately personal, specifically political and societal
in the broad est sense. One of Buzan’s m ain contributions to these d ebates
w as to argue that although enlarged concepts of security had a pow erful
force, the trad itional agend a of security –state, territory, political system ,
social ord er- had not d isappeared , and furtherm ore that, d espite the
evolution of international organizations and sub -state political m ovem ents.
The sovereign state remained the principal m eans by w hich security issues
could be arbitrated and m anaged . Buzan continues to hold that the state is
ind ispensable for security even though it may have lost control over w hat
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Chris Farrand s
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Visu al Ethnograp hies, Conflict and Secu rity
im portance of both context and of read ing different levels of m eaning into
an im age, but m ost of all they w arn against any closure w hich tries to
determine the (singular) m eaning of an im age. Derrid a, d iscussing the force
of the photographic im age, (2010) typically supports the tw o main
argum ents here, that context is everything in understand ing the m eaning of
im ages, and that any attem pt to close d ow n the interpretation of m eanings
into a neat basket of representations and identities is bound to fall short of
its goal of m aking sense of the subject of the picture in question. Context is
vitally im portant, but there are, as this essay w ill argue later, d ifferent
‘read ing’ strategies w hich one might bring to bear on visual im ages, and
these strategies go beyond both the authorial intentions of the ph otographer
and the context in w hich ind ivid ual shots are m ade.
Visual ethnography has evolved as a sub -field of ethnography
concerned w ith w hat John Berger explored in his influential W ays of Seeing
(1972), the id ea that w hat w e see and how w e see are so closely connected e
m ight argue they are mutually constitutive, and socially form ed , that w hat
w e see pred ates any verbal language w e acquire. Languages w e share
includ e the visual environm ent w e inhabit and describe, w hich form s w hat
Lud w ig Wittgenstein m ight have called a d istinctive ‘form of life’. Berger’s
attem pt to explore visual und erstand ing w as partly d irected at
und erm ining a conventional aesthetic centred account, but he d iscusses
photography and ad vertising as w ell as painting and the high arts, as
Roland Barthes did in his im portant stud y of the visual environm ent w hich
photography surround s us, Camera Lucida (2000). Susan Sontag (1979, 2004),
m ore sceptically, exam ines how w e read photographic im ages and how
claim s are m ad e for the capability of photography to shape sensibilities and
record events w ith a truth that transcend s the everyd ay sentim entality or
personal m eaning of the pictures people m ight put on the table or w all. All
of these authors, w ho have all also been photographers –Sontag w ith great
d istinction- refer explicitly back to Benjam in’s essay on autom ated
reprod uction and kitsch, ‘The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical
Reprod uction’ (Benjam in, 1999). These notions of the social construction,
social use and social pow er of visual im ages provid e a platform for the
m ore specific kind s of questions w hich a visual ethnography of violence
and insecurity can pursue. In this construction process, there are a number
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Chris Farrand s
of d ifferent sim ultaneous d ialogues, and the focus of any kind of analysis
rests on the exploration of those d ialogues and the m eanings w hich they
create, encapsulate or exclud e (Moore and Farrand s, 2010; Farrand s, 2010a).
These d ialogues legitimately includ e one betw een the photographer, her
subject(s) and the view er; they also includ e one betw een the im ages and
their context, and a d istinct interrogation betw een view ers and their ow n
context through w hich they evaluate im ages presented to them .
Can photography provid e any basis for know led ge claim s (in any
subject field )? While it is easy enough to reject naively optim istic claim s
(‘the cam era never lies’), it is not so easy to id entify w hen and w here w e can
claim to have any und erstand ing of social life from visual im ages. This is all
the m ore an issue w here m any of the strategies of visual ethnography seem
to rely on the cam era operator being the researcher and using photographic
im ages as a w ay of telling a story enriched beyond w ord s by the im ages
w hich they ow n and have taken them selves, and w h ich they take
responsibility for, and w here they have the ability to interpret layers of
m eaning from the context in as m uch d etail or in as many d im ensions as
they think are necessary to construct a coherent and justified account
(Pinney, 2011, Banks 2001). H ere I am specifically not concerned w ith
im ages I have taken. I am not a w ar photographer, although I have taken
and som etim es d eveloped , enlarged or photoshopped pictures I have taken.
I can claim som e und erstand ing of the technology, but this paper is not
about im ages for w hich I have any d irect responsibility. While this is not to
d isclaim responsibility for the use of im ages that w ill be cited in this paper
in any w ay, it is evid ently quite d ifferent.
Furtherm ore, to ask this question is im m ed iately to confront one of the
great contributions to d ebate on uses and abuses of photographic images in
the available literature. Susan Sontag, in her Concerning the Pain of Others,
has expressed a d eeply ground ed scepticism about w hat w e m ight learn
from im ages if w e claim they tell not just ‘the’ truth, but any truth at all. She
ad d s to that a m easure of scepticism about the kind of em pathy w hich a
photograph might create in its view er. Stephen Chan (2010) has augm ented
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Visu al Ethnograp hies, Conflict and Secu rity
this argum ent w ith an argum ent of his ow n w hich, pow erfully w ritten and
carefully argued , underpins Sontag’s case against interpretation. For this is
an argum ent against interpretation as a w hole. Even if w e have som e d irect
experience of conflict, w hich, thankfully, m any people w ill not have, w e
should be w ary of bringing that experience to bear on the experience of
others in a picture. People –victim s, survivors, perpetrators, or those w hom
Maya Zehfuss (2004) has called victim / perpetrators- have a unique
experience of their ow n w hich is usurped by a claim that ‘I feel your pain’.
A rape victim m ay em pathise w ith another; a person w ho has seen their
child killed in Tahrir Square m ay (perhaps) be able to com m unicate more
easily than others w ith som eone w ho has lost a close relative or friend m ore
recently in Syria. But m ost of us are not in that position, and should not
pretend that w e can be ‘w ith them ’ or even (a favourite term of Christian
helpers) ‘alongsid e them ’ in any very m eaningful w ay w ithout great care
and reflection. This argum ent extend s to the w ays in w hich w e m ight view
visual im ages. It also begs a question of how w e learn to look at
photographs and how w e m ake sense of them in everyd ay life w hich the
paper returns to later. Sym pathy here is a natural em otion; but it is also a
d angerous pointer tow ard s a sentim entalisation w hich d ead ens a m ore
critical and careful response.
This is partly an argum ent about representation –w hether any kind of
representation of the Other person is possible either ethically or, ind eed , at
all. The ontological condition of the Other is at a sharp d istance from each
person encountering them / . Any representation asserts m y ow n
subjectivity over theirs; any representation co-opts their subjectivity to mine
and so d enies it; any representation asserts a closu re of their id entity w hich,
although actually im possible nonetheless m akes a bid to subjugate the
Other. These argum ents, m ostly d erived d irectly or ind irectly from Derrida,
are w ell know n (Ricoeur 1992, Jabri, 1998), but they d o not negate the
possibility of d ifferent kind s of relationship to that Other. The photographer
m ight present rather than represent the subject, by allow ing them agency in
the taking of the photograph, but allow ing them to construct the narrative
the photograph suggest (at least as far as possible –there w ill alw ays be a
lim itation to the subjects authority in the im age making process). The im age
m ight also fail as a representation of the Other but suggest m etaphorical
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Chris Farrand s
sense in w hich the status of an im age m ight restore or create m ean ing anew
(again there are potential im portant problem s w ith this suggestion, w hich
w ill be d eveloped below ). One further conceivable relationship is that the
photographer or view er allow the subject of an im age into a dialogue w ith
them in w hich the negotiation pow er is not all on their (photographer or
view er’s) sid e. This assum es that som e kind of subjectivity on the part of the
subject is possible, but goes beyond that to construct a d ialogue in w hich
their voice carries significance. H ow this d ialogue m ight becom e possible is
a function of several cond itions, not least the aw areness or recognition of
the view er, w hich in turn evokes their im age literacy, their ability to read
these kind s of texts. H ow ever, this is
also an argum ent about w itnesses and w itnessing. It asks w ho should,
w ho can, bear w itness in a case such as the Rw and an Genocid e of 1994. The
response m ight not be that a photographer intrud ing on a scene can hold
that role; but it might also be that bearing w itness is one of the clearest roles
w hich sensitively planned photojournalism can play.
H ow m ight one respond to the Sontag/ Chan argum ent? One part of an
answ er is to interrogate the w ay in w hich w e look at visual im ages. And
one part of a response is also to interrogate the social function of visual
im ages includ ing photography. And a further elem ent of a reply is to ask
how im ages are used , and to think how one m ight d raw on tools of
reflexivity to respond to photographic im ages.
It m ay be that the response proposed here to the Sontag/ Chan
argum ent is relevant, and m aybe even a helpful clarification; but that it is
also inad equate. Sontag’s ow n answ er to the dilem m as her argum ent create
is blood y mind ed : although there is no solution to the problem of the
interpretation of photographic im ages she id entifies, she asserts, there is no
alternative but to keep trying to take honest photographs, and to keep
trying to find interpretations w ith as m uch integrity as w e can m uster. This
is so even though she suspects that w e are bound to fail in the attem pt. But
the struggle is better than quiescence. The critique of conventional
sentim entality in photographic interpretation is w ell m ad e, and the
question of interpretation is no d oubt alw ays a struggle, a conflict w ithin a
series of d ialogues, as Ricoeur notes in a d ifferent context (Ricoeur, 1974,
1978). The case m ad e here is that perhaps one can be a little less pessim istic
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Visu al Ethnograp hies, Conflict and Secu rity
than Sontag if one id entifies other functions and other d ialogues w hich
constitute parts of the relationship betw een photographe r, im age subject
and view er.
One of the m ost fam ous w ar photographs of the tw entieth century, the
im age of a Spanish Civil War sold ier falling backw ard s in the m oment he
has been hit in an attack, has been claim ed to be ‘faked’. 124 In other w ord s,
the picture w as set up. It is as if the photographer, Robert Capa, says to the
view er ‘it m ight have been like this, but it w asn’t’. This at first sight seem s
im m ensely reprehensible, if the allegation is true. Many com m entators reply
to the accusation by saying that Capa clearly end angered him self m any
tim es to get the im age he w anted , that he w as a great artist, that he nearly
d ied on the N orm and y beaches in an attem pt to get the shots he w anted ,
and that both his artistic integrity and his professional integrity should be
sufficient to w ard off the accusations, w hich w ere only m ad e long after the
events he portrayed . One m ight not d oubt his integrity, yet this raises a
slightly d ifferent question. The fam ous im ages of Abu Ghraib are at one a nd
the sam e tim e ‘real’: shocking im ages and w holly faked constructions
created by a team of prison officers for their ow n am usem ent, but also, so
they apparently thought, so that they could becom e fam ous through the
publication of these im ages on social m edia. Although this is an extrem e
case, it m ight lead one to think that all images have a certain integrity of
their ow n, even if it is rem ote from the intentions of the im age m aker, and
all photographic im ages have at the sam e tim e the quality of m ad e -upness,
of construction, of lack of authenticity. The Abu Ghraib pictures tell a truth
of their ow n. Sontag (1979) suggests this am biguity about all photographic
im ages even before one starts to question how it is possible to respond to
such im ages, a question she then explored in her later essay (2004). 125
124
http :/ / w w w .tc.p bs.org/ w net/ am ericanm asters/ files/ 2008/ 08/ cap a_essay_01.jp
g
125
The p oint is recognisable in im ages of Sontag herself; com p are the follow ing:
http :/ / w w w .su sansontag.com / Su sanSontag/ im ages/ su sanBioIm age01.jp g and
http :/ / i2.listal.com / im age/ 1057041/ 600fu ll-su san-sontag.jp g
131
Chris Farrand s
132
Visu al Ethnograp hies, Conflict and Secu rity
and their ow n cultural context than any other story -m aker can. This is, of
course, as m uch a problem of w hat is m eant by truth as of the possibilities
of fakery. The arguably naïve d esire of a photographer to ‘tell a better truth ’
by re-arranging the d etails of a picture seem unexceptionable in the context
of w hat painters such as Goya or Paul N ash –surely truth tellers?- have
d one in w ar im ages. Pictures can tell stories, and groups of pictures can
narrate a sequence of events as a com plex reality, w hich is to say that they
can never be sim ple truths, as William E. Connolly’s argum ent (2005) that
there are m ultiple truths w hich are com patible w ith each other in various
w ays d istinct from falsehood also im plies.
There are a num ber of stand ard im ages of conflict, recognisable tropes,
often perhaps clichés. These im ages are repetitions of im ages one can find in
every conflict and every new spaper or blog. These representations give us
pow erful im ages w hich resonate in one w ay if w e know som ething about
the history of w ar photography and resonate in other w ays to a view er
com ing quite cold to the im age. Specific im ages create a pornography of
violence in w hich the view er com es to consume an im age for their ow n
purpose at the expense of the ind ivid uality as w ell as the experience of the
Other. 127 This d efinition is intend ed to put som e responsibility on the
view er’s gaze for the construction of pornography as w ell as id entifying
som ething about th e im age itself and its creator’s intentions. This m ay
involve, but d oes not need to involve, im ages w hich have a m ore evid ently
sexual content. Everyd ay journalism m ay look for the truth, but w hether or
not journalists are looking for a truth, ed itors and m anagers are looking for
the im age w hich attracts attention. Ultim ately, the choice of w hich pictures
take prim ary places on the front covers of new spapers and (even more)
127
I have in m ind Kevin Carter’s p ictu re of a vu ltu re stalking a d ying child in
Su d an, a great im age like the N achtw ey p ictu re cit ed earlier, bu t also a terrifying
im age of resp onsibility, a resp onsibility Carter him self fou nd u nbearable:
http s:/ / lh3.googleu sercontent.com / -
PAm r30WkSw s/ T3lN yu ITMm I/ AAAAAAAADzE/ nY_6nbVw GKg/ Su d anese-
Vu ltu re.jp g
133
Chris Farrand s
134
Visu al Ethnograp hies, Conflict and Secu rity
128
http :/ / sw ick.co.u k/ ind ex.p hp / 2009/ 06/ 12-of-the-m ost-iconic-p hotograp hs-
ever-taken/
129
See for exam p le: http :/ / w w w .skylighters.org/ p hotos/ w ho.jp g and
http :/ / travel67.files.w ord p ress.com / 2011/ 10/ cap a-germ anp ow s.jp g -the form er
an ind ivid u al sold ier in the su rf and the latter an im age of Germ an p risoners
cap tu red by US troop s, both on Om aha Beach.
135
Chris Farrand s
know n im ages even m ore com m onplace in such a w ay that they tend to lose
the force of im pact they can have; fam iliarity breed s, if not contem pt , then at
least a d ulling of sensibility and jud gm ent. But if im ages can have a
num bing effect, they can also have a fresh and pow erful im pact, as the
exam ples consid ered below d o, and also as the range of m aterial put
together by the Afghan photographer Zahria of child labour suggests.130
From the critique w hich has been d eveloped so far, one m ight conclud e
either that photography has nothing to tell us about w ar and conflict, and
that it contributes nothing to our und erstand ing of insecurity, or one m ight
say that the m ethod ology of how w e m ake sense of still im ages need s to be
rebuilt. That is the task this paper initiates but cannot com plete. The focus is
valid if it is shifted onto the subject of the im age rather than the skill of the
photographer. It is valid if it takes ethical questions into account –it d oes not
need to resolve them , but it cannot ignore them . The param eters of an
ethnography of insecurity are to respect and includ e the insecurity of the
Other person, and not merely to use the Other person as a m eans to an end ,
even if that end if in itself relevant or valuable. This basic principal, a
refinement of the Kantian im perative filtered through the w riting of Levinas
and Ricoeur, shapes the gaze of the photographer and the approach of the
view er at the sam e time.
Let m e now com e to the point. I w ould argue, in the face of some
possible scepticism , that visual im ages might present (at least) six
d istinctive w ays of reading insecurity thr ough their ability to engage and
hold a view er. These are:
(i) Metaphor: even if one suspects the ability of photographs to tell a literal
truth of any kind , it is also possible to explore and elaborate m etaphor in
im age m aking. Som e of the m ost im pressiv e photography fails the ‘is it
true?’ test w hile provid ing m etaphorical narratives w hich can be valid in
130
See for exam p le: http :/ / w w w .zoriah.net/ blog/ 2009/ 04/ gu est-
p hotograp herp hotojou rnalist-gm b-akash-child -labor.htm l
136
Visu al Ethnograp hies, Conflict and Secu rity
them selves. Although they still have to pass the test of respect for the
subject of the im age, they m ay have other functions than a d irect
presentation of the subject as she/ he w ould w ant. 131 The ‘rule of m etaphor’
w hich characterises an im portant elem ent in Ricoeur’s (1978) approach to
interpretation provides a d ouble-ed ged sense of how interpretive
und erstanding s constituted (d ouble ed ged because the ‘rule’ could be a
principle or a disciplinary regim e, but can also be both at once). This is also
an im portant quality, even if am biguous, in Jam es N achtw ey’s w ork
d iscussed below .
(ii) Presenting the subject: an honest and insightful photographer has the
ability to let the subject present herself. The image w ill be partial and no
d oubt there w ill be other stories to tell. But the im age itself w ill present a
valid story if it lets the subject tell their story, w hatever that is. This is
im possible if the photographer d oes not und erstand the context, the
personal history, the fears and d esires, of their subject. But the possibility
that a photographic image can assert the subjectivity of an ind ivid ual w hose
gaze back into the lens hold s the view er and com pels their ethical and
intellectual attention is alw ays im portant. Jenny Matthew s’s w ork, also
d iscussed below in m ore d etail, points am ong other things tow ard s this
kind of quality in image m aking. Both in m etaphorical im age m aking and in
the presentation of the subject, specific languages of the image m atter
enorm ously. Confronted w ith a surplus of meaning, the view er has to
choose betw een conflicting interpretations (Ricoeur, 1974, Taylor, 1998,
Derrid a )
131
For exam p le the com p lex im ages in the tw o bed fram e p ictu res:
137
Chris Farrand s
in many conflict zones (Darfur, DRC, Pakistan, South Sud an, but also the
south sid e of Los Angeles, as w ell as El Salvador and too m any others to
nam e here). Conventional liberal read ings of global security take insecurity
as unnatural and violence as an aberration, hoping that insecurities can be
elim inated by good m anagem ent and effective institutional arrangem ents.
Visual ethnography starts w ith the experience of those w hose life it tries to
und erstand as it is evid enced in their behaviour, life style, attitud es, fears
and relationships. In many cases these hold violence and insecurity as a
central part of everyd ay life and not an asid e. Photographic images provid e
one w ay of beginning to m ake sense of that experience w ithout excuse or
justification. But this kind of interpretation is never m erely ‘com m on sense’
and it should alw ays be expected to rem aining com plete.
(iv) Making sense of the experience of others: the visual im age captures
som ething about the experience of other people. It tells their story. It may
w ell give clues from the background as to the context as m uch as from the
m ain im age. This is the function of photography w hich one might be m ost
leery about, especially in the light of the Sontag/ Chan argum ent. As has
alread y been d iscussed , Sontag also argues that the d angers an d pitfalls of
interpretation of em pathy for another through photographs d oes not
necessarily prevent one from trying, but it is problem atic at least.
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Visu al Ethnograp hies, Conflict and Secu rity
(vi) What im ages m ight tell us w hich no other med ium can articulate? It is
possible to find w ays of articulating m eanings across from one m ed ium to
another, so that, for exam ple, particular things can be said , or intim ated or
im plied , in w ord s or m usic; other id eas m ight be conveyed equally in poetry
or in painting. But it is not a very controversial point to argue that w hat is
m ost im portant about prose, m usic, poetry or painting is w hat is
untranslatable from each, w hat is specific to that peculiar m ed ium . In the
sam e w ay, still im ages m ight be seen as h aving a specific force of
com m unication, and ability to resonate and capture experiences and feed it
back to the view er. 132 The unique force of photographic im ages, separate
from other kind s of graphic w ork but also separate from m oving film , is at
issue here. This m ight take a num ber of form s, but one d im ension of this
w hich clearly m atters in d ebates about security and insecurity is m em ory
(Rolleston, 2004). Im ages in photographs have the pow er to shock, to
d istract, to shift assum ptions and to challenge w h at view ers had thought
they rem embered . Steven Poliakoff suggests a chain of im plications from
visual im ages w hich at the sam e tim e recapture and question received
m em ories in a television d ram a, Shooting the Past (1999) w hich explores the
am biguity and uniqueness of visual im ages as w ell as any acad em ic
analysis.
(vii) It is clear from this d iscussion and from other sources (Rolleston, 2004)
that photography has the potential to play a central part in the construction
and reconstruction of id entities. Im ages of com m unity and shared
experience such as the m em orialisation of the second w orld w ar as w ell as
m ore recent events shape how new generations of a society m ake sense of
their past and so und erstand them selves. But as Rolleston suggests in his
account of changing Germ an self-im ages, this is a continuously changing
process of re-im agination.
132
N achtw ey’s im age of a child and a sold ier in the DRC, w here the sold ier is
looking u p a street and the child hid es ju st behind him rou nd the corner. We d o not
see or know w hat they are looking at u p the street bu t it is clearly a sou rce of great
insecu rity: http :/ / farm 4.static.flickr.com / 3585/ 5805037640_c3b13055a6.jp g
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It m ight then be said that one significant d anger in the w ays in w hich
photography is used is that these separate partial truth telling strategies are
not recognised (Clifford , 1986), or are confused by those w ho d o not
recognise them as particular strategies, or w ho mistake one for another. This
in turn points tow ard s an area of d iscussion that this paper w ill not pursue,
the visual illiteracy of a large proportion of view ers of com plex im ages. I am
not sure that any professional photographer is unaw are of these questions,
or w ho d oes not w orry how a particular im age w ill be read and interpreted ,
or w ho has not on occasion junked im ages they thought w ere pow erful or
even beautiful because they w ere fairly sure that they w ould be
m isinterpreted if they w ere w id ely available.
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w hich they m ight point tow ard s; although these m ight be illum inating, they
point to other questions and other m ethod ologies (critical geopolitics; the
built environm ent as an arena of conflict; narratives of the spaces of
violence) w hich might be the subject of other d ebates. It focuses m ore
particularly on the kind of im ages w hich are illustrated in the analysis of the
w ork of N achtw ey and Matthew s w hich interroga tes in the individ ual
subject in the face of violence. This confronts the question of subjectivity
and responsibility that others (notably Cam pbell, 2003, and Ed kins, Persram
and Pin-Fat, 1999) engage. Specific im ages capture our attention because the
subject looks at us and hold s our interest, but also d em and our ethical gaze.
They d o so w hether they look d irectly at us or w hether their ow n gaze is
m ore oblique.
7. D raw ing on Specific Cases: Jenny Matthew s and James N achtw ey.
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force, and they tell pow erful stories. But they d o not often allow subjects to
present them selves, and they offer com pelling images at the expense of the
ind ivid uality of their subjects. We never know their names; they are generic
im ages. They tell stories, and they inform the view er in specific w ays. They
have also often been achieved at great personal risk. But their beauty is also
a part of their problem, one m ight suspect. Tw o im a ges, one of recent
violence in Tripoli in Libya and one from Sudan capture this ambiguity
very clearly.133
Matthew s ad opts a d ifferent approach w hich presents her subjects to
the view er (Matthew s, 2003). H er im ages involve a m ore critical approach to
the construction of the im age w hich is explicitly d irected to three
d im ensions of conflict. First of all, she now rarely takes pictures of actual
fighting, although she has d one so in the past. Instead , she is attem pting to
gauge the im pact of violence and to interrogate som e of the assum ptions a
view er m ight have. In the process, she is one of the m ost effective in her
field at allow ing the subject to present them selves. This is in part a reflection
of professional experience, but it also reflects a fem inist concern w ith the
w ays in w hich w om en are treated in m uch other conflict photography, and
d em onstrates an ethical concern w ith the w om en she portrays in the series
Wom en and War in particular. In both her im age of a girl in Afghanistan
taken for Care International to prom ote w om en’s ed ucation 134 and in Fina 135,
these concerns are pow erfully evid ent. In Goya’s fam ous im age of the
Shootings of the 3rd of M ay, a group of Spanish nationalist resistors are shot
by French troops a d ay after a failed uprising in 1807. 136 The resistors stand
out, especially the central figure in a w hite shirt; the French execution squad
are faceless and rem orseless, w ith their backs to the focus of the im age (the
‘cam era’, except of course the im age is a painting). We see the im age
133
Resp ectively http :/ / w w w .ncsx.com / 2012/ 020612/ H u ngeree/ trip oli_bu llet.jp g
and http :/ / w w w .u nfp a.org/ sw p / 2005/ im ages/ Chap 8.jp g
134
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through a series of planes w hich the artist constructs for the view er w hich
includ es as one level his ow n gaze. In the same vein, Matthew s is w ell
aw are of w hich faces she w ants to d irect to the view er, and how they m ight
interrogate the view er w ho is interrogating t hem . The picture of Fina,
especially, looks at first sight very like survivor porn of the kind that N GOs
have often been accused of exploiting. The young w oman has been
m utilated by gangs in Sierra Leone and looks back at the camera w ith a
kind of anger. But this is not how Matthew s took the picture. She talked at
length to her subject, asked her how she w anted to be pictured and gave her
the m ain d ecisions of how she w ould present herself. It is, of course, true
that Matthew s is a professional photographer w ho has probably m ad e quite
a lot of m oney out of the im ages she takes and sells as a freelance
photographer. But her care for the subject of her w ork is unrem itting, and
her concern to recognise the subject as an other person in her ow n right is
an im portant and very distinctive elem ent in m uch of her photojournalism .
Many of the sam e qualities are id entifiable in Penny Tw eedie’s com pelling
im age of a w om an em erging from the forest w ith her child ren carrying a
rifle at the end of the civil w ar in Banglad esh in 1971.137 In this image it is
im possible to ‘know ’ w hat the w om an know s, or und erstand the w orld
through her eyes, or to und erstand w hat she has experienced in any
com plete w ay; but the im age gives a series of glim pses and id eas w hich
am ong other things help the view er to und erstand how blurred the line
betw een peace and conflict are and how insecure the peace here might have
been.
8. Conclusions
My first purpose in this paper has been to m ap out an argum ent for
visual ethnography in the und erstanding of conflict and violence. The claim
m ad e is sim ply that visual ethnography is a coherent and ground ed w ay of
thinking w hich enables one to com e to grips w ith problem s of
und erstanding conflict and violence. Much m ore cautiously, it is also an
argum ent that a visual ethnography approach supplem ents both a m ore
137
http :/ / w w w .p anos.co.u k/ blog/ w p -content/ u p load s/ 2011/ 01/ 00128509.jp g
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here that w hile recognising these d angers, the read ing of the text of
photographic im ages can bring a fuller sense of the nature of human
experience by other m ore reflective m eans. The pa per suggests a num ber of
read ing strategies w hich rem ain valid in the face of both the critique of
em pathy and the critique of representation, w hich the essay spend s less
tim e d iscussing since it is relatively w ell rehearsed in other sources. These
read ing strategies are ground ed in m ethod ology d erived from Ricoeur and
Bourd ieu (and to a lesser extent a version of Gad am er’s herm eneutics)
w hich is consistent w ith (som e specific) contem porary w ays of trying to
m ake sense of violence through visual im ages w hich id entifies an area in
com m on betw een those three d isciplinary sub -field s to w hich this essay
relates (conflict/ peace stud ies in international relations, ethnography and
political anthropology).
Finally (fourth), this essay tries to examine some of the ethical issues
w hich run through the reflective m ethod ologies w hich the paper consid ers.
It d oes so aw are of the possibility w hich other scholars also touch on, that
easy assum ptions about interpretive strategies lead to unethical as w ell as
unground ed argum ents.
Quite a lot rem ains undone in this paper, includ ing the question of the
d ifferences betw een ‘new ’ and ‘old ’ m ed ia and the im pact of visual im ages
on social netw orking sites on the practices of securitisation, violence and
resistance. The paper has also mad e no attem pt to d evelop som e of the trails
it has initiated beyond the brief exploration of the w ork of only tw o
photographers am ong hund red s w orking in the field . This serves to
illustrate the possibility of visual pathw ays to better und erstandin g of
security. But if the paper achieves that, it is long enough alread y, and no
apology is necessary for w hat it cannot cover here.
I have no intention of claim ing to have d one more in this essay than
open up these m ain questions for d ebate and critique, build ing, as w as
noted early in the paper, on a valuable extensive literature on visual
ethnography w hich ahs not, how ever, explored conflict and insecurity in
any d etail. There is no definite ‘answ er’ here, and I am inclined to think that
there could not be a definitive answ er to these questions. H ow ever, one
m ight at the sam e tim e suggest that there is a com pelling ethical basis for an
und erstanding of violence w hich sets in question the everyd ay nature of
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hum an experience of the d ram a of conflict and the extraord inary suffering
w hich w e find , and to w hich visual im ages are capable of bearing w itness.
That is, at bottom , w hat good photographers m ight claim -not that they
represent others or that they interpret their experience, but that they enable
the bearing of w itness. They enable, no d oubt in som e flaw ed and
incom plete form , the subjectivity of the subject of photography to be
articulated . This is w hat Jenny Matthew s has claim ed of her ow n w ork at its
best, and it is consid ered response to critics w hich carries a great d eal of
w eight. We encounter those people w hen w e look carefully and slow ly at an
im age, and then, as the painter Lucien Freud insisted in his ow n approach
to a portrait subject, w e look again and then look again, as photographers
them selves look again and again. This is an ethical encounter w ith the face
of the Other even if it is not an encounter w ith the w hole person of the
other. That m eans that the view er of images has a responsibility in how they
look at im ages w hich m ay be at once n ecessary (essential) and im possible to
fully d ischarge. This is a d ilem m a w hich has part of its source in the
Levinassien ethics w hich Ricouer m od ifes and integrates into his account of
m em ory and interpretation w ith w hich this author is not in disagreem en t.
Ethical questions therefore inform the reading strategies w hich this
paper has suggested . But there are specific textual strategies proposed here
beyond the generalised m ethod ological and ethical analysis. More
obliquely, I am also concerned at the lack of visual ed ucation am ong people
w ho, it w as suggested earlier, are m ore d epend ent on visual im ages and
visual stim uli than pretty m uch any culture before, at least in the m od ern
w orld . This lack of sophistication m ay be som ething one has to accept; but it
m eans that a highly d eveloped vocabulary of im age, m etaphor and
response shared in dialogue is not available to m any people. It also m eans
that, w hile w e are all vulnerable to unscrupulous m anipulation by im ages
and film, the majority of people on w hom d emocratic institutions depend
are less able to d efend them selves against that m anipulation than they
generally believe. Bluntly, visual m eanings and visual m anipulations
express, present and represent violence to view ers continuously; visual
ethnographies provid e the possibility of critique and the possibilities of
sense-m aking w ithout w hich, in an age of fast moving pictures and im age
overload , w e m ay sim ply be lost. If one w orks in ed ucation, w hatever the
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Photographic sources
For copyright and convenience reasons, I have not includ ed any images in
this text, although there is a Pow erpoint presentation w hich accom panies it.
All the im ages referred to in this text are freely available via Google Im ages.
All the pictures by Jenny Matthew s referred to here are held in the im perial
War Museum (Lond on) archives and previously form ed part of her
exhibition there Wom en and War.
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The Psychology of Peacekeep ing: One Dom ain Where Political Realism …
Harvey Langholtz
1. Introduction
While the field of international relations has been largely occupied and
controlled by political scientists, law yers, econom ists, and military leaders,
in this paper w e w ill exam ine international relations, w ar, collective
security, and peacekeeping from the perspectives of anthropology and
psychology. In this paper I w ill show that the psychology and a nthropology
of international relations as w ell as the psychology and anthropology of w ar
have changed , and these changes need to be reflected in new theoretical
explanations and hopefully the useful application of these new theories. My
goal w ill be to exp lore w ays to link the tools provid ed by anthropological
stud ies to the ones from security stud ies and to construct a new fram ew ork
in w hich anthropology and security stud ies w ill com plem ent each other and
contribute to the und erstand ing of security. This w ill – w e hope – be our
contribution to Critical Security Stud ies as d iscussed by Booth in his 2005
book “Critical Security Stud ies and World Politics”.
There is an unattributable quote that d iplom ats know w ell. It is “War
represents the failure of d iplom acy”. (Som e attribute this quote to Tony
Benn of the UK and Mem ber of Parliam ent, but there is no consensus in
this). But I subm it to you that w ar represents not only the failure of
d iplom acy, but also the failure of psychology, anthropology, sociology,
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political science, economics, international relations, security stud ies, and all
the other social sciences broad ly d efined . Perhaps it should be our goal as
anthropologists, psychologists, and social scientists to und erstand w hat
anthropology and the other social sciences can construct in term s of theories
that go beyond trad itional Security Stud ies, to Critical Security Stud ies. In
m any w ays the tim e is quite ripe for m oving beyond trad itional Security
Stud ies. The realities of the environm ent of international relations have
evolved since the realities that led to the d evelopm ent of trad itional Security
Stud ies.
Trad itional Security Stud ies d eveloped d uring the 20th century – a
century characterized by w arfare betw een the major pow ers – either actual
w ar d uring WWI and II, or threatened w ar d uring the Cold War. During
World War I and II sovereign nations sent their uniform ed sold iers to meet
on the battlefield s, or in the air or on the w ater. The Cold War w as of
course also a confrontation betw een sovereign nat ions. H ow ever, w ars of
the 21st Century are m ore likely to be und eclared w ars, or civil w ars,
characterized by ethnic cleansing, genocid e, and a blurring of any
separation betw een the sold iers on the battlefield and the civilians w ho live
on it. In m any w ays Critical Security Stud ies and Critical Security Theory,
w ith its challenges to TSS is m ore appropriate for the realities of the 21st
Century, just as TSS m ay have been appropriate for the realities of the 20th
Century.
Let’s take a step back to international relations as they existed for
centuries. What is the history of Europe but the history of w arfare? What is
the stud y of security but the stud y of the tensions betw een sovereign
nations and how those tensions are played out betw een those sovereign
nations? And w hat are the assum ptions and theories about the psychology
and anthropology of international relations that have evolved over the years
and continue to evolve?
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The Psychology of Peacekeep ing: One Dom ain Where Political Realism …
I d o not know if there is any one reference that is cited as the first
publication on Security Stud ies. If there is such a d ocum ent it w as probably
w ritten in the past 100 years. But the first record ed efforts to und erstand
how the relations betw een nations can lead to w ar w ere reactions to the first
record ed w ars. Kagan (1995) in On The Origins of War And the
Preservation of Peace notes that
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interest betw een tw o states are typically resolved by the im position of the
w ill of one state upon that of another. Therefore w ar is a norm al phase in
the relations am ong states. (Rapoport in Clausew itz, 1968, p. 63)
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With the subsequent failure of the League of N ations and the advent of
World War II, it w as recognized by all that the existing theories and m odels
of International Relations w ould need to change. While it m ay have been
the reality for centuries that d isputes betw een sovereign nations w ere
ultim ately settled either by the use or threat of force, the w orld could not
end ure w ars of such scale every generation. The United N ations w as
found ed on the ashes of World War II and it w as d esigned to prevent
repeats of the cond itions that led up to World War I and II.
The found ing of the UN and the establishm ent of the UN Security
Council of course represented a red efinition of the assum ptions of the
relations betw een nations and the d evelopm ent of a new approach to
collective security. The acceptance of the existence of the UN Security
Council of course represents an erosion of sovereignty. Article 2 of the UN
Charter clearly states “All Mem bers shall refrain in their international
relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or
political ind epend ence of any state, or in any other m anner inconsistent
w ith the Purposes of the United N ations”.
The UN Charter continues through 19 chapters to establish a structure
by w hich nations might ad d ress grievances and avert w ar. Ch apter VI
ad d resses “The Pacific Settlem ent of Disputes” in w hich
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5. The End of The Cold War, Smaller Conflicts, and a Smaller World
While the specter of conflict betw een the superpow ers d om inated geo -
political relations throughout th e Cold War, sm aller-scale intra-national
conflicts persisted . What changed w as not the frequency of these sm aller
conflicts, but rather the level of public aw areness and the w illingness of the
superpow ers to intervene.
N early 100 national and m inority peop les participated in violent
conflicts d uring the 50 years follow ing WWII (Gurr 1993, 1994, 1995) and
these includ ed alm ost 50 cases of genocide and m ass political m urd er that
caused at least 9 m illion d eaths (H arff & Gurr, 1995). While the roots of the
cultural and ethnic anim osities that led to these sub -national conflicts had
their beginnings long before the Cold War, the close of the Cold War
brought a period w ere the w orld com m unity w ould becom e m ore aw are of
these ethno-political conflicts.
In ad dition to the changes in pow er relationships that cam e w ith the
end of the Cold War, there w as also a technological d evelopm ent that led to
a w idening and d em ocratization of the global relationships. With the
ad vent of 24-hour cable new s, the “CN N effect” (Livin gston & Eachus,
1995) m ad e “people everyw here m ore aw are of situations that seem to cry
out for intervention and m ore fam iliar w ith the hum an traged ies that
accom pany these horrible calamities” (Blechman, 1996, p.288). View ers of
CN N saw im ages of starving m asses in Som alia(Chopra, Eknes, & N ord bø,
1995; Crocker, 1992) and shelled cities in Yugoslavia (Gow ing, 1994;
Jakobsen, 1996; Livingston & Eachus, 1995; Strobel, 1996), shaping public
opinion as abstract inform ation never could (Borgid a & N isbett, 1977), and
increasing pressure on w orld lead ers and national governm ents to
intervene.
CN N view ers w orldw id e w ere now m ore aw are of hum anitarian
traged ies – be they m anm ad e or natural – and they w ould pressure their
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capitals to “d o som ething” even if that “som ething” m eant sim ply placing
that problem at the d oorstep of the UN . As a result the number of UN
hum anitarian and m ilitary interventions in civil w ars and other internal
conflicts grew from less than five per year throughout the 1980's to alm ost
20 per year by the early 1990's. This w id ening of the comm unity of
ind ivid uals w ho w ere aw are of ongoing conflicts and threats to security led
to a d em ocratization of international relations, and one m ore change in the
environm ent and the assum ptions that had orig inally spaw ned Trad itional
Security Stud ies.
In January of 1992, w ith the Cold War over, Dr. Boutros Boutros -Ghali
becam e the Secretary General of the UN . Within a m onth, w orld lead ers
asked the new Secretary General, to d raft a pa per proposing his view of the
em erging role the UN could play in m ore expand ed peacekeeping that
w ould live up to the expectation held for the UN at its found ing, that of a
w orld bod y capable of ad d ressing both the causes and consequences of w ar.
Boutros-Ghali outlined his vision in An Agend a for Peace (1992). In it
he called for a w id ening of the “size, scope, and com plexity of UN
Peacekeeping Operations,” and a greater w illingness to ad d ress the root
causes of conflict: econom ic, social, political, ethnic, and a w id ening gap
betw een the haves and the have-nots.
This w ould not be the psychology of m ed iation, but rather a
psychology of active intervention. A n A genda for Peace called for the
international com m unity not to w ait until a d ispute had escalated into
violence before attem pting an intervention. Instead , the UN w ould take
preventive measures early to avert w ar, or hum anitarian and rem edial steps
follow ing w ar to help a region return to stability. Boutros -Ghali asserted
that “The Organization m ust nev er again be crippled as it w as in the era
that has now passed ” (1992, p. 2). H e also called for a greater read iness for
the UN to im pose peace on behalf of a civilian population by using force.
The Secretary General called for m ore post-conflict peace-building m easures
to “enhance the confid ence that is so fund am ental to peace”.
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7. Tw enty Years After the End of the Cold War and the Writing of Agenda
For Peace
In the 20 years since the End of the Cold War there has not been a w ar
betw een any of the m ajor pow ers. During this period the w orld w itnessed
the breakup of the form er Yugoslavia, includ ing the m assacre at Srebrenica,
the im plosion of Som alia (United N ations 1995a), the Rw and an (United
N ations 1995b), Genocide, civil w ars in Sierra Leone, the Ivory Coast, and
Liberia (United N ations 1995c), the end less w ar in the Eastern DRC that has
led to 4 million d eaths – m ostly in the civilian population and caused by the
second ary causes of w ar, ongoing tensions in N igeria that stop short of civil
w ar, and of course Septem ber 11 th , the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, the
2006 w ar betw een Israel and Lebanon, the Civil War in Syria, and of course
the Arab Spring w hich is far from over. There are currently 300,000 m ilitary
personnel, police, and civilians d eployed w orld w id e on peace support
operations. A little over a third of these are d eployed on 15 UN
peacekeeping m issions, but there are also m ulti-national m issions run by
the EU, AU, NATO, OSCE, and others on a total of 74 peace m issions.
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The close of the Cold War, the break-up of the Soviet Union, the
blurring of sovereignty, an increase of the num ber of ethno -political
conflicts, and the w illingness of the international com m unit y to intervene in
areas of trouble have created opportunities for interventions by
psychologists but have also raised som e unforeseen questions. Where d oes
national sovereignty begin and w here d oes responsibility for the w elfare of
civilians in another nation end ? At w hat point is the International
Com m unity nurturing peace and stability and at w hat point are w e
im posing w estern -style solutions and institutions such as elections, human
rights, police, and d em ocratic governm ents?
Peacekeeping is no longer sim ply a military intervention to halt
fighting betw een arm ies. The past 20 years have brought an era w hen the
international com m unity has been open to add ressing the root causes of
conflict as never before and there are now opportunities for anthropologist s,
psychologists and other social scientists to both d evelop new theories to
explain and pred ict conflicts, and constructive interventions to avoid or
lim it violent conflict.
One anthropologist w ho has taken a clear position in the application
of anthrop ology to understand ing the cultural aspects of violent conflict,
and d eveloping theory-based interventions, is Montgom ery McFate. She
d eveloped the H um an Terrain System s, to assist US and coalition m ilitary
personnel in better und erstand ing local culture, and find ing w ays to
influence the local population through culturally appropriate persuasive
m easures instead of through the use of force (McFate, 2005). There w ere
m any w ithin the anthropological com m unity w ho d isapproved of this,
arguing that such applications w ere unethical. I w ill leave it to you to, the
read er, to consid er if this application of anthropological theory represents
an exam ple of w hat w e are trying to explore here tod ay.
8. Conclusion
It is our goal to explore new theories as part of Critical Security Stud ies.
It has been m y goal here to argue that w ith the changes in international
relations that cam e follow ing WWII and also follow ing the Cold War, the
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tim e is ripe for the d evelopm ent of new theories to replace trad itional
Security Stud ies.
I know that som e current publications in this field ad d ress issues of
d em ocratization, the differences betw een the haves and have-nots, and the
need for fund amental changes in the global financial architecture. Yes,
Critical Security Stud ies m ust encom p ass m ore than just m ilitary questions,
but also global issues of food supply, access to d rinking w ater,
com m unicable disease, and econom ic stability. Of the 7 billion people on
earth 1 billion d o not have access to clean d rinking w ater and another 1
billion d o not have access to rud im entary sanitation – tw o things w e take
com pletely for granted . With the w orld still spend ing 1.6 trillion USD
annually on d efense – 2.6% of global GDP – the burd en of the cost of arm s
still has a negative effect on econom ic prosperity. This w as perhaps stated
best by U.S. Presid ent Dw ight D. Eisenhow er on April 16, 1953, shortly after
the d eath of Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin, w hen he com pared arm s spend ing
to stealing from the people:
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168
“The Revolu tion Continu es World w id e!” Em ancip atory Politics…
D anielle Moretti-Langholtz
On September 17, 2011 the m ovem ent, know n as Occupy Wall Street
m ad e its d ram atic entrance into the public’s consciousness in N ew York
City. This event w as not sui generis. Rather, it w as a confluence of actions,
id eas, em otions and planning. While choosing to m aintain anonymity and
to claim the protests w ere and are lead erless, the relatively sm all band of
protestors w ho initially planned the occupation of Low er Manhattan’s
Zuccotti Park w ere inspired by other d irect action protests such as: the 1999
blockad e against the WTO m eetings in Seattle, the G8 Sum m it protests in
Genoa (Juris 2012:267), the 2011 protests in the state of Wisconsin’s
legislature, as w ell as the global d em ocracy m ovem ent in Tahrir Square, and
Spain’s May 15th “acam pad as” m ovem ent.
The political id eology for Septem ber 17 th w as inspired by A dbusters, an
anti-consum erist & pro-environm entalist, activist-group found ed by
Canad ian’s Kalle Lasn and Bill Schm alz and the w ritings of David Graeber,
Michael H ard t and Christopher H ed ges, to name just a few . H ow ever, the
em otional com ponent, w hich w as generated by the so -called 99%, w as and
rem ains a diverse grass-roots coalition of d em onstrators, w ho represent the
unem ployed and em ployed , professionally ed ucated and unskilled , young
and old , m ale and fem ale; yet are united in their w ish to challenge
perceived threats to their economic and political security w rought by
169
Danielle Moretti-Langholtz
170
“The Revolu tion Continu es World w id e!” Em ancip atory Politics…
(Think Tank on Education Zu ccotti Park, N ew York October 2011. Photo by au thor.)
171
Danielle Moretti-Langholtz
(Camp Organizational Signs Zu ccotti Squ are, N ew York. October 2011. Photo by
au thor.)
172
“The Revolu tion Continu es World w id e!” Em ancip atory Politics…
173
Danielle Moretti-Langholtz
(Cam p “library” at bottom right, d iscu ssion tables center and food vend ors in
backgrou nd -top left. Zu ccotti Squ are, N ew York. October 2011. Photo by au thor.)
174
“The Revolu tion Continu es World w id e!” Em ancip atory Politics…
175
Danielle Moretti-Langholtz
176
“The Revolu tion Continu es World w id e!” Em ancip atory Politics…
177
Danielle Moretti-Langholtz
178
“The Revolu tion Continu es World w id e!” Em ancip atory Politics…
179
Danielle Moretti-Langholtz
180
“The Revolu tion Continu es World w id e!” Em ancip atory Politics…
181
Danielle Moretti-Langholtz
can “Occupy Everyw here and Everything” w hile prom oting participatory
d em ocracy w orldw id e in this age of global insecurity.
182
“The Revolu tion Continu es World w id e!” Em ancip atory Politics…
References Cited
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Abu-Lughod , Lila (2012) Living the “revolution” in an Egyptian villa ge:
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Bohannan, Paul and Mark Glazer (1988) H igh Points in Anthropology.
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Booth, Ken (2005) Beyond Critical Security Stud ies IN Critical Studies and
W orld Politics, Ken Booth, ed itor. Lynne Rienner Publishers:
Bould er.
Braud el, Fernand (1973) Capitalism and Material Life 1400-1800. H arper &
Row : N ew York.
Faraone, Chris (2012) 99 N ights w ith the 99 Percent: Dispatches from the
First Three Months of the Occupy Revolution. Write to Pow er
Prod uction: USA.
Foucault, Michel (1967) “Of Other Spaces”. Lecture reprinted IN The Visual
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Geld er, Sarah (ed itor) (2012) This Changes Every Things: Occupy Wall
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Parad igm Press: Chicago.
Graeber, David (2009) Direct Action: An Ethnography. AK Press: Oakland.
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Publishing: Brooklyn.
H olm es, Douglas and George Marcus (2008) Fast Capitalism : Para
Ethnography and the Rise of the Sym bolic Analyst. In Collaborative
Anthropologies.
Juris, Jeffrey S. (2012) Reflections on #Occupy Everyw here: Social m ed ia,
public space, and emerging logics of aggregation. IN Am erican
Ethnologist, Volum e 39 (2): 259-279.
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Kelly, John D., Beatrice Jauregui, Sean T. Mitch ell, and Jerem y Walton,
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Kegan Paul.
Rad cliffe-Brow n, A.R. (1952) Structure and Function in Primitive Society.
The Free Press.
Razsa, Maple and And rej Kurnik (2012) The Occupy Movem ent in Zizek’s
hom etow n: Direct d em ocracy and politics of becom ing. IN Am erican
Ethnologist, Volum e 39 (2):238-258.
Taylor, Astra, Keith Cessen, and ed itors from n+1, Dissent, Triple Canopy,
and the N ew Inquiry, (ed itors) (2011) Occupy! Scenes From Occupied
Am erica. Verso Publishing: Lond on.
Stocking, George W., Jr., (ed itor) (1992) The Ethnographer’s Magic and
Other Essays in the H istory of Anthropology. The University of
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Stocking, George W., Jr (1996) Volksgeist as Method and Ethic: Essays on
Boasian Ethnography and the Germ an Anthropological Trad ition.
H istory of Anthropology, Volum e 8. The University of Wisconsin Press:
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Wallerstein, Im manuel (1974) The Mod ern World -System : Capitalist
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Wolf, Eric R. (1982) Europe and the People Without H istory. University of
California Press: Berkeley.
184
Anthrop ological m ethod s in cou nter -trafficking activities…
D esirée Pangerc
1. A short introduction
185
Desirée Pangerc
138
My hom etow n, an Italian city at the bord er w ith Slovenia.
139
The Sm u ggling of Migrants Protocol su p p lem ents the United N ations
Convention against Transnational Organized Cr im e.
(http :/ / w w w .u nod c.org/ u nod c/ en/ hu m an -trafficking/ sm u ggling-of-
m igrants.htm l?ref=m enu sid e).
186
Anthrop ological m ethod s in cou nter -trafficking activities…
140
The United N ations Convention against Transnational Organized Crim e,
ad op ted by General Assem bly resolu tion 55/ 25 of 15 N ovem ber 2000, is the m ain
internation al instru m ent in the fight against transnational organized crim e. It
op ened for signatu re by Mem ber States at a high -level Political Conference
convened for that p u rp ose in Palerm o, Italy, on 12-15 Decem ber 2000 and entered
into force on 29 Sep tem ber 2003. The Convention is su p p lem ented by three
Protocols: the Protocol to Prevent, Su p p ress and Pu nish Trafficking in Persons,
Esp ecially Wom en and Child ren; the Protocol against the Sm u ggling of Migrants by
Land , Sea and Air; and the Protocol against the Illicit Manu factu ring of and
Trafficking in Firearm s, their Parts and Com p onents and Am m u nition.
141
Eu rop ean Union's Ju d icial Coop eration Unit, fou nd ed in 2002.
142
And the p aram eters are the m axim ization of the p rofit, a strong vertical control
and the goal of highest p rod u ctivity.
187
Desirée Pangerc
143
UN ICRI is a United N ations entity m and ated to assist intergovernm ental,
governm ental and non -governm ental organizations in form u lating and
im p lem enting im p roved p olicies in the field of crim e p revention and crim inal
ju stice (link http :/ / w w w .u nicri.it/ ).
144
This p art of m y essay w as p resented at the Conference A nthropology in the W orld,
organized by the Royal Anthrop ological Institu te of Great Britain and Ireland in
Ju ne 2012.
188
Anthrop ological m ethod s in cou nter -trafficking activities…
Sou rce: Italian Ministry of Interior. The rou tes of illegal m igrations.
189
Desirée Pangerc
Agreem ent for Peace (Belloni, 2001), w hich m ain purpose w as to end the
w ar, established an ad ministrative and political d ivision into tw o Entities,
the Fed eration of Bosnia H erzegovina – form ed by 51% of the territory,
largely constituted by Bosn iaks145 and Croats – and Republika Srpska – 49%
of the territory, prim arily Serb 146. This arbitrary division had a very negative
aspect, that is the crystallization of ethnic 147 (?) id entities, and the
im possibility of integration betw een the three groups (Bilefski, 2008): the
lack of consensus from a bottom -up approach created the prem ises for a
“failed State” (Thuerer, 1999), de facto a non-autonom ous State, w ith a
corrupted governm ent and d epend ent on the presence of International
Com m unity, but, w hat is w orst, of the hid d en lobbies and organized crime.
145
Bosniaks are Su nni Mu slim , althou gh historically Su fism has also p layed a
significant role am ong them .
146
Plu s the District of Brč ko, a sort of cond om iniu m betw een the FBiH and the RS,
and u nd er the control of the Steering Board of the Peace Im p lem entation Cou ncil
till the 31st of Au gu st 2012. (w w w .balkaninsight.com / en/ article/ bosnia -s-p eace-
overseer-su sp end s-brcko-su p ervision).
147
I am qu ite cau tiou s w hen I say that Bosnia and H erzegovina has three ethnic
grou p s; In anthrop ologically term s, this is not correct. In the Cou ntry w e have tw o
nationalities (Serbs and Croats) and the Bosnian m u slim s ( connoted by r eligion).
190
Anthrop ological m ethod s in cou nter -trafficking activities…
So, once there, m y fieldw ork began, but w hen I m et one of the m ost
experts in hum an trafficking, operating there for one Cooperation Agency,
he quickly stopped m y introd uction, in ord er to reply: “But there is no
human trafficking here. H ave you read the TIP 148 report? Bosnia and
148
The Trafficking in Persons Rep ort is the U.S. Governm ent’s p rincip al d ip lom atic
tool to engage foreign governm ents on hu m an trafficking.
(w w w .state.gov/ j/ tip / rls/ tip rp t/ ).
191
Desirée Pangerc
“There are three kind s of lies: the big lies, the sm all lies…and the
statistics”.
This figu re w as inclu d ed in the Stability Pact and the Office w as cre ated in 2003.
149
The N ational Officer or State Coord inator is alw ays the Assistant of the Minister of
Secu rity. At that tim e, Sam ir Rizvo w as in charge of the Office.
192
Anthrop ological m ethod s in cou nter -trafficking activities…
First of all, to continue m y w ork I d ecided to collect facts and not data.
Anthropology d eals w ith social facts and hum an trafficking in Bosnia and
H erzegovina is d efinitely a social fact. Second ly, I ad opted an actor -oriented
approach (Long, 2001), by d ividing the netw ork of m y inform ants into three
levels; an inform al one, form ed by com m on people; an operative one,
form ed by experts from Mission EUFOR ALTH EA 151 and EUPM 152 , local
police, social operators from N GOs; finally, an institutional one, form ed by
the representatives of the Embassies, the International Organizations and
the Developm ent Agencies.
What I d iscovered w as that in the last couple of years, the Country has
been increasingly starting to face a new form of hum an trafficking, w hereby
Bosnian w om en and m inors (m inors especially from Rom a com m unities)
150
Interview “Who trafficks w hom ”: “Ju st p eop le, not m afia…Only becau se it’s a
fast and easy w ay to m ake m oney. There are only tw o trials regard ing mafiosi
involved in this typ e of trafficking: Milaković in the p ast and now Ku č ević w ho
op erated in Tu zla. Bu t you cannot im agine: w e d iscovered a trafficking of you ng
w om en m anaged by a m other and her son”. (OSCE inform ant)
151
The EU m ilitary op eration in BiH , lau nched in Decem ber 2002.
152
The Eu rop ean Union Police Mission in Bosnia and H erzegovina.
193
Desirée Pangerc
are being recruited and exploited w ithin its bord ers. This internal trafficking
“is hard er as w e can only find out about by special intelligence and surprise
raid s, both requiring a lot of resources and impossible to keep up as a
stand ard approach”, an investigator noted (Savona and Stefanizzi, 2007, p.
18). And they w ere enslaved m ore and m ore often by com m on people and
not criminal groups.
As to the statistics – m ostly provid ed by the N GOs –, the num ber of
id entified victim s of trafficking in hum an beings for the purpose of sexual
exploitation stagnated since 2003. H ow ever, in 2007, although the num ber
of id entified victim s of trafficking in hum an beings for the purpose of
sexual exploitation w as the low est since this phenom enon has been
m onitored systematically, the num ber of citizens of Bosnia and
H erzegovina w ho have been id entified as victim s of trafficking in hum an
beings for the purpose of sexual exploitation w ithin its bord ers, for the first
tim e exceed ed the num ber of id entified foreign victim s o f trafficking in
hum an beings. The 44% of the total id entified victim s are m inors, all from
BiH (OSCE Report, 2009): the num ber of child ren that are w orking on the
streets is constantly rising, d ue to a lack of efficient m echanism of protection
by relevant institutions, particularly am ong m inority groups, such as Rom a
as I said before 153.
Accord ing to m y inform ants and m y researches, in Bosnia and
H erzegovina hum an trafficking is perceived “like a sim ple business” for
norm al people, both for the victim s and for the crim inals; there is a huge
internal d im ension of hum an trafficking; the victim s are no m ore sm uggled ,
so they are recruited am ong the Bosnian citizens; finally, there is still a
scarce involvem ent of the civil society and no inform ation on w hat the
Institutions d o to coun
153
As I have alread y u nd erlined , som e p arts of m y essay w ere p resented at the
Conference A nthropology in the W orld, organized by the Royal Anthrop ological
Institu te of Great Britain and Ireland in Ju ne 2012.
194
Anthrop ological m ethod s in cou nter -trafficking activities…
The w eak legal status of the victim s in the legislations of m ost nation
states contributes to their reluctance to report the crim es and to co -operate
w ith authorities d uring the investigation and court proceed ings (Savona
and Stefanizzi, 2007, p. 20).
So, by w orking on crim e perception and through an actor -oriented
approach, m y conclusions are as follow s: first, the International Com m unity
and the local governm ent should continue to w ork on raising aw areness
am ong civil society and on prevention cam paigns in cooperation w ith the
local N GOs; second , the fund ed project should provid e a specific vocational
training both for the local police and the social operators, in ord er to ensure
the success of the operations and, after that, the collaboration of the victim s;
finally, a m ore system atic coord ination betw een institutional, jud icial and
social actors w ould allow to cut expenses for sm all projects and to channel
154
Rep ort from Finnish Police, 2006.
195
Desirée Pangerc
196
Anthrop ological m ethod s in cou nter -trafficking activities…
Bibliography
197
Desirée Pangerc
Spiezia, Filippo, Frezza, Fed erico and Pace N icola, Maria (2002), Il traffico e
lo sfruttamento di esseri umani - Primo commento alla legge di modifica alla
normativa in materia di immigrazione ed asilo, Giuffrè.
Thuerer, David (1999), “The ‘failed state’ and international law ”, in
International Review of the Red Cross, N o. 836, S. 731-761.
U.N . (2000) Convention against Transnational Organized Crime.
U.S. Departm ent of State (2009), Trafficking in Persons Report.
Ziegler, Jean (2000), Les seigneurs du crime. Les nouvelles mafias contre la
démocratie, Tropea.
198
Anthrop ology and conflicts. Tod ay’s w ars and p eace-keep ing op erations…
Marco Ramazzotti
1. Summary
199
Marco Ram azzotti
200
Anthrop ology and conflicts. Tod ay’s w ars and p eace-keep ing op erations…
Social attitud es to w ar have also changed . The d istinction betw een ‘just’
and ‘unjust’ w ars has alw ays been present in Western cultures but w as
lim ited to the nation state’s assessm ent of the rationale for a specific w ar.
N ow ad ays, peoples' reactions to w ars are not lim ited to m oral jud gm ents
but also involve their acceptance of and participation in w ars. In the
Western w orld , in principle, civilians can either accept or refuse w ars.
Parliamentary d em ocracy allow s them to influence the d ecision w hether to
start, continue or stop w ars. Their social (cultural, econom ic, political)
situation allow s them to accept or to refuse w ars.
201
Marco Ram azzotti
Most im portantly, soldiers theselves can accept or refuse w ars. One can
recall the European fighters w ho joined their countries' Resistance arm ies
against the Fascist and N azi oppression; Am erican servicem en w ho refused
to serve in the Vietnam w ar; the refuseniks in Israel. Sold iers can refuse to
obey illegal ord ers: international law creates the obligation to follow correct,
legal ord ers. 155 By now , most national legislations recognize the principle of
“conscientious objection”.
155
From the Frankfurter Rundschau: the Basel Ap p eal, 1994, by the Eu rop ean Citizens'
Foru m , w ith the p atronage of the Eu rop ean Parliam ent and the Cou ncil of Eu rop e,
asks Eu rop ean cou ntries to allow their d ip lom atic rep resentations to facilitate
foreign d eserters by p rovid ing them w ith entry p erm its for hu m anitarian or
p olitical reasons if a tow n agrees to receive and su p p ort them . The financial m eans
for su ch a su p p ort shou ld com e from the tow n's bu d get. In Germ any, Mu enster,
Jena, Erfu rt, Gottingen, Mu nich, Brem en su p p ort su ch an initiative.
156
With the slave trad e, that is African w ars and the hu nt for hu m an beings, w ars in
Africa becom e m ore sim ilar to Eu rop ean w ars: Africans got training from the new
w hite lord s and obtained fire arm s. There w as nothing trad itional abou t cap tu ring
slaves, and there w as no one to m ed iate.
202
Anthrop ology and conflicts. Tod ay’s w ars and p eace-keep ing op erations…
African w ars against colonizers w ere fought for freed om and equal
rights. Angolans, for exam ple, fought for their national liberation, against a
500-year long colonization and they consid er it to have been a "just" w ar.
Their Portuguese colonizers and the apartheid South Africans spoke of w ar
fought in the nam e of civilization, for the defense of Christian values
against savage negroes that w ere prey to the Com m unists. The Portuguese
and the South Africans ultim ately cam e to realize that the ir w ars in Angola
w ere unjust.
203
Marco Ram azzotti
Poor people often live in (or prim arily w ithin) subsistence econom ies
w ithout salaries and w ithout m arkets or w ith m arkets t hat d o not d etermine
their econom ic strategies. They m ay be illiterate or have low levels of
ed ucation. They are people characterized by ethnic structures, and by
cultures structured around trad itional religions w ith connections to m agic.
They fight poor w ars, w ith rud im entary, but often effective m eans.
Trad itional/ internal w ars w ere - and are generally tod ay – sm all, w ith
a lim ited num ber of fighters. They are m anaged in trad itional forms,
accord ing to local rules of w ar; are often fought on ethnic groun d s, betw een
non- professional and un -paid fighters. Similar arm am ent is used on both
sid es (no technologies w ere em ployed), for trad itional outcom es (often
negotiated together by trad itional chiefs of the opposing sid es). Trad itional
w ars d eveloped into guerrilla w ars 157.
157
Many Westerners ask w ith (false or real) d ism ay: w hy d o p eop le, w ho are so
p oor, kill each other? Do w e, Wester ners, have a critical p ercep tion or
u nd erstand ing of ou r conflicts, of ou r w ars, of ou r genocid es? I learned from school
m em oirs that history is m ad e of w ars: the Thirty Years w ar, the 100 Years w ar,
religiou s w ars and genocid es: genocid e of the Scottish h ighland ers, genocid e of
Protestants by Catholics, of Catholics by Protestants, genocid e of the Albigenses,
genocid e of the "night of S.Bartolom ew ", genocid e of heretics, colonial genocid es,
p ogrom s, Shoa or H olocau st, the Savoia fight against Brigand s (p oo r starving
p easants!), 600.000 Italian sold iers killed and w ou nd ed in 1st WW, 20 m illion
204
Anthrop ology and conflicts. Tod ay’s w ars and p eace-keep ing op erations…
In the face of these changes, m od ern arm ies are confronted w ith a set of
problem s. One (w hich I d o not d eal w ith) is how to equip a conventional
Ru ssians killed d u ring 2nd WW.......... And yet, the Ind ip end ence w ars w ere
gloriou s! (gloriou s or u nevoid able?). And w hat abou t the d ecolonization w ars?
Were they not gloriou s too? Do w e not p erceive them as su ch becau se w e d o not
know them ?
205
Marco Ram azzotti
arm y to fight both a conventional and a guerrilla w ar. The second relates to
how to culturally form and technically train the new cad res o f this arm y so
that they are able to analyse and cond uct operations in situations w hich are
very d ifferent from those that prevailed up to the Cold War; and – in
peacekeeping operations - to enable to “conquer hearts and mind s”.
In operating in non-Western environm ents w here guerilla tactics are
used , even the m ost trad itional "technical" officer, the one refusing to be
"political", refusing to have anything to d o w ith w hat he generically calls
"politics", alw ays respond ing to a hierarchical structure w ithout any
com plaint, is confronted w ith issues that d iffer substantially from those
confronting him or her in a conventional w ar.
206
Anthrop ology and conflicts. Tod ay’s w ars and p eace-keep ing op erations…
problem s need to be found but these are only partial solutions. They m ust
be com plem ented by political, m ilitary-cum -d iplom atic solutions achievable
through the und erstand ing of the enem y and of the conflict. This
und erstanding is need ed at all levels of our m ilitary structure, from the
sold ier (w hose behavior w ill be respectful of local culture) to the officer
w hose goal is to conquer hearts and m ind
The m ilitary also need to be aw are of the changing role of civil society.
Once, it w as left to diplom ats, politicians, professional sold iers to judge
w hether a w ar w as to be und ertaken or not. N ow ad ays, to an increasing
extent civil society questions w hether a w ar is ‘just’ or ‘unjust’, w hether a
w ar is ad visable on political, economic, and m ilitary ground s . This is a
society w hich votes for or against the w ar in Parliament – w hatever the
argum ents ad vanced by politicians and the military to justify it.
In brief, even the m ost "technically-m ind ed " officer should und erstand
that, in tod ay’s age, w ar it is not a technical und ertaking but a "social", and
political und ertaking, and that und erstand ing the enem y and the enem y's
society is the first step to be taken.
There have been m om ents in our history, in the XIX sec., w hen our
officers w ere not supposed to stud y! Our soldiers d id not know how to read
and w rite. H istorically, there has been a transition from Arm ed Forces
w hose officers w ere supposed to sim ply fight w ith their sabers and sw ord s,
and w ere sanctioned for stud yin g, to Arm ed Forces w hose officers must
stud y if they w ant to be able to recognize their enem ies and w here sold iers
m anage very technical, very expensive, very com plicated equipm ent.
Ram bo says: "You treat m e like a d og, I d o not get the m ost elem entary jo b
and , d uring the w ar I w as supposed to use the m ost sophisticated and
costly equipm ent”. Poor Ram bo, the sad d est sold ier in the history of
cinema. N ow adays, no sold ier can afford to be unaw are of the social context
in w hich he or she operates.
207
Marco Ram azzotti
Failing t o underst and t he cont ext - t he case of t he Sov iet Army in Angola
To give our General Staff its d ue, they did m ake serious
attem pts to prepare people in som e fashion or other for service in
tropical countries. N aturally, they tried to select people w ho w ere in
satisfactory physical cond ition: they had to confront d isease such as
m alaria, yellow fever, hepatitis and am oebic d ysentery (.....) And
w hat had to be taken m ost into consid eration w as the hot and hum id
clim ate (…..). People going to Angola w ould be trained in
geography, history, d em ographics, the official language of the
country(….). Despite all these stud ies, d espite all these end eavors,
and d espite the fact that serious efforts w ere m ad e to prepare
people, nonetheless, the m ilitary w ho w ent to Angola w ere not w ell
prepared . They w ere not trained in the trad itions and the custom s of
the people and how they generally view them selves, how they
conceptualize reality (anthropology!) - w hich d iffers substantially
from w hat w e are used to. And m istakes are ind eed com m itted
w hen w e attem pt to cast reality accord ing to our ow n im age and
reality - and the Soviets d id that in Angola.
The attem pt w as to recreate in Angola exactly the same
cond itions as at hom e, expecting them to w ork equally w ell there.
The attitud e w as: “Just as you have becom e a state of socialist
orientation, becom e w hatever else w e ad vise you to be”. (In a
sim pler language: “since you have becom e a state of socialist
orientation, you should follow our ad vice”).
208
Anthrop ology and conflicts. Tod ay’s w ars and p eace-keep ing op erations…
209
Marco Ram azzotti
the state, w hat the state represents, and how to cond uct oneself in
such a state. We w ere taught by teachers w ho had alread y been
several tim es in the particular country of interest. In other w ord s, the
best form of instruction is the experience of a w itness to this or that
event, experience he transm its to his stud ents.
As for the others, on the other hand , especially the technical
specialists, they reached out very m uch to other people because
Angolans w ished to learn about this and the other......
Most of all, besid es an excellent know led ge of their ow n special
field s, they tried to learn how to say it in Portuguese – that is, if they
w ere not next to a translator. But they could explain to Angolans
how to d o things.
I think the Angolans are grateful to them up until tod ay for
w hat they learned from them .158
Col. Sagachko, quoted by Vlad im ir Shubin in “The hot – cold w ar, the
USSR in Southern Africa”, d escribes the type of training received as follow s:
158
Ad ap ted from Igor Zhd arkin: “We d id not see it even in Afghanistan – m em oirs
of a p articip ant of the Angolan w ar (1986-1988)”, Institu te for African Stu d ies,
Moscow , Ru ssia, October &N ovem ber , 2000 and October 2001.
159
Ad ap ted from Col. Sagachko, In Angola 1988 – 91, qu oted by Vlad im ir Shu bin:
“The hot – cold w ar, the USSR in Sou thern Africa”, p .89.
210
Anthrop ology and conflicts. Tod ay’s w ars and p eace-keep ing op erations…
From failures in fight ing non-conv ent ional w ars t o t he st rat egy of
‘w inning heart s and minds’
From the experience com ing mainly from Word War II , from the
European Resistance and the French w ars in Ind ochina and Algeria,
Western arm ies w ere forced to take into account and d eal w ith
revolutionary armies and guerrilla strategies. In each of these w ars, officers
of the conventional arm y prod uced a anti-guerrilla strategy w hich … they
im m ed iately forgot about at the end of the w ar . French officers, after
Vietnam and Algeria, w ent back to being fully conventional officers,
show ing m uch m ore interest in nuclear w ar than in guerrilla w arfare. The
sam e applied to the Americans and to N ATO: guerrilla w arfare w as just an
unfortunate (sham efu l) accid ent on the route. And w hen the next guerrilla
w ar explod es, they all have to quickly re-invent a new strategy for it. At
least, until the new USA Counterinsurgency Manual - published und er the
influence and w ith the support of General Petraeus.
The effort of the USA Governm ent and of the Arm y/ Marines fo r a
d rastic change in approach to these w ars seem to clash against the obstinacy
of a good part of the conventional arm y w hich intend s to remain
211
Marco Ram azzotti
conventional. In an article in The N ew York Tim es (04 June, 2012) 160, col.
Gentile of West Point stated that coun terinsurgency could ultim ately w ork
in Afghanistan if the USA w ere w illing to stay there for “70, 80, 90 years”.
(As if the USA had not tried conventional w arfare in Vietnam , Iraq and
Afghanistan for years on end!) Against the m ore "conventional" view of col
Gentile, col. Meese, again from West Point, says: "Warfare cannot be
d ivorced from its political, economic and psychological
d im ensions…..Warfare in a d angerous environm ent is ultimately a hum an
end eavor and engaging w ith the population is som ething tha t has to be
d one" to try and influence them. It is d eclared that the new USA
Counterinsurgency Manual - published und er the influence and w ith the
support of gen. Petraeus – “prom otes the protection of civilian population,
reconstruction and d evelopm ent”. But this sounds m ore like propagand a.
Bridging milit ary and civ il perspect ives – t he examples of NATO ’s CIMIC
Tod ay's m ilitary exercises by N ATO and European Arm ed Forces are
set in an environm ent of d eveloping countries and peacekeeping (w hatever
peacekeeping m ight m ean). As part of the process of “w inning hearts and
m ind s” of the population, using the carrot instead of the stick, officers are
supposed to create friend s and avoid creating new enemies. The capacity to
create and m aintain such relations are also tested in N ATO military
exercises through the use of CIMIC – Civilian-Military Cooperation.
CIMIC is an old instrum ent: it consisted of the rules of m ilitary
m anagem ent of occupied (w ar) areas. Initially, CIMIC referred to the rules
applicable in all m ilitary occupations in w hich the occupying Arm y had to
d eal w ith civilian governm ent. Tod ay it is conceived as an instrum ent to
conquer hearts and mind s and , at the sam e tim e, it is intend ed to help
people to survive in conflict situations. It m ay consist of a cubic m eter of
paper m oney com ing d ow n from an helicopter in Iraq to pay here and there.
It can be used as an instrum ent to overcom e em ergency and start
160
West Point is d ivid ed on a War Doctrine’s Fate, N ew York Tim es 28/ 5/ 2012
http s:/ / w w w .nytim es.com / 2012/ 05/ 28/ w orld (/ at-w esp oint-asking-if-a-w ar-
d octrine-w as w orth-it.htm l
212
Anthrop ology and conflicts. Tod ay’s w ars and p eace-keep ing op erations…
213
Marco Ram azzotti
161
In reality, as far as I know , the Italian m ilitary inform ation service alw ays
fu nctioned as ou r arm ed Forces’ inform al “anthrop ologist”. Tod ay, the need for
anthrop ological know led ge and “finesse” is extend ing to larger nu m bers of officers
and non- com m issioned officers. Once, w hen I w as w orking in an African cou ntry, I
w as talking to the p erson resp onsible for AISE, the Italian m ilitary inform ation
service, accred ited at the Italian Em bassy. I told him that I knew an Italian
anthrop ologist. This p erson knew a certain ethnic grou p p articu larly w ell and he
had w ritten a good book on them . The AISE m an asked m e to introd u ce him to the
anthrop ologist. Why? H e need ed to know how this ethnic grou p lived , how they
thou ght, how they behaved , their relations w ith the rest of the w orld . The colonel
sp ent hou rs talking and asking qu estions to the anthrop ologist. The colonel had
tu rned into an “anthrop ologist”.
214
Anthrop ology and conflicts. Tod ay’s w ars and p eace-keep ing op erations…
To ‘w in heart and mind s’, officers and non -com m issioned officers
should seek to id entify the "w orld vision" of their enem ies, their d eep
reasons for fighting, and be able to see the conflict situation w ith the
enem y's eyes. Their objective should be to und erstand d eeper processes
w hich may be hard to grasp, such as clanic - tribal - ethnic relations and
conflicts; to make friends (lasting friend s) w ith local lead ers; to be able to
id entify enem ies. Stud ying and d efining genealogies is an essen tial exercise,
very useful to d efine local friend ships and enm ities.
In countries w ith a d ifferent culture - nam ely, a non-Western culture -
concepts such as peace, w ar, justice, com m unity, collectivity, State, enemy,
social organization, etc are d ifferent from ours and are applied d ifferently. If
the concept of com m unity in Africa is different from our ow n concept and
w e d o not recognize such a d ifference, w e w ill not und erstand w ho is in
front of us, w e w ill not recognize our friend s and our enemies.
Anthropology helps to look at w hat the ad versa ry thinks, how he or she
thinks and w hat channels should be used in ord er to reach his or her heart
and m ind .
215
Marco Ram azzotti
216
Anthrop ology and conflicts. Tod ay’s w ars and p eace-keep ing op erations…
217
Marco Ram azzotti
162
Montgom ery McFate - Anthrop ology and Cou nterinsu rgency: the Strange Story
of their Cu riou s Relationship , Military Review , Ap ril 2005.
218
Anthrop ology and conflicts. Tod ay’s w ars and p eace-keep ing op erations…
w ould find the bod y w ithout blood , the entire patrol w ould believe
that he had been the victim of a vam pire and that one of them w ould
be the next one”. Lansd ale noted that such tactics w ere surprisingly
effective.
219
Marco Ram azzotti
5. Conclusions
220
Anthrop ology and conflicts. Tod ay’s w ars and p eace-keep ing op erations…
for sym m etrical w ars of the past. The difference in culture betw een
conventional arm ies and unconventional ones require the und erstand ing of
d ifferent cultures and d ifferent w ar cultures: for this, w e need social science,
and specifically anthropology.
163
In the bibliograp hy see Christian Geffray, David H . Price, Pau l Richard s, Bettina
Schm id t & Ingo W. Schrod er, Alisse Water ston.
164
See bibliograp hy, u nd er the head ing “Au thors against the u se of anthrop ology in
conflicts”.
221
Marco Ram azzotti
222
Anthrop ology and conflicts. Tod ay’s w ars and p eace-keep ing op erations…
See also
Waterston, Alisse (2009) (ed .): A n A nthropology of war, views from the frontline,
Berghahn.
Price, David :
223
Marco Ram azzotti
Marlow e, Ann (2007) “Anthropology Goes to War. There are som e things
the Arm y need s in Afghanistan, but m ore academ ics are not at the top of
the list”. 11/ 26/ 2007, Volum e 013, Issue 11 (internet)
González, Roberto J. (2007): “Tow ard s m ercenary anthropology? The new
US Arm y counterinsurgency m anual FM 3-24 and the m ilitary-
anthropology com plex”, in A nthropology Today, Vol 23, N o 3, June 2007
McKennan, Brian (2007) “W hy I W ant to Teach A nthropology at the A rmy W ar
College? W hat W ould Smedley Butler Do?”, US W ar College Journal,
“Param eters”, 2007
224
Anthrop ology and conflicts. Tod ay’s w ars and p eace-keep ing op erations…
Kilcullen, David :
225
Marco Ram azzotti
D. O t hers
Kelly, Raym ond C. (1985) The N uer Conquest. The Structure and Development
of an Expansionist System, University of Michigan Press
H aas, J. (1990) The A nthropology of W ar, Cambrid ge University Press.
Knauft, B. (1991) “Violence and Sociality in H um an Evolution”, in Current
A nthropology, 32 (1991), pp. 391-428.
Ferguson, R. B. and N .L. Whitehead (1992) W ar in the Tribal Z one. Expanding
States and Indigenous W arfare, School of Am erican Research Press.
Viveiros d e Castro, E. (1992) From the Enemy' s Point of V iew, The University
of Chicago Press.
N ord strom , Carolyn (1997) A Different Kind of W ar Story, University of
Pennsylvania Press.
Scheper-H ughes, N ancy (2004) V iolence in W ar and Peace: an A nthology,
Blackw ell.
Kalyvas, Stathis N . (2006) The Logic of Violence in Civil W ar, Cambrid ge
University Press.
Snyd er, Jack (2002) “Anarchy and Culture: insights for the Anthropology of
War”, in International Organization, 56, 1 w inter 2002, pp 7-45.
226
Conclu sions. A new gram m ar for international relations…
Maurizio Boni
1. Introduction
227
Mau rizio Boni
228
Conclu sions. A new gram m ar for international relations…
165
Khaled Fou ad Allam , is p rofessor of Sociology of the Mu slim World at the
Universities of Trieste, Urbino and the Stand ford University of Florence. H is
research interests inclu d e contem p orary Mu slim w orld and the analysis of Islam
p henom ena of accu ltu ration. H e has been m em ber of the Italian Parliam ent from
2006 to 2008, and he has been ap p ointed Exp ert abou t Im m igration and N ew
Citizenship s m atters for the Eu rop ean Union and the Eu rop ean Cou ncil. Colu m nist
of “La Rep u bblica”, “La Stam p a”, “Il Sole 24 Ore” and “Avvenire” (the new sp ap er
of the Italian Bishop s’ Conference), he has p u blished several essays and books,
am ong w hich “Global Islam ” (Rizzoli, 2002), “Letter to a kam ikaze” (Rizzoli, 2004),
“The Loneliness of the West” (Rizzoli, 2006), and “Islam ” (Laterza, 2007).
166
Prior to her governm ent service, Anne-Marie Slau ghter w as the Dean of
Princeton's Wood row Wilson School of Pu blic and International Affairs from 2002–
2009. She is a frequ ent contribu tor to both m ainstream and new m ed ia, p u blishing
op -ed s in m ajor new sp ap ers, m agazines and blogs arou nd the w orld and cu rating
foreign p olicy new s for over 20,000 follow ers on Tw itter. She ap p ears regu larly on
CN N , the BBC, N PR, and PBS, lectu res w id ely, and has served on board s of
organizations ranging from the Cou ncil of Foreign Relations and the N ew Am erica
Fou nd ation to the McDonald 's Corp oration and the Citigrou p Econom ic and
Political Strategies Ad visory Grou p . Foreign Policy m agazine nam ed her to their
annu al list of the Top 100 Global Thinkers in 2009, 2010, and 2011. She has w ritten
or ed ited six books, inclu d ing “A N ew World Ord er” (2004) and “The Id ea that is
Am erica: keep ing faith w ith ou r valu es in a d an gerou s w orld ” (2007), and over 100
articles. She w as also the convener and acad em ic co-chair, w ith Professor John
Ikenberry, of the Princeton Project on N ational Secu rity, a m u lti-year research
p roject aim ed at d evelop ing a new , bip artisan national secu rit y strategy for the
United States.
229
Mau rizio Boni
published in the United States in 2004 167 respectively) are som ehow
convergent in the w ay they d escribe social trend s that can be caught,
und erstood and processed only if you are inspired by an unconventional
w ay of thinking.
Fouad Allam offers an analysis of the im pact of the “Arab Spring” on
the relations betw een the N orth and the South banks of the Med iterranean,
w hile Slaughter asks us to rethink our view s of the political ord er, looking
at m ultilateralism in term s of interaction am ong governm ent netw orks. The
title I gave to this conclud ing paper, m erges the tw o authors’ m ain them es:
the Allam’s concern for governing the interactions betw een populations
belonging to em erging new com m on social spaces (the quest for a new
gram m ar for international relations), and Slaughter’s stud y on em erging
form s of global governance characterizing a “new w orld ord er”. Despite
their broad d ifference both in scope and acad em ic origin, the tw o
approaches highlight the kind of intellect ual challenges and trend s w e
should capture and understand in a globalized w orld . They both provid e
food for thoughts for any social scientist and d ecision maker (includ ing the
respective ad visors) acting in a social w orld , trying to assess to w hich extent
he/ she is capable of grabbing the key d eveloping factors of evolving
societies, and applying the available existing analytical tools accord ingly.
They both represent an id eal background in w hich Danielle Moretti-
Langholtz and Desireè Pangerc’s fieldw ork m ethod ologies, Chris Farrands’
visual ethnography, and H arvey Langholtz’s psychological perspectives, in
particular, could w ell fit in.
167
Anne-Marie Slau ghter: “A N ew World Ord er”. Princeton University Press, 2004.
230
Conclu sions. A new gram m ar for international relations…
concept load ed w ith assum ptions, structures, solutions and functional ideas
w hich varies accord ing to d ifferent realities.
Since a d ecade at least, in the Old Continent this d iscussion has gone
w ell beyond the fram ew ork of the military dim ension, opening a space for a
m ore articulated approach. Since its inception in 1999, the year w hen the
European Union (EU) has begun to take on foreign, security and d efence
policies responsibilities, the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP)
takes into consid eration a w orld of com plex, d ynam ic and interrelated
threats along w ith the uniqueness of each crisis/ region. The “European
Security Strategy” (ESS), ad opted by the Europ ean Council in 2003,
encom passes poverty and d iseases, the com petition for natural resources
(w ater in particular), global w arm ing and energy d epend ence am ong the
characterizing factors of global challenges 168 , and m ost of the security
challenges are assessed to be of a com prehensive nature: political instability,
violent conflicts, extrem ism and terrorism , organized crim e and
hum anitarian crises. Due to its com prehensiveness, the EU is w ell suited to
ad d ress these issues, and the EU’s approach to prevent/ cea se conflicts and
(re)build peaceful and stable societies, is based on a com bined and tailored
response m ad e of d iplom acy, trad e, d evelopm ent and hum anitarian aid
d elivered through police, jud icial, civil protection and m ilitary tools. The
EU m embers d ecid ed to share this vision of such an articulated w ay to d o
business on m atter of security, and to tune up their respective policies and
actions accordingly.
In 2004, a “Security Research Program m e” (SRP) has been launched by
the European Com m ission aim ed at d eveloping a fully fled ged European
civil security fram ew ork. The European Research Innovation Forum
(ESRIF), established in 2007, takes care of this task. ESRIF’s m ain m essage is
that
“European security is inseparable from social, cultural and
political values of European life. Such values need to be present
at every level of security research and d evelopment. A threat to
Europe is a threat to Europe social integrity. Security research
“A secu re Eu rop e in a Better World – Eu rop ean Secu rity Strategy”, Bru ssels 12
168
231
Mau rizio Boni
In all, the scope of the security research is w id ening to take into account
societal fabric and vulnerabilities of societies w ithin the EU, and
appreciating the increasing inter-linkage betw een the internal and external
d im ension of security. Certainly, the im plementation of the ESS can’t be
classified und er the head ing of the fully successful stories, because the EU
and the Mem ber States have not translated it into clear priorities. N or has it
had a real im pact on the d evelopm ent of m eans and capabilities, on w hich
the ESS rem ains vague as w ell. At the sam e time, the SRP has highlighted
the existence of m any w ays to interpret the EU’s role in security along w ith
som e gaps/ d uplication betw een national and European level efforts. But
this is not the point.
What is relevant, here is that d espite the inevitable im plem entation
shortfalls, there is a European increasing em phasis on societal and hum an
security. The acknow ledgm ent that societal security is about safeguard ing
both the state and the population. The focus on the “society” as a w hole and
on everything that could d isrupt or d am age it. The id ea that security
research, encom passing the broad er concept of the w ord and the more
trad itional “hard ” m ilitary research, are m oving closer together.
Moreover, d uring the last tw o years and a half the security agend a has
further expand ed to includ e the financial speculation, a cross bord ers
unconventional type of offence capable of d isrupting entire societies as
m uch as conflicts and w ars. It’s interesting to see how the European Central
Bank (ECB) has recently taken its m ost am bitious step yet tow ard easing the
euro zone crisis, spread ing respon sibility for repaying national d ebts to the
euro zone countries as a group. Thanks to this m ove Mario Draghi, the
Italian presid ent of the ECB, has been recently assessed to be “the m ost
169
ESRIF Draft Final Rep ort (2009), p g.11.
232
Conclu sions. A new gram m ar for international relations…
pow erful central banker in the w orld” 170, and his financial strategy a critical
elem ent (if not the m ost im portant tod ay) for restoring confid ence and
prosperity in the Old Continent. Ind eed , the ECB’s w ay ahead represents a
m ajor evolution from its original narrow m and ate to restrain inflation,
paving the w ay for a m ore fed eral Europe, but in its essence characterizes a
“d efence” from an irregular form of attack that affects hum an beings w ho
are sharing a political territory m uch w ider than any single state. H um an
security tod ay, at least at these latitud es in the w orld , is v ery m uch
d epend ent on the w ay the European political lead ers coord inate and
stabilize their interd epend ent economies and , m ore generally, the respective
banking system s. In practical term s, the situation highlighted by Danielle
Moretti-Langholtz citing H olm s, Marcus and N ash, stressing the im pact of
supranational markets that are “virtually invisible and inaccessible from the
stand point of conventional political id eology and practice”, in d efining our
era.
As w e turn our sight elsew here, the above d escribed highly
sophisticated approach fad es aw ay to give space to less com prehensive
environm ents. In the m ajority of the African Continent, w here the num ber
of civil w ars is d ecreasing, but the number of inter -state w ars and low
intensity conflicts is increasin g, security often m eans freed om from violence
and from fear, and hum an security encom passes infant d eaths,
m alnutrition, insufficient m ed ical treatm ent, low life expectancy, political
instability, and the like. The African Union, the new com er organization
found ed in 2000 m irroring the EU structure, has put security and d efence at
the hearth of its policies, im proving cooperation and integration am ong its
m em bers. Many states have joint a new form ulated Com m on African
Defence and Security Policy, and und ertake joint peace operations, in an
intellectual fram ew ork in w hich the physical security of hum an beings still
represents the m ain concern. In this context, tw o layers of security
com m unities 171 are d eveloping in parallel: continental (e.g. the African
170
International H erald Tribu ne: “ECB takes new p ow ers”, Frid ay, Sep tem ber 7,
2012, p g 2.
171
“A secu rity com m u nity can be d efined as a grou p of states joined by collective
id entity and shared valu es, not ju st by com m on threats”. See Bened ikt Franke in
233
Mau rizio Boni
Union) and regional (e.g. the African Regional Econom ic Com m unities)
w ith m any states being m em bers of both types. This m eans that the African
continental security system is currently d ecentralized , incorporating
regional security initiatives into continental policy. Decentralization m eans
regions feel d irect ow nership of the continental security system and have
central role in d ecision -m aking. This red uces com petition betw een the
layers and reassures states previously opposed to centralising security 172 ,
but although security cooperation has im proved , in som e areas of Africa
there is no guarantee that this articulated approach w ill continue, d ue to the
existing end em ic econom ic, social and political shortfalls. N otw ithstanding
the setting up of structures and institutions to im plem ent new courses,
w id ening the scope of the security agend a rem ains challenging.
In China, w here the hum an rights issue rem ains unsolved , there is
sim ply no chance to aband on the state-centric hard m ilitary dim ension of
security, since Beijing’s m ain focus is the sustainm ent of its aggressive
econom ic global expansion and the preservation of its unparalleled m ilitary
superiority in East Asia.
“Africa’s Evolving Secu rity Architectu re and the Concep t of Mu ltilayered Secu rity
Com m u nities”. Coop eration and Conflict, Sep tem ber 2008, vol.43 no.3
172
Ibid .
234
Conclu sions. A new gram m ar for international relations…
and military elites are united in their strong belief that Russia foreign and
security policy m ust aim at regaining and consolid ating its status of great
pow er. Second , the country’s specific geopolitical situation: the perm anent
encirclem ent synd rom e that pervad es the Russian lead ership since
centuries, the consequent struggle for m aintaining sovereignty and
influence over the rem aining territories of the form er Soviet Union, and the
effort to contain the effects of a perceived grow ing w estern pressure.
Therefore, the trad itional Russian political culture of the id ea of the state
representing an end in itself rather than serving the interests of the society ,
coupled to an intrinsic vocation to pow er projection, ham pers the possibility
to apply the parad igm s of the critical security stud ies.
In the Korean Peninsula, the tw o Koreas have been suffering through a
long period of m ilitary confrontation since the years of the Korean War in
the fifties, and there is little hope that the situation w ill im prove in the near
future. Over the last few years both Korea have strengthened their arm ed
forces, and after the 2010 N orth Korean attack in the West Sea, the milita ry
build up is likely to continue in the years ahead . Military confrontation is an
extension of political confrontation fund ed on the incom patibility of the
political, econom ic, and social system s of the tw o states. While the northern
society is locked in a d ictatorship, the economic d ynam ism of the Southern
state com pensates the lead ing conventional m ilitary d im ension of security.
A kind of situation that the about 16 m illion inhabitants populating the
d isputed territory of Kashm ir, betw een Ind ia and Pakistan, are used to since
the UN-brokered ceasefire on 1 January 1949, w ith the aggravating
circum stance of the presence of nuclear w eapons. A recent Chatham
H ouse’s stud y illustrates that for a large majority of the population (81%)
unem ploym ent is thought to be the m ost significant problem faced by
Kashmiris. Governm ent corruption, poor econom ic d evelopm ent, human
rights abuses and the Kashmir conflict itself are all given as the main
problem s facing people 173.
In Cyprus, the event of a m assive flow of incomin g European citizens
living in the nearby territories of the Mid d le East using the island as a safe
173
Robert W. Brad nock: “Kashm ir: Paths to Peace”, King’s College & Associate
Fellow , Asia Program m e, Chatam H ou se, May 2010.
235
Mau rizio Boni
area in case of turm oil represents for the populations of the Greek portion of
the island , a m ajor source of concern. As the Cypriots alread y experienced
such an occurrence in 2006 in the occasion of the Lebanon crisis, they
consid er this possible incid ent a form of “asymm etric w arfare 174”. On the
other hand , since the partition of the island in 1974, the Greek Cypriots are
the protagonists of a w eird living con d ition as each citizen is keeping a rifle
along w ith som e 500 round s of am m unition beneath the bed , fearing a
m ilitary invasion com ing from the Turkish -controlled portion of the island .
A security parad ox of the 21th Century in w hich, respectively, an EU a nd a
N ATO m em bers, confront on the basis of purely political-m ilitary
consid erations.
If w e look at the Mid d le East, still the higher m ilitarized region in the
w orld and probably the m ost com plex from a geopolitical stand point,
national security is normally seen in term s of m ilitary strength and internal
security operations against extrem ists and insurgents. The upheavals of the
Arab Spring have highlighted how national security is m easured in term s of
the politics, economics, and social tensions that shape national stability as
w ell. The w rong kind of internal security efforts, and national security
spend ing that has lim ited the ability to m eet popular need s and
expectations can d o as m uch to und erm ine national security over tim e as
external and extrem ist threats. Ongoing d om estic changes throughout the
region are becom ing increasing im portant and issues such as political and
econom ical reform s, civil m ilitary relations, lead ership change, and the
inform ation revolution are all affecting regional security d y namics, but it is
far from certain that the regime changes w ill evolve into functional
d em ocracies and governance. The religious rivalry, alone, is a d ominant
elem ent of the equation and the future of the entire area d epends on the
outcom e of the ongoing d ispute betw een Shiites and Sunnis. In the
fram ew ork of the com plex Syrian crisis, for exam ple, m ilitant Sunnis from
Iraq have been head ing to Syria to fight against Presid ent Bashar al-Assad
for m onths since the beginning of the civil w ar. While I’m w ritin g, Iraqi
174
Concep t exp ressed to the au thor by the Director of Larnaca Civil Defense in the
occasion of the Exercise “ARGON AUT 2012” held in that city in October 2012,
sim u lating a N on Com batant Evacu ation Op eration (N EO) in Cyp ru s.
236
Conclu sions. A new gram m ar for international relations…
Shiites are joining the battle in increasing numbers, but on the governm ent’s
sid e, “d riving Syria ever closer to becoming a regional sectarian
battlefield ” 175.
In Central Am erica, citizen insecurity is d riven by crim inal threats,
fragile political and jud icial system s and social hard ships such as poverty
and unem ploym ent, w hich leave large portions of the population
susceptible to crime. Drug trafficking organizations, along w ith
transnational gangs and other organized criminal groups, put at risk t he
existence of Central American governm ents, and their respective societies,
along w ith their inhabitants. Consid ered the state of affairs of these
countries, the response to such a circum stance has been (and it’s still) rather
conventional: m ore aggressive m easures, includ ing d eploying m ilitary
forces to help police w ith public security functions and prom ulgating anti-
gang law s. Other softer preventive initiatives has been put in place, such as
intervention program s that focus on strengthening fam ilies of at-risk youth,
along w ith regional cooperation strategies that take into account the
increasing transnational nature of the threats, but nothing m ore elaborated .
This is not an exhaustive case stud ies list, but a m ore accurate analysis
of the rest of the existing political and social realities in the w orld w ouldn’t
ad d anything m ore significant in substance. There are locations w here
history hasn’t substantially m oved from the inter -state confrontation of the
20th Century, and the id ea of security is simply overlapping w ith the
conventional traditional schem e of the balance of pow er. Other places,
w here hum an security focuses just on freed om from violence and w here
state security is really an apparatus for the im position of the pow er of the
state as such, u sing a Chris Farrand s’s term .
The spectrum of possibilities varies accord ing to geographic location,
cultural, historical and social factors w hich are instrum ental to
lim iting/ expand ing the kind of possible response. On the other hand , since
broad er concepts of hum an security includ e everything from poverty to
genocid e, it has often proved too all-em bracing to be helpful in policy
d evelopm ent, posing an ad d itional layer to com plexity. The challenge
175
Yasir Ghazi and Tim Arango: “Iraqi sects join Syrian battle on both sid es”, The
International H erald Tribu ne, Mond ay, October 29, 2012, p g5.
237
Mau rizio Boni
238
Conclu sions. A new gram m ar for international relations…
The challenge: und erstand ing the system s in a PMESII environm ent
The intellectual tools to und erstand the com plexity of the current crisis
scenarios have been d eveloped by ed ucating the m ilitary lead ership along
w ith their subord inates at all levels, from the very beginning of their
respective professional careers. This mind set is w ell shared w ith a n
increasing and d ifferentiated num ber of civilian interlocutors, w ith w hom
the m ilitary w orld is used to interact, attend ing the sam e universities, post
grad uate courses as w ell as specific ed ucation and training events. Giovanni
Ercolani has alread y stressed N ATO’s consciousness of the fact that
“m ilitary m eans, although essential, are not enough on their ow n to m eet
the m any com plex challenges to our security” and that is necessary to w ork
“w ith other actors to contribute to a comprehensive approach tha t
effectively com bines political, civilian and military crisis m anagem ent
instrum ents” 176.
176
N ATO Lisbon Su m m it Declaration, Para. 8, w hich also states that the effective
im p lem entation of the com p rehensive ap p roach “requ ires all actors to contribu te in
a concerted effort based on a shared sense of resp onsibility, op enness and
d eterm ination, taking into accou nt their resp ective strengths, m and ates and roles,
as w ell as their d ecision -m aking au tonom y”.
239
Mau rizio Boni
177
Integrated m issions refer to a typ e of UN m ission in w hich there are p rocesses,
m echanism s and stru ctu res in p lace that generate and su stain a com m on strategic
objective and a com p rehensive op erational ap p roach am ong the p olitical, secu rity,
d evelop m ent, hu m an rights, and w here ap p rop riate hu m anitarian UN actors at
cou ntry level. See “United N ations Peacekeep ing Op erations -Princip les and
Gu id elines”, 2008, Chap ter 5, Para 1”Planning a United N ations Peacekeep ing
Op eration”.
178
The United States established the “Center for Com p lex Op erations” (CCO), a
congressionally m and ated center w ithin the Institu te for N ational Strategic Stu d ies,
located at the N ational Defense University on Fort Leslie J. McN air in Washington
DC. The CCO is tasked to cond u ct research, id entify lessons learn ed , enhance
training and ed u cation, and im p rove the p lanning and execu tion of interagency
op erations. w w w .ccop ortal.org/
179
The Mu ltinational Exp erim ent 5 com m u nity inclu d es 18 nations, N ATO and the
Eu rop ean Union. Sp ecifically Au stria, Canad a, Denm ark, Finland , France,
Germ any, Sp ain, Sw ed en, the United Kingd om , the United States and N ATO’s
Allied Com m and Transform ation com p rised the p artner and p articip ating nations.
Ad d itionally, Au stralia, the Czech Rep u blic, Gr eece, H u ngary, Jap an, Poland ,
Singap ore, Sou th Korea and the Eu rop ean Union are involved as observers.
240
Conclu sions. A new gram m ar for international relations…
180
General Sir Ru p ert Sm ith is a retired general. In his forty -year career in the
British Arm y he com m and ed the UK Arm ored Division in the 1990-1991 Gu lf War,
com m and ed the UN forces in Bosnia in 1995, w as General Officer Com m and ing
N orthern Ireland in 1996-99, and then served as Dep u ty Su p rem e Allied
Com m and er (DSACEUR) in N ATO. H e is the au thor of the best seller titled “The
Utility of Force – The art of War in the Mod ern World ”, p u blished by Pengu in
books in 2005.
181
Ibid .
241
Mau rizio Boni
In ord er to establish a cond ition, it’s necessary to und erstand the “road
to crisis” includ ing its root causes both at strategic level, the stage w here the
operation is being shaped , and at operational/ tactical level, the arena w here
the operation is bein g planned and executed . This is the context in w hich
the contribution of social scientists is becom ing the m ore and m ore relevant,
and w here soldiers are requested to und erstand , on their part, sociology,
psychology, anthropology and econom y because social factors perm eate
their operational environm ent. This is the context in w hich, for exam ple, the
Civil Military Cooperation (CIMIC) concept (Giovanni Ercolani’s m ain
them e), has been thought, d eveloped and fully im plem ented .
Desireè Pangerc offers the opportunity to apply her field w ork
m ethod ology to another hum an trafficking scenario in the H orn of Africa,
w here thousand s of refugees from Som alia and Ethiopia m ake their w ay to
the sm uggling hubs in Puntland , Som aliland (tw o sem iautonom ous regions
of Som alia) and Djibouti, for a risky journey across the Gulf of Ad en to
Yem en, and other locations in Mid d le East. Smugglers and pirates w ork
hand in hand w ith the form ers loaning their boats to the latters. In return,
the pirates pay the sm ugglers a percentage of the ransom they receive from
a pirated vessel. Very often, pirates and sm ugglers overlap as pirates skiffs
are used in a d ual role. On their w ay to Yem en filled w ith m igrants, and
then equipped to attack com m ercial vessels before sailing back to the
northern coast of Som alia. The m ajority of the m ilitary navies running
counter piracy operations in the region 182 can d o alm ost nothing to contrast
hum an trafficking at sea, because this occurrence legally exceed s their
m and ate. On land , instead , there is m ore r oom for action as the
international com m unity is com mitted in establishing the cond ition of a
stable and functional governance in Puntland and Som aliland through,
am ong other initiatives, the erad ication of piracy and the other illegal
activities, includ in g hum an sm uggling, that ham per social and econom ic
d evelopm ent along the coast. In the com prehensive fram ew ork of the
“Capacity Build ing”, som e European nations and the United States’ arm ed
forces, are im plem enting projects to strengthen Puntland and Som aliland ’s
182
Mostly acting u nd er N ATO/ EU flags, or ru nning national cou nter p iracy
m issions as “Ind ep end ent Dep loyers” like Ru ssia, Ind ia, China, and even Iran.
242
Conclu sions. A new gram m ar for international relations…
183
The term “Three Block w ar” w as coined by General Charles C. Kru lak w hen he
served as Com m and ant of the United States Marine Corp s (1995-1999). Based u p on
the challenges the Marines faced in “failed states” su ch as Som alia and the form er
Yu goslavia, he offered the concep t as a m etap hor to d escribe the d em and s of the
m od ern battlefield . This is im agined to be u rban and asym m etrical, an environm ent
w ith few d istinctions betw een com batant and noncom batant. The fou rth block has
been ad d ed later on, to reflect the “reconstru ction” p ortion of a p o ssible m ission.
243
Mau rizio Boni
im plem entation of the CA, a relevant cluster of other states anchor the
em ploym ent of the military to m ore conventional roles, especially in those
areas of the globe w here the interstate confrontation parad igm of the past
centuries rem ains still extant. Rupert Sm ith reinforces this id ea:
“The higher ed ucational levels of the w est European arm ies,
the expectations of their societies as to how sold iers should be
treated and em ployed, all d ictate the nature and operating
m ethod of those forces. At the risk of a gross generalization,
they are technologically d epend ent, require consid er able
resources to keep them in the field com fortably, and their
political m asters tend to not be prepared to risk them ” 184.
One good exam ple of consid ering the hum an being as the focal point
for d eveloping innovative social and political settings is represented by
Khaled Fouad Allam ’s analysis of the ongoing deterioration of N orth Africa
and Mid d le East geopolitical situation. H e affirm s that d uring the last 30
years, Europe has been failing in d efining a tim ely political architecture
capable of inserting the south bank of the Med iterranean into the d ynamics
of globalization. The ad option of such a narrow m ind ed approach focusing
just on “regim es elites” instead of “people and societies”, and characterized
by a structural lack of com m unication and real und erstanding, prevented
analysts and d ecision m akers sitting either in Bru ssels or in any other
w estern capital, to pred ict the events w hich are currently grouped und er the
184
Ru p ert Sm ith, “The Utility of Force – The art of War in the Mod ern World ”, p g.
22.
244
Conclu sions. A new gram m ar for international relations…
very w ell know n term of “Arab Spring”. N otably, accord ing to Allam , one
of the m ost relevant causes of this failure has been the im plementation of
the w estern com m unity’s “good neighbourhood”/ ”partnership” strategies,
d eveloped d uring the 1960s and 1970s, and now totally obsolete.
Migrations, turm oils and civil w ars are long lasting processes, w hich
are effecting both north -south and Europe-Arab’s perceptions of the
relationship betw een the notions of territory, personal id entity and
governance. In particular, as they perm anently set up in the European
territory, the thousand s of im migrants coming from the scourged Maghreb
are und erm ining the conventional w ay of thinking on this issue. Looking
w ith a m ed ium / long term perspective, it’s becom ing the m ore and more
d ifficult to apply a rational d efinition of geographic bound aries to not
hom ogeneous populations w ho recognize them selves as a part of a (new )
com m on “p olitical space”. In other term s, “heterogeneity”, to be assum ed ,
as Allam points out, as the main functioning principle of current society,
brings along a m ore fluid notion of territoriality w hich effects, in turn, the
political governance. The future “European id entity” w ill therefore d epend
on how this political space w ill be perceived by its assorted inhabitants, and
on how far it w ill be physically extend ed .
Faced w ith the need to d evelop a new interface m echanism w ith the
effected populations/ societies, and to build up innovative form s of
governance, the w estern com m unity seem s incapable of appreciating the
ongoing social/ anthropological changes, lacking a visionary approach and
the d efinition of clear objectives to achieve as w ell. We are therefore
m anaging the globalization processes in presence of a critical asym m etry.
On one sid e, the real effects of such revolution in term s of m igrations,
financial speculations, oscillating courses of econom y m arkets, and new
d em and s for political lead erships. On th e other sid e, the reality of the
outd ated 20th Century’s instrum ents and m od alities inspiring the current
ineffective political options. What is therefore m issing, as Allam articulates,
is a “new gram m ar for international relations” und erstood as the
“substance of relations betw een system s merging in d ifferent contexts”.
This new “gram m ar” should consid er the Med iterranean area, in its
entirety, as an interm ediate political space in the w orld system in w hich
“circularity” and “connecting rings” prevail on the existing conventional
245
Mau rizio Boni
d ivid ing lines. In w hich, the national state enters the globalization challenge
w ith the perspective of ad apting its structure to a constant grow ing of
d iasporas and “contamination”, that contem plates the territory as nothing
m ore than a “supporting carrying vector”. Transition m easures to
accom pany this d evelopm ents and to integrate m inorities are essential,
bearing in mind that integration m eans to feel the affiliation to a com m unity
sharing a com m on d estiny, as ind ivid uals as w ell as collectively. Facing an
em ergency after another w ithout projects, in a political vacuum and w ithout
a clear und erstand ing of the new need s, lead s the w ay to conflict. In the
Med iterranean area, there is the risk to convert its south bank into a sort of
south European “security line”, separating populations sharing alread y the
sam e political and social environm ent.
Stretching the concept, Allam pred icts the political geography for the
next 30-40 years to come characterized , as he firm ly believes, by “ interface
relationships” betw een three geo-political system s/ connecting rings, in
w hich the w orld circulation w ill take place, such as
Europe/ Africa/ Mediterranean – Asia/ Pacific – Australia/ Oceania.
This fascinating analysis carries the high “d estabilizing ” potential to
put und er question the conventional notion of nation state itself, along w ith
the elaborated institutional architecture d eveloped in Europe through
d ecad es. As Europeans, consid ering the characteristics that d ifferentiate
N orth African political and social cond itions from those of the rem aining of
the Med iterranean area, w e should focus on the first “ring” in particular,
setting the interface m echanism s betw een Maghreb and the Old Continent.
In fact Maghreb, w here societies are relatively unconnected from their
neighbours, d iffers from Mid d le East w here the politics of Syria and
Lebanon, for exam ple, cannot be d ivorced from stability issues in Jord an an
Iraq, or from the fearful reactions of Turkey and Israel, w ith a bigger
d ifficulty to apply Allam ’s circularity parad igm as such. Is the alread y
m entioned European com prehensiveness, capable of ad apting its heavy
bureaucratic m echanism s w hen confronted w ith the perspective of a
territory und erstood as just a “carrying vector”? What is security (and
hum an security) in the fram ew ork of such an “interm ed iate/ new com m on”
and “contam inated” political space? H ow should w e harm onize
246
Conclu sions. A new gram m ar for international relations…
185
Tariq Ram ad an is p rofessor of contem p orary Islam ic stu d ies at Oxford
University and he is the au thor, m ost recently, of “Islam and the Arab Aw akening”.
H is view s, cited in this p ap er, are exp ressed in the article titled “Waiting for an
Arab Sp ring of Id eas”, International H erald Tribu ne, Mond ay, October, 1, 2012, p g
8.
247
Mau rizio Boni
netw orks com posed of courts, regulatory agencies and executives, all of
w hom are netw orking w ith their counterparts abroad , creating a d ense level
of relations. Und erstood as critical dim ension of any w orld ord er, these
netw orks can becom e the solution to the “globalization parad ox”, w hich is
explained as follow s:
186
Anne-Marie Slau ghter: “A N ew World Ord er”. Princeton University Press, 2004
p g.8.
187
“A global p olicy netw ork inclu d es anyone w ho is interested . It inclu d es
nongovernm ental organizations, ind ep end ent exp erts, activists, scientists and
international officials; it can also inclu d e the p rivate sector. The id ea is that to
im p lem ent global p olicy, w e need to harness everyone”. A new World Ord er. Anne
Marie Slau ghter, Joanne Myers. Pu blic Affairs, Ap ril 15, 2004. Available on
248
Conclu sions. A new gram m ar for international relations…
- “to point ou t their proliferation in every place w e have eyes to see” 189 for
m any of the sam e reasons;
- to call the attention to the fact that government officials, w ho once
d efined their jobs as d om estic, increasingly see their w ork as having an
249
Mau rizio Boni
190
Anne Marie Slau ghter, Joanne Myers. Pu blic Affair s.
191
Anne-Marie Slau ghter, p g 152.
192
Ibid .
193
Anne-Marie Slau ghter, p g 39.
194
Anne-Marie Slau ghter, p g 43.
195
“Seeing the w orld throu gh the lenses of d isaggregated rather than u nitary states
allow s lead ers, p olicym akers, analysts, or sim p ly concerned citizens to see featu res
250
Conclu sions. A new gram m ar for international relations…
of the global p olitical system that w ere p reviou sly hid d en. Anne -Marie Slau ghter,
p g.5.
196
As d efined by Abram and Antonia Chayes in “The new Sovereignty:
Com p liance w ith International Regu latory Agreem ents”. Cam brid ge, Mass.:
H arvard University Press, 1995.
197
Zygm u nt Bau m an, “Liqu id Mod ernity”, Cam brid ge, Polity, 2000.
251
Mau rizio Boni
198
Raym ond L.M. Lee, “Bau m an, Liqu id Mod ernity and Dilem m as of
Develop m ent”, Thesis Eleven, N u m ber 83, N ovem ber 2005, SAGE Pu blications,
Lond on.
199
Griseld a Pollock, “Liqu id Mod ernity and Cu ltu ral Analysis – An Introd u ction to
a Trannsd iscip linary Encou nter”, Theory, Cu ltu re & Society 2007, SGAE
Pu blications, Lond on.
252
Conclu sions. A new gram m ar for international relations…
6. Concluding remarks
253
Mau rizio Boni
To im plem ent such a modus operandi, a holistic and visionary m ind set is
need ed , in ord er to grasp the essence of the evolutionary trends in each
“anthropological space”, to overcome com m onplaces and to challenge
conventional interpretations of reality. The sam e flexible and ad aptable
m ind set, though, capable of telling the d ifference betw een circum stances in
w hich interpreting evolutionary trend s and evolving cycles is a m ust, from
those in w hich provid ing a solid and functional governm ent in all its
aspects is the only w orkable solution. This is not a utopian proposal, but
rather a call for a m ore, I think, w orthy policy. If I w as right in capturing the
spirit of each paper I have read , all the contributors to this book could be
im portant actors in d eveloping such an articulated proced ure as true
architects of a possible new w orld . It’s just a matter of selecting a context
and to start w orking.
254
The Contributors
Fina Antón Hurtado is Professor of Social Anthropology at the University of Murcia,
Spain. She started researching on the topic of Symbolic Anthropology, analysing
popular religiosity in Murcia. The results of her research brought about the publication
of her book: De la Virgen de la Arrixaca a la Virgen de la Fuensanta. Recently, Prof.
Antón Hurtado has focused on the themes of identity, consciousness and meaning in
advanced societies, and on these topics, together with Professor Luis Alvarez
Munárriz, she co-edited the book: Conciencia e identidad en la Comunidad de Murcia.
Prof. Antón Hurtado has published extensively in both national and international
academic journals. Her articles are to be found in 'Sociedad y Utopía’, ‘Bitarte’ and
‘Gazeta de Antropología’ (Spain), ‘Sociétés’, and ‘Revue de Sciences Sociales de la
France de l'Est’ (France), and ‘Rivoltare il tempo’ (Italy). Prof. Antón Hurtado’s
current investigations are concentrated on Criminal Anthropology and Anthropology
and Security.
Maurizio Boni is a Brigadier General in the Italian Army and the Commander of the
Italian Joint Force Headquarters in Rome. He holds a Master’s Degree in Strategic
Sciences (University of Turin, Italy), a Master’s Degree in International and
Diplomatic Relations (University of Trieste, Italy) and a Master of Arts in Global
Strategy and Security (“La Sapienza’’ University of Rome, Italy). His international
education includes the international Training Course in Security Policy at the Graduate
Institute of International Studies in Geneva and the European Security and Defence
Policy High level Course, at the ESDP College in Brussels. He has published several
articles focusing on security policy in the Military Review. He is also the author of two
books, namely “Arms Control and International Security’’ (2003) and “The Political-
Military Dimension of the OSCE” (2009). During his career, Brigadier General Boni
served as a faculty Member and Syndicate Chairman at the Center for Higher Defence
Studies at the Joint Services Senior Staff College in Rome. He was lecturer at the
“Alcide De Gasperi” Post Graduate Institute of European Studies in Rome where he
supervised the Course on “European Security and Defence Policy” for two consecutive
academic years (2005-2006 and 2006-2007). Brigadier General Boni is a journalist and
Research fellow in the History of War and Military Institutions at the Faculty of
Political Science, University of Bari, Italy.
255
Giovanni Ercolani is Thesis Advisor for the “Peace Operations Training Institute”,
USA.
A Doctor in Political Science and Oriental Studies, both from the “La Sapienza”
University of Rome, Italy, he holds an M.A. in Politics and Government from St.
John’s University, USA, and a Master’s in Social Anthropology from the University of
Murcia, Spain. Previously, Dr. Ercolani served at the NATO
COMLANDSOUTHEAST HQ in Izmir, Turkey. He has been a Research Associate at
the “Scottish Centre for International Security” at the University of Aberdeen, UK. Dr.
Ercolani has lectured on international security issues and political anthropology in
Italy, the United Kingdom, Spain, Portugal, Slovenia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Romania,
Albania, Turkey and China. He is a specialist in Anthropology and Security Studies,
International Terrorism, Security Studies, International Relations, Human Security,
Conflicts, Peacekeeping and International Conflict Resolution, CIMIC, Intelligence,
the Geopolitics of Energy, and Energy Security. He is a regional expert on Turkey, the
Caucasus, and the Black Sea. Dr. Ercolani is a fellow of the Royal Anthropological
Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, UK, a member of the Royal Institute of
International Affairs, Chatham House, London and of the Royal United Services
Institute, UK, and Research Associate at the Centre for Energy and Environment
Security, Nottingham Trent University, UK.
256
Harvey Langholtz is a professor in the Department of Psychology at the College of
William and Mary. His area of specialty is the Psychology of Peacekeeping. His
publications include two books: The Psychology of Peacekeeping and The Psychology
of Diplomacy as well as journal articles on decision making and resource allocation.
From 1991 to 1993 he was a member of the US Delegation to the United Nations and
the US Representative to the UN Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations.
Prof. Langholtz holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oklahoma, an MS from the US
Navy Postgraduate School at Monterey, California, an MA from the New School for
Social Research in NY, and a BA from SUNY Oneonta.
257
with interventions in Africa and Europe. Since 1979, he has worked in 23 African, 3
Asian, 1 Latin American, and 9 European countries. Dr. Ramazzotti is a designer,
manager, and evaluator for development and emergency (post-war) projects. He has
been a consultant for UN agencies, European and African governments, NGOs and
companies. Having done research in Italy, the UK, France, Belgium and Portugal, he is
a trainer in un-armed security for NGOs and religious missions. His publications deal
with juridical anthropology (African traditional legal systems), institutional analysis,
conflict analysis and security, and Angolan history. Dr. Ramazzotti is married with two
children.
258
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