Digital Signal Processing 56 (2016) 1–14

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Digital Signal Processing

www.elsevier.com/locate/dsp

Multiplication and convolution of distributions

for signal processing theory
Dai Akita
Graduate School of Life Science, Hokkaido University, N10W8, Sapporo, Japan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In the theory of signal processing, signals are usually classified either by determining whether their
Available online 26 May 2016 time domain is discrete or continuous, or by determining whether they are periodic. However, no
comprehensive definitions of multiplication and convolution exist that are consistent with the theories
Keywords:
behind all classes, although some important theorems in signal processing involve multiplication and
Theory of signal processing
Multiplication of distributions
convolution. In order to unite the theories behind these classifications, we will consider tempered
Convolution of distributions distributions. In this paper, we propose an approach to the multiplication and convolution of distributions
Tempered distributions that is appropriate to signal processing theory, and prove a well-known theorem regarding the impulse
LTI systems response of continuous linear time-invariant systems of tempered distributions in the context of this new
approach.
© 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The theory of distributions that is described in detail in Sec-

tion 2 integrates the four theories regarding the Fourier transform.
This theory states that a discrete-time signal f [n] can be expressed
A signal is defined in standard textbooks as a complex-
in terms of a delta function δ(x) and a sampling time T s as
valued function, whose domain is called time. Signals are called
continuous-time signals if the time is denoted by a real number, ∞

and discrete-time signal if the time is denoted by an integer. To f (t ) = f [k]δ(t − kT s ). (1)
emphasize that a signal f is a discrete-time signal, the expres- k=−∞
sion f [n] can be applied. Furthermore, signals can be classified
Although δ(t ) itself is defined in standard textbooks by the prop-
based on whether they exhibit periodicity – that is, whether there
erties
exists a number T > 0 such that f (t − T ) = f (t ) when f is con-
tinuous, or an integer N > 0 such that f [n − N ] = f [n] when f δ(t ) = 0 (t = 0) (2)
is discrete. Signals for which such T or N exist are called periodic
signals; signals with no periodicity are called non-periodic signals. and
Because signals are classified by domain and periodicity, there b
are four methods of analyzing the frequency spectrum: Fourier
δ(t )dt = 1 (a < 0 < b), (3)
series for continuous-time periodic signals, Fourier transforms for
continuous-time non-periodic signals, discrete Fourier transforms for a

discrete-time periodic signals, and discrete-time Fourier transforms
for discrete-time non-periodic signals. Corresponding to the the-
ory of Fourier transforms, there are four different definitions of
a convolution. However, while the relationships between Fourier
transforms and convolutions are similar in each of the four cases,
four separate theories of signal processing are presented in stan-
dard textbooks.
E-mail address: akitad@mail.sci.hokudai.ac.jp.
there is in fact no function that satisfies both conditions. Distribu-
tion theory provides a mathematically precise approach for dealing
with δ(t ), such that the distributional Fourier transform gives us
the four Fourier transforms mentioned above [1].
Even if we consider discrete-time signals as distributions, mul-
tiplications between continuous-time signals and discrete-time sig-
nals are not preserved for existing definitions of multiplication for
distributions, because the product δ · δ is not considered to be a
distribution. Moreover, most conventional convolutions of distribu-
tions are only valid for distributions with a specific period, or only

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dsp.2016.05.008
1051-2004/© 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 D. Akita / Digital Signal Processing 56 (2016) 1–14

for distributions that have no period. In this paper, we propose a
multiplication of distributions that preserves the multiplication of
signals and admits a definition of a convolution of distributions
that does not depend on whether the distributions have a period
or not. To this end, the theory of distributions and the results of
previous studies on the multiplication and convolution of distri-
butions are introduced in Section 2. Then, a multiplication and a
convolution of distributions appropriate to signal processing theory
are defined in Sections 3 and 4, respectively.
If T f has a value for any ϕ ∈ S and continuity on S , then T f is a
tempered distribution. Then, we also use the expression f to refer
to T f as a distribution.
In fact, there exist some sufficient conditions for a function f
on R to be a tempered distribution T f . The following theorem
states one of these conditions [3].
Theorem 1. Let f be a complex-valued, Lebesgue-measurable function
on R. If there exist C > 0 and a non-negative integer K such that

2. Tempered distributions | f (t )| ≤ C (1 + |t |) K (11)

2.1. Conditions for signals to be tempered distributions for almost all t, then T f ∈ S .

Schwartz [2] defined a distribution as a continuous linear func- We let Q M denote the space of functions satisfying the condi-
tional, so that δ is defined as a functional δ : ϕ (t ) → ϕ (0) corre- tions of Theorem 1.
sponding to the heuristic equation Before introducing the condition for a discrete-time signal to be
a tempered distribution, we justify expression (1). As mentioned in
∞
the first part of this subsection, δ is defined as a tempered distri-
δ(t )ϕ (t )dt = ϕ (0). (4) bution, so that for any ϕ ∈ S ,
−∞
δ, ϕ  = ϕ (0). (12)
However, we have to consider that the domain of the functional is
a restricted function space. The translation of distributions τh is an operator parametrized with
A rapidly decreasing function is an infinitely differentiable com- h ∈ R, such that for any F ∈ S ,
plex-valued function ϕ (t ) satisfying
τh F , ϕ  =  F , ϕ (t + h) . (13)
  
k  (n) 
sup (1 + |t |) ϕ (t ) < ∞, (5) We may employ the notation δ(t − h) for τh δ . In addition, we de-
t ∈R
n+k≤ N fine the operator reflection of distributions, denoted by ˇ, as
for any non-negative integer N. We express the space of rapidly  
decreasing functions as S , and define convergence in S as follows. F̌ , ϕ (t ) =  F , ϕ (−t ) . (14)
A sequence of a rapidly decreasing functions {ϕ j } is said to con-
Furthermore, we define the convergence of tempered distributions
verge to ϕ if for any non-negative integer N,
  as follows. A sequence of tempered distributions { F N } is said to
  
lim
(n)
sup (1 + |t |)k ϕ j (t ) − ϕ (n) (t ) = 0. (6) converge to F ∈ S if
j →∞ t ∈R
n+k≤ N ∀ϕ ∈ S lim  F N , ϕ  =  F , ϕ  . (15)
N →∞
A tempered distribution F is a continuous linear functional of
rapidly decreasing functions, where the value of F at ϕ is de- In
∞particular, for a sequence Nof tempered distributions { F N },
scribed as  F , ϕ . The continuity of a functional F in S is defined k=−∞ F k denotes lim N →∞ k=− N F k . Using this definition, a
as follows. A functional F is continuous if for any sequence {ϕ j } discrete-time signal f is regarded as a tempered distribution with
which converges to 0 in S , sampling time T s > 0 if
 

lim F , ϕ j = 0. (7) ∞
 
N
j →∞
 f , ϕ = f [k]δ(t − kT s ), ϕ = lim f [k]ϕ (kT s )
N →∞
If necessary, we employ the notation  F (t ), ϕ (t ) to express the k=−∞ k=− N
variable of ϕ explicitly. Moreover, we denote the space of a tem- (16)
pered distributions by S . Then, the Fourier transform of a tempered
distribution F is defined as follows: has a value for any ϕ ∈ S , and if  f , ϕ j  → 0 whenever ϕ j → 0
in S .
F [ F ], ϕ  =  F , F [ϕ ] , (8) Just as arbitrary continuous-time signals cannot be regarded
where ϕ ∈ S , F ∈ S , and
F [ϕ ] on the right-hand side is the clas- as tempered distributions, not all discrete-time signals are tem-
sical Fourier transform of the rapidly decreasing function pered distributions. However, in contrast to the case of continuous-
time signals, there exists a necessary and sufficient condition for a
∞ discrete-time signal to be regarded as a tempered distribution. To
F [ϕ ](ω) = ϕ (t ) exp(−i ωt )dt . (9) show this, we introduce two theorems from [4].
−∞
Theorem 2. Let f [n] be a discrete-time signal. If there exist real numbers
This Fourier transform is a one-to-one mapping of S onto it-
M and K such that
self [3]. Here, and throughout this article, the Lebesgue integral
is used. | f [n]| ≤ M |n| K (17)
Now, we describe how signals can be regarded as distributions. N
For a continuous-time signal f , consider a functional T f such that for all non-zero n ∈ Z, then for any ω0 > 0, lim N →∞ k=− N f [k] ×
for a given ϕ ∈ S , exp(ikω0 t ) converges to a tempered distribution.

∞
  Theorem 3. Let F ∈ S . If there exists P > 0 such that
T f ,ϕ = f (t )ϕ (t )dt . (10)
−∞
τP F = F , (18)
 D. Akita / Digital Signal Processing 56 (2016) 1–14 3

√
then there exists a discrete-time signal f [n] such that almost periodic function f (t ) = sin t + sin 2t, despite being non-
∞
  periodic, is not usually discussed in textbooks because its Fourier
2π ikt transform as function
F= f [k] exp . (19)
P ∞
k=−∞

Moreover, there exist real numbers M and K such that F [ f ](ω) = f (t ) exp(−i ωt )dt (25)
−∞
| f [n]| ≤ M |n| K (20)
cannot be defined. However, as tempered distribution
√ f (√
t ) has a
for all non-zero n ∈ Z. Fourier transform (δ(t − 1) − δ(t + 1) + δ(t − 2) − δ(t + 2))/2i.
Recognizing signals as tempered distributions enables us to treat
Further, we will employ the following additional theorem mathematically troublesome problems of this sort.
from [3]. To conclude this subsection, we define some sets relating to
distributions. A tempered distribution F is said to vanish on an
Theorem 4. Let { F N } be a sequence of tempered distributions. Then, open set  if
{ F N } converges to the tempered distribution F if and only if {F [ F N ]}
converges to F [ F ]. ∀ϕ ∈ S , supp ϕ ⊂  ⇒  F , ϕ  = 0, (26)

and we denote the union of the open sets on which F vanishes by

Applying these results, we can obtain a necessary and sufficient Z ( F ). Then, the support of F is defined as
condition for a discrete-time signal to be regarded as a tempered
distribution. supp F = R \ Z ( F ). (27)

Corollary 1. Let f [
n] be a discrete-time signal, and let T s be a positive 2.2. Preservation of multiplication and integration of convolution
∞
real number. Then, k=−∞ f [k]δ(t − kT s ) is a tempered distribution if
and only if there exist real numbers M and K such that Let T be a mapping from Q M to S such that

| f [n]| ≤ M |n| K (21) ∞

∀ f ∈ QM , ϕ ∈ S T [ f ], ϕ  = f (t )ϕ (t )dt , (28)
for all non-zero n ∈ Z.
−∞

Proof. Let and for T s > 0, let T T s be a mapping from O M to S such that

N
∞

TN = f [k]δ(t − kT s ) (22)  
∀ f ∈ OM , ϕ ∈ S TT s [ f ], ϕ = f [k]ϕ (kT s ). (29)
k=− N
k=−∞
and
We let T [Q M ] = {T [ f ]| f ∈ Q M } and T T s [O M ] = {T T s [ f ]| f ∈ O M }.

N Then, continuous-time signals in Q M and discrete-time signals in
S N = F [T N ] = f [k] exp(ikT s t ). (23) OM can be regarded as tempered distributions given by T and T T s
k=− N respectively, according to the subsection 2.1. Moreover, the Fourier
transforms of signals correspond to the Fourier transforms of their
Then, { T N } converges to a tempered distribution if and only if { S N }
representations as tempered distributions.
converges, from Theorem 4. Here, if there exist such M and K ,
However, while both Q M and O M constitute rings, the usual
then Theorem 2 implies that { S N } converges. Furthermore, if { S N }
multiplication of distributions holds only for very restricted dis-
converges to a tempered distribution, then there also must exist
tributions. For example, in many textbooks on distributions, we
such M and K according to Theorem 3, as
can find the following definition of multiplication for a tempered
∞
 ∞
 distribution and a slowly increasing function, where a slowly in-
τ2π /T s f [k] exp(ikT s t ) = f [k] exp(ikT s (t − 2π / T s )) creasing function is an infinitely differentiable function f ∈ Q M . Let
k=−∞ k=−∞ O M denote the space of a slowly increasing function. Then, the
∞
 product of F ∈ S and f ∈ O M is defined as
= f [k] exp(ikT s t ). (24)
 f F , ϕ = F , f ϕ (30)
k=−∞

Thus, { T N } converges if and only if there exist such numbers M for any ϕ ∈ S , because f ϕ ∈ S . However, this definition of multi-
and K . 2 plication cannot be applied for f , g ∈ T T s [O M ].
Consider defining a multiplication in a subset of S containing
We let O M denote the space of discrete-time signals satisfying T [Q M ] and T T s [OM ] for any T s > 0, such that T and T T s are ring
the conditions in Corollary 1. homomorphisms. Then, we find that δ · δ = δ . To explain this, set
Assuming that signals that are classified into the four classes 
1, n = 0
mentioned above can be expressed as tempered distributions in f [n] = (31)
this way, the Fourier transform defined by (8) gives us Fourier 0, else
series, the Fourier transform of a function, the discrete Fourier
transform, and the discrete-time Fourier transform, depending on so that T T s [ f ] = δ . Then, we see that
the classification [1]. Thus, the four classifications of signals and δ = TT s [ f ] = TT s [ f · f ] = TT s [ f ] · TT s [ f ] = δ · δ. (32)
their corresponding Fourier transforms may be integrated into a
single theory using tempered distributions. As will be described later, the existing definition of multiplication
In fact, tempered distributions include elements that are not for distributions considers restricted distributions, and the majority
covered by the four theories of signal processing. For example, the of studies do not define δ · δ as a distribution.
4 D. Akita / Digital Signal Processing 56 (2016) 1–14
Moreover, the convolution of distributions is only defined for
a restricted subset of distributions [5–8], and usually the defini-
tion of a convolution only holds for non-periodic distributions, as
follows. For F ∈ S and ϕ ∈ S ,
F ∗ ϕ (x) =  F (t ), ϕ (x − t ) .
For F , G ∈ S , if supp G is compact,
 
 F ∗ G , ϕ  = F , Ǧ ∗ ϕ .
The proof that these convolutions have values in S can be found
in certain textbooks on distributions (e.g., [9,10]), and in fact, the
convolution of F ∈ S and ϕ ∈ S given by equation (33) belongs
to O M . Smith [4] provides a rigorous and concise review of peri-
odic tempered distributions, and defines a convolution for periodic
tempered distributions. However, this cannot be applied to non-
periodic tempered distributions. It is preferable to have a theory
with one simple definition of convolution for an integrated treat-
ment of signals, as with Fourier transforms, rather than separate
definitions for the four cases mentioned above.
These difficulties concerning multiplication and convolution are
frustrating, especially considering that there is a single important
general formula relating the Fourier transform to multiplication
and convolution in signal processing theory,
F [ f ∗ g ] = F [ f ]F [ g ],
which appears in the theories of the respective signal classifica-
tions. If we define multiplication and convolution in a comprehen-
sive way, this theorem can be described without the classification
of signals.
In fact, the two problems are very closely related: finding inte-
grated definition of convolution means determining a multiplica-
tion that meets the criterion of formula (35), in which the right-
hand side denotes the multiplication of the spectrum. If the signal
is not periodic, then with some exceptions the spectrum is ex-
pressed by a function on R, whereas if the signal does have a
period, then the spectrum is expressed by a function on Z [1].
Therefore, if we want to calculate the convolution of periodic sig-
nals such that equation (35) holds, we must justify the equation
δ · δ = δ .1 That is, these problems are solved if there exists a mul-
tiplication such that δ · δ = δ , and we can define convolution as
f ∗ g = F −1 [F [ f ]F [ g ]] ,
where F −1 denotes the inverse Fourier transform.
The difficulty of defining the multiplication of any two distribu-
tions was considered by Schwartz [11], who showed that there is
no vector space that allows multiplication, derivation, and the ex-
istence of δ , so the expression δ · δ does not make sense. Therefore,
although some studies have extended the domain of multiplica-
tion of distributions, none of these includes δ · δ (e.g., [6,12,13]).
Thus, δ 2 has been excluded from the distribution space, but stud-
ies concerning δ 2 have proceeded by using the limit of a sequence
of functions [14]. As a result of such studies, an extended space
that includes the space of distributions has begun to be consid-
ered, termed generalized functions,2 and various multiplications of
the generalized functions have been proposed [15–17]. The expres-
various ways [15,16,18,19]. In some of these, δ 2 = δ . For exam-
ple, according to Vladimirov [19], δ 2 = C δ , where C is an arbitrary
constant, so that δ 2 = δ if we let C = 1. Bagarello [16] proposed a
multiplication of generalized functions with some parameters, and
we can choose these parameters such that δ 2 = δ . In this paper,
(33) however, these theories of generalized functions are not employed.
A new multiplication is proposed, in which δ 2 = δ in the distribu-
tion sense. The reason for not using generalized functions is that
we can utilize the theory of the Fourier transform for tempered
(34)
distributions, which has been studied for many years. Moreover we
can avoid the complex theory of generalized functions. Although,
in addition to the theory of generalized functions, non-standard
analysis has been used to justify δ 2 [20,21], our proposed defini-
tion of multiplication does not require either of these theories.
In addition to the above literature, we should refer to Ober-
guggenberger’s book [22], where many studies on multiplication
of distributions are reviewed. He describes three main approaches
to defining multiplication. The first is called “regular intrinsic op-
erations”, in which regular objects such as functions are treated
and the operations are defined classically. The second is “irregu-
lar intrinsic operations”, in which a product for particular pairs of
singular distributions is defined. The last approach, “extrinsic prod-
ucts and algebras containing the distributions”, uses objects out-
side of distributions. Furthermore, he describes a list of methods
relating to the second approach: “(a) the duality method; (b) the
(35) method of Fourier transform and convolution; (c) mollification and
passage to the limit; and (d) analytic and harmonic regularization
and passage to the limit or even extraction of the finite part.” The
approach in this paper is similar to (b), with some differences. In
the method (b), a convolution of distributions is first defined, and
then a multiplication is derived by
 
F G = F F −1 [ F ] ∗ F −1 [ G ] . (37)
In contrast, we first define a multiplication of distributions and
then derive a convolution by equation (36). As it has been noted
by Oberguggenberger [22] that it is not possible to simultaneously
have full generality, freedom in differential-algebraic manipula-
tions, and coherence with classical definitions, the domain of the
multiplication in this paper is not closed under differentiation, as
mentioned in subsection 4.1.
3. δ -Series distributions and multiplication
(36)
3.1. Definition
In this section, we will present our general definition of sig-
nal multiplication, in which the product of two discrete-time sig-
nals of δ -series form, equation (1), is the δ -series whose coeffi-
cients are products of the corresponding coefficients in the two
series. In addition, in this general definition, the product of two
continuous-time signals or the product of a continuous-time signal
and discrete-time signal will involve a limiting process, also based
on δ -series. Before presenting this general definition of multiplica-
tion, we first show that continuous-time signals may be expressed
as a limit of δ -series.
Let f : R → C be a continuous-time signal, and let
∞
 


sion δ 2 , in terms of the generalized functions, has been justified in 1 k k
fN = f δ t− N . (38)
2N 2 N 2
k=−∞
1
In [4], where Smith reviewed periodic tempered distributions, he stated a con- From Corollary 1, we have f N ∈ S for all N ∈ N. Considering the
volution theorem for periodic tempered distributions. However, equation (35) in the limit of f N as N → ∞, we obtain the following theorem.
theorem was not for the Fourier transform of tempered distributions, but for the fi-
nite Fourier transform of periodic tempered distributions.
2
Although the space of generalized functions may or may not include distribu-
Theorem 5. Let f be a complex-valued Lebesgue-measurable right con-
tions, depending on its definition, we refer to it as a set that contains the space of tinuous function on R. If there exist C > 0 and a non-negative integer K
distributions. such that
 D. Akita / Digital Signal Processing 56 (2016) 1–14 5

| f (t )| ≤ C (1 + |t |) K (39) which means that h(t ) is integrable over R. Hence, it follows from
Lebesgue’s dominated convergence theorem that
for almost all t, then the sequence { f N } defined by (38) converges to f .
∞ ∞
Proof. Let ϕ ∈ S and I N ,k = [(k − 1)/2N , k/2N ). We consider lim g N (t )dt = g (t )dt . (52)
N →∞
g (t ) = f (t )ϕ (t ), (40) −∞ −∞
∞
  
k k That is,
g N (t ) = f ϕ 1 I N ,k (t ), (41)
2N 2N
k=−∞ lim  f N , ϕ  =  f , ϕ  . 2 (53)
N →∞
where 1 I N ,k (t ) is an indicator function such that
 Remark. The idea of a multiplication involving coefficients of δ is
1, t ∈ I N ,k
1 I N ,k (t ) = (42) not new. For example, as described in [4], we can define a map-
0. t∈
/ I N ,k ping F P called a finite Fourier transform from a set of tempered
distributions of period P to a set of sequences, such that the se-
Here,
quences correspond to Fourier coefficients. Moreover, there exists
∞
   ∞ a convolution ∗ P for tempered distributions of period P such that
1 k k
 f N , ϕ = f ϕ = g N (t )dt . (43)
k=−∞
2N 2N 2N F P [ F ∗ P G ] = P F P [ F ]F P [G ]. (54)
−∞
First, we show that g N (t ) converges pointwise to g (t ). For an Here, f , g ∈ O M , F = F −1 [T
2π / P [ f ]], and G = F −1 [T
2π / P [ g ]]
arbitrary number t 0 , we can take a sequence {k1 , k2 , ...} such that with a period P . Therefore, F [ F ∗ P G ] denotes the product of the
coefficients of T2π / P [ f ] and T2π / P [ g ], although this is valid only
∀ N t 0 ∈ I N ,k N . (44) for a specific period.
Then, we see that
 
kN kN Thus, any function that satisfies the conditions of Theorem 5 is
g N (t 0 ) = f ϕ . (45) a tempered distribution, as the limit of a δ -series. Because, as se-
2N 2N
ries of δ , continuous-time signals attain the same form as discrete-
Noting that {k N /2 N } is a monotonically decreasing sequence con- time signals, it follows that we can define a new series of δ as a
verging to t 0 and f is right continuous, we have product of distributions by using the product of the coefficients of
  δ . We now define these concepts in detail. In the following defini-
kN kN
lim g N (t 0 ) = lim f ϕ = f (t 0 )ϕ (t 0 ) = g (t 0 ). tion, aZ + c and Z/b + d denote {ak + c |k ∈ Z} and {k/b + d|k ∈ Z},
N →∞ N →∞ 2N 2N respectively, for a, b, c , d > 0.
(46)
 
Now, we will show that g N (t )dt → g (t )dt ( N → ∞) by us- Definition 1. A tempered distribution F is a δ -series distribution if
ing Lebesgue’s dominated convergence theorem.3 there exist f : R → C and a sequence of sets { B N } N ∈N satisfying
Given that the following conditions:
∞

h(t ) = sup | g (x)|1 I 1,k (t ), (47) (I) { B N } = {Z/2 N }, otherwise the sequence { B N } is independent
k −1
≤x< 2k of N and there exists a finite number of positive real numbers
k=−∞ 2
T 1 , ..., T n , p 1 , ..., pn such that
we have
∀t ∈ R, N ∈ N h(t ) ≥ g N (t ). (48)

n
BN ⊂ T jZ + p j. (55)
On the other hand, there exist C , K , and L such that j =1

| f (t )| ≤ C (1 + |t |) K , (49) (II) f (t ) is Lebesgue-measurable and right continuous, and there

exist C > 0 and a non-negative integer K such that

(1 + |t |) K +2 |ϕ (t )| < L . (50) | f (t )| ≤ C (1 + |t |) K , (56)

Then,
for almost all t.
∞ ∞
1  (III) Defining
h(t )dt = sup | f (x)ϕ (x)|   
2 k −1
1/2 N , { B N } = Z/2 N
k
−∞ k=−∞ 2 ≤x< 2
JN = (57)
∞
1  1, else
≤ sup | f (x)||ϕ (x)|
2 k −1
≤x< 2k the sequence of tempered distributions
k=−∞ 2
∞ ∞ 
1  CL  CL FN = J N f (h)δ(t − h) (58)
< sup = , (51)
2 k −1 k (1 + |x|)2 (1 + 2k )2 h∈ B N
k=−∞ 2 ≤x< 2 k =0
converges to F as N → ∞. Here, in the case that B N is an
empty set we define F N as 0, and in the case that B N is an
3
This theorem can be found in many textbooks on the Lebesgue integral (e.g., infinite set the summation is defined as follows:
[23]). The claim is as follows: Given that ( X , B, μ) is a measure space and E ∈ B, 
let f n be a function that is measurable on E for all n ∈ N and f n (x) → f (x) (n → F N = lim J N f (h)δ(t − h). (59)
∞). If there exists a function ϕ (x) that is integrable
 over E and for any x ∈ E, M →∞
| f n (x)| ≤ ϕ (x) (n ∈ N), then limn→∞ E f n dμ = E f dμ. h∈ B N ∩[− M , M ]
6 D. Akita / Digital Signal Processing 56 (2016) 1–14

Let A δ denote the set of δ -series distributions. If f and where t  is the floor function. Then, T T s [ f ] is a δ -series distribu-
{ B N } satisfy the above conditions for F ∈ A δ , then we write tion ( g , { T s Z})δ .
F = ( f , { B N })δ . Moreover, we use superscripts for { B N } such as
f g fg
{ B N }, { B N }, and { B N } if we need to distinguish between different Example 5. Let f ∈ Q M be right continuous. Then, T [ f ] = ( f ,
{ B N }. The following theorem is easy to derive. {Z/2N })δ ∈ A δ according to Theorem 5.

Theorem 6. For any f and { B N } satisfying the conditions (I) and (II) of According to the definition of a δ -series distribution, { B N } in-
Definition 1, there exists a tempered distribution F such that dicates whether F is continuous or discrete. That is, if { B N } =
F = ( f , { B N })δ ∈ A δ . {Z/2N }, then F is described by a function, otherwise F is described
∞
by a summation of δ(t − h). We denote the closure of N =1 B N
by B ∞ . If { B N } = {Z/2 } then B ∞ = R, otherwise B 1 = B 2 = · · ·
N
Proof. We have already treated the case in which { B N } = {Z/2 N }, = B ∞ and the series contains no accumulation point of R accord-
so we assume that { B N } = {Z/2 N } and omit the “N” in B N and F N , ing to condition (I) of Definition 1. We use this fact in the proofs
because B N does not depend on N according to condition (I) of of some lemmas in the subsection 3.2.
Definition 1. Then, there exists a finite number of positive real For these δ -series distributions, a new multiplication of distri-
numbers T 1 , ..., T n , p 1 , ..., pn , according to that condition. There- butions is defined.
fore, given that ϕ ∈ S , we have
f g
∞
Definition 2. Given F = ( f , { B N })δ and G = ( g , { B N })δ , their prod-
 
n  fg fg
| f (h)ϕ (h)| ≤ | f (kT j + p j )||ϕ (kT j + p j )|. (60) uct is defined as F G = ( f g , { B N })δ ,
where we choose { B N } satis-
j =1 k=−∞
fying condition (I) of Definition 1 and
h∈ B
fg f g
The last term is guaranteed to have a finite value because of Corol- B∞ = B∞ ∩ B∞. (65)
lary 1, so that F is a linear functional on S . The continuity of F
in S can also be derived from equation (60), by considering a se- In Definition 2, it is obvious that f g satisfies condition (II) of
fg
quence of rapidly decreasing functions {ϕ j } that converges to 0. Definition 1, and we can choose { B N } satisfying condition (I) of
Thus, it is shown that F = ( f , { B N })δ ∈ A δ . 2 Definition 1 and equation (65). Therefore, to demonstrate well-
definedness of the multiplication, we will illustrate later that
f g
Example 1. The Heaviside function F G is independent of the choice of f , g, { B N }, and { B N } for
f g
 F = ( f , { B N })δ and G = ( g , { B N })δ . Deferring the proof of the
0, t < 0 well-definedness to the subsection 3.2, we present some exam-
u (t ) = (61) ples.
1, 0≤t

satisfies the condition (II) of Definition 1. Therefore, u is a δ -series Example 6. Let F = (t , {Z/2 N })δ and G = (sin t , {Z/2 N })δ . Here,
fg fg f g
distribution expressed by (u , {Z/2 N })δ . { B N } = {Z/2N }, because B ∞ must be B ∞ ∩ B ∞ = R ∩ R = R.
Hence, F G = (t sin t , {Z/2 N })δ .
∞
Example 2. Let F = k=−∞ kδ(t − k). Then, F ∈ A δ , because ∞
f Example 7. Let f ∈ Q M and ∞G = k=−∞ δ(t − kT s ) = (1, { T s Z})δ .
f (t ) = t and {B N }
= {Z} meet the conditions of Definition 1 for F .
Then, f G = ( f , { T s Z})δ = k=−∞ f (kT s )δ(t − kT s ).
Therefore, F is denoted by (t , {Z})δ .
g
Here, suppose that g (t ) = t cos2 (π t ) and { B N } = {Z/2}. Then,
g
g and { B N } also satisfy the conditions of Definition 1, so that Example 8. Let F = (t , {Z})δ and G = (sin t , {Z/2 N })δ . In this
fg f g fg
(t cos2 (π t ), {Z/2})δ ∈ A δ . Given that ϕ ∈ S , we have that case, B ∞ must be B ∞ ∩ B ∞ = Z ∩ R = Z. Note that B ∞ = R,
fg
{B N }
= {Z}. Thus, F G = (t sin t , {Z})δ .
  ∞
  
k kπ k Consider the additional expression (t cos2 (π t ), {Z/2})δ for F ,
(t cos2 (π t ), {Z/2})δ , ϕ = cos2 ϕ which is shown in Example 2. Then, F G = (t sin(t ) cos2 (π t ), {Z/2})δ .
2 2 2
k=−∞ Given that ϕ ∈ S , we see that
∞
  
= kϕ (k) = (t , {Z})δ , ϕ  . (62) (t sin(t ) cos2 (π t ), {Z/2})δ , ϕ
k=−∞
∞   
k k kπ k
= sin cos2 ϕ
Thus, (t cos2 (π t ), {Z/2})δ also denotes F , and so the expression of 2 2 2 2
k=−∞
F ∈ A δ is not unique.
∞

√ ∞ = k sin(k)ϕ (k) = (t sin t , {Z})δ , ϕ  . (66)
Example 3. δ(t − 2) + − 2k − 1) is a δ -series distri-
k=−∞ δ(t k=−∞
√
bution expressed √ by (1, {{2} ∪ ( 2Z + 1)})δ . We can confirm that This is an example of the well-definedness.
{ B N } = {{2} ∪ ( 2Z + 1)} satisfies the condition (I), because
√ Example 9. Let F = (exp(2π it /3), {2Z})δ and G = (exp(−π it ),
B N ⊂ Z ∪ ( 2Z + 1). (63) fg
{3Z})δ and consider their product. Then, { B N } = {6Z}. Therefore,

Example 4. Let f [n] ∈ O M and F G = (exp(−π it /3), {6Z})δ = (1, {6Z})δ . (67)
 
t The next two examples show that T and T T s are ring homo-
g (t ) = f , (64)
Ts morphisms.
 D. Akita / Digital Signal Processing 56 (2016) 1–14 7

Example 10. Let Qm be a subset of Q M , the functions of which

are right continuous, and let T [Qm ] = {T [ f ]| f ∈ Qm }. For any
f , g ∈ Qm , we can easily confirm that f g ∈ Qm and

T [ f ]T [ g ] = ( f g , {Z/2 N })δ = T [ f g ]. (68)

Hence, the mapping T : Qm → T [Qm ] is a ring homomorphism.

Example 11. For any f , g ∈ O M and T s > 0,

TT s [ f ]TT s [ g ] = ( f g , { T s Z})δ = TT s [ f g ], (69)
which means that the mapping T T s : O M → T T s [O M ] is a ring ho-
momorphism.

This new multiplication does not contradict the multiplication Fig. 1. Graph of θ(t ).

defined by equation (30). The proof is given by calculating the

multiplication of f ∈ O M and G = ( g , { B N })δ ∈ A δ . Noting that
g
Then, noting that supp ( F 1 + F 2 ) ⊂ supp F 1 ∪ supp F 2 for any
f = ( f , {Z/2 N })δ , the product of the new multiplication is F 1 , F 2 ∈ S , we have that

g
f G = ( f g , { B N })δ . (70) supp F ⊂ supp f ∩ {h} = supp f ∩ B ∞ . 2 (78)
h∈ B ∞
On the other hand, the product according to equation (30) is
 
g
 f G , ϕ  = G , f ϕ  = ( g , { B N })δ , f ϕ Lemma 2. For any F = ( f , { B N })δ ∈ A δ , f (t ) = 0 on B ∞ \ supp F .
  g 
= lim J N g (h) f (h)ϕ (h) = ( f g , { B N })δ , ϕ . (71) Proof. For this proof, we introduce an infinitely differentiable
N →∞
g
h∈ B N function θ(t ) that has compact support. Given that

Hence, we can also use the multiplication for O M and S , in addi- exp(−1/t ), t > 0
tion to the new multiplication, if necessary. ν (t ) = (79)
Functions in A δ are not allowed to have singular points. For ex-
0, t≤0
ample, the following tempered distributions are not in A δ because we define θ(t ) as
of the condition (II) of Definition 1:  
1 1
  ∞ θ(t ) = e ν4
+t ν −t . (80)
ϕ (t ) 2 2
t+ , ϕ = √ dt , (72)
t It is easy to confirm that θ(t ) has compact support, as the graph
0
of θ(t ) in Fig. 1 shows that
  0  
ϕ (t ) 1 1
t− , ϕ = √ dt , (73) supp θ = − , . (81)
−t 2 2
−∞
  
1 ϕ (t ) (i) { B N } = {Z/2 N }
vp , ϕ = lim dt . (74)
Suppose that there exists x ∈ B ∞ \ supp F such that f (x) = 0,
t ε ↓0 t
|t |>ε and without loss of generality, let f (x) > 0. Because f is right con-
tinuous and B ∞ \ supp F = R \ supp F is an open set, there exists
These tempered distributions are known for being problematic, in
√ √ ε > 0 for which
that t + t − results in different definitions when the product is
defined using different mollifiers, and the term vp 1/t causes non- ∀t x < t < x + ε ⇒ f (t ) > 0, (82)
associativity in the multiplication if 1 · δ , t · δ , and t · vp 1/t are
defined [22]. Meanwhile, the multiplication on A δ is associative, and
as shown in Corollary 2 of the subsection 3.2. (x, x + ε ) ⊂ R \ supp F . (83)

3.2. Well-definedness of multiplication Therefore, given that


t−x 1
First, we will demonstrate the relationship between B ∞ and the ϕ (t ) = θ − , (84)
support of the distribution. ε 2
we find that
Lemma 1. For any F = ( f , { B N })δ ∈ A δ ,
x+ε
supp F ⊂ supp f ∩ B ∞ . (75) ( f , { B N })δ , ϕ  = f (t )ϕ (t )dt > 0. (85)
x
Proof. If { B N } = {Z/2 N }, then the lemma is obvious, because
B ∞ = R. Therefore, we assume that { B N } = {Z/2 N }, so that On the other hand, because supp ϕ ⊂ R \ supp F ,  F , ϕ  must be
 equal to 0, and so a contradiction is derived.
F= f (h)δ(t − h). (76)
h∈ B ∞ (ii) { B N } = {Z/2 N }
We assume that B ∞ is not an empty set, because the lemma
Here,
states nothing about f (t ) if B ∞ is empty. Similar to (i), sup-
supp f (h)δ(t − h) ⊂ supp f ∩ {h}. (77) pose that there exists x ∈ B ∞ \ supp F such that f (x) > 0. As
8 D. Akita / Digital Signal Processing 56 (2016) 1–14

we remarked, there is no accumulation point of R in B ∞ , and while

supp F ⊂ B ∞ , as in Lemma 1. Therefore, we can find ε > 0 for
∞ x+ε 
which t−x
 F , ϕ = f (t )ϕ (t )dt = f (t )θ dt . (96)
(x − ε , x + ε ) ⊂ R \ supp F , (86) 2ε
−∞ x−ε

and Considering | g (x)|, we have

 x+ε 
(x − ε , x + ε ) ∩ B ∞ = {x}. (87)    x+ε   
 t−x   t−x 

| g (x)| =  f (t )θ 
dt  ≤ 
| f (t )| θ  dt
Therefore, given that
 2ε  2ε 
 x−ε x−ε
t−x ≤ 2ε max | f (t )| → 0 (ε → 0). (97)
ϕ (t ) = θ , (88) t ∈[x−ε ,x+ε ]
2ε
g
we find that Hence, g (x) = 0 for all x ∈ B ∞ , which means that for any ϕ ∈ S,
 g  
( f , { B N })δ , ϕ  = f (x)θ(0) > 0. (89)  F , ϕ  = ( g , B N )δ , ϕ = g (h)ϕ (h) = 0. 2 (98)
g
h∈ B N
On the other hand, because supp ϕ ⊂ R \ supp F ,  F , ϕ  must be 0,
giving a contradiction. 2
Lemma 5. If F = ( f , { B N })δ = ( g , { B N })δ ∈ A δ , then f = g on supp F .
f g

f
f g
Lemma 3. Let F = ( f , { B N })δ , G = ( g , { B N })δ , and F G = ( f g , { B N })δ ,
fg In particular, f = g on R if { B N } = {Z/2 N }.
as in Definition 2. Then,
Proof. If F = 0, then supp F is an empty set. Therefore, we assume
Z ( F G ) ⊃ Z ( F ) ∪ Z (G ). (90) f g
that F = 0 and both B ∞ and B ∞ are not empty sets.
f
That is, (i) { B N } = {Z/2 N }
g
From Lemma 4, we have { B N } = {Z/2 N }. Hence, for any ϕ ∈ S,
supp F G ⊂ supp F ∩ supp G . (91)
∞
Proof. Suppose that Z ( F ) is not empty and let ϕ ∈ S such that f
( f , { B N })δ , ϕ  − ( g , { B N })δ , ϕ  =
g
( f (t ) − g (t )) ϕ (t )dt = 0.
f
supp ϕ ⊂ Z ( F ). According to Lemma 2, f (t ) = 0 on B ∞ ∩ supp ϕ . −∞
Then,
(99)

| F G , ϕ | ≤ lim J N | f (h) g (h)ϕ (h)| Let r (t ) = f (t ) − g (t ). Then, we can show that r (t ) = 0 for all t ∈ R.
N →∞
fg
h∈ B N We assume that there exists x such that r (x) = 0, and let
 r (x) > 0 without loss of generality. Because r (x) is right continu-
≤ lim J N | f (h) g (h)ϕ (h)| ous, there exists ε > 0 such that
N →∞
f
h∈ B N ∀t x < t < x + ε ⇒ r (t ) > 0. (100)

= lim J N | f (h) g (h)ϕ (h)| = 0, (92) Then, given that
N →∞
f
h∈ B N ∩supp

ϕ t−x 1
ϕ (t ) = θ − , (101)
which means that Z ( F G ) ⊃ Z ( F ). Even if Z ( F ) is empty, Z ( F G ) ⊃ ε 2
Z ( F ). Z ( F G ) ⊃ Z (G ) is also shown in the same way, and it follows we have that
that Z ( F G ) ⊃ Z ( F ) ∪ Z (G ). 2
∞
Using the derived lemmas, we consider the arbitrariness of our r (t )ϕ (t )dt > 0. (102)
choice of B N . −∞

This contradicts equation (99), so that r (t ) = 0, i.e., f = g on R.

Lemma 4. Let F be a δ -series distribution expressed by ( f , {Z/2 N })δ . If
g g
F can be also denoted by ( g , { B N })δ where B N = {Z/2 N }, then F = 0, f
(ii) { B N } = {Z/2 N }
g
i.e., if F = 0, then { B N } = {Z/2 }.
N g
Lemma 4 implies that { B N } = {Z/2 N }, and any x in supp F
f g
belongs to both B ∞ and B ∞ , from Lemma 1. Therefore, we can
g
Proof. We omit the case where B ∞ is an empty set, because the choose ε > 0 for which
lemma is obvious for that case. Then, as in the proof of Lemma 2,  
f g
g
we can choose ε > 0 for any x ∈ B ∞ such that (x − ε , x + ε ) ∩ B ∞ ∪ B ∞ = {x}. (103)
g
(x − ε , x + ε ) ∩ B ∞ = {x}, (93) Then, given that

and let t−x
ϕ (t ) = θ , (104)
 2ε
t−x
ϕ (t ) = θ . (94) we find, by considering  F , ϕ , that
2ε
f (x) = g (x). 2 (105)
Then, we see that

 F , ϕ  = g (x)ϕ (x) = g (x), (95) The well-definedness can be derived as follows.

 D. Akita / Digital Signal Processing 56 (2016) 1–14 9

Theorem 7. The multiplication in Definition 2 is well-defined. Finally, for any φ ∈ S , we have

 
f g  F 1 G 1 , φ = f 1 (h) g 1 (h)φ(h) = f 1 (h) g 1 (h)φ(h)
Proof. Let F = ( f , { B N })δ , G = ( g , { B N })δ . First, we consider the
f 1 g1 h∈supp F 1 G 1
case in which F = 0. Then, supp F is an empty set, so that h∈ B ∞
supp F G is also empty according to Lemma 3. That is, F G = 0 if 
= f 2 (h) g 2 (h)φ(h)
one of F and G is equal to 0.
h∈supp F 2 G 2
Hence, we assume that F and G are both not equal to 0 and

are, respectively, expressed as follows: = f 2 (h) g 2 (h)φ(h) =  F 2 G 2 , φ . (118)
f f
F= ( f 1 , { B N1 })δ = ( f 2 , { B N2 })δ , f 2 g2
(106) h∈ B ∞
g g
G= ( g 1 , { B N1 })δ = ( g 2 , { B N2 })δ . (107) That is, F G is the unique product of F and G. 2
We will show that the products derived from these two expres-
f g1 We conclude this subsection with the following corollary.
sions are the same, i.e., letting F 1 G 1 denote ( f 1 g 1 , { B N1 })δ and
f g
F 2 G 2 denote ( f 2 g 2 , { B N2 2 })δ , we will prove that F 1 G 1 = F 2 G 2 .
Corollary 2. The multiplication of Definition 2 is associative.
f g
Here, if both { B N1 } and { B N1 } are equal to {Z/2 N }, then both F and
G are expressed in a unique way, according to Lemmas 4 and 5. Proof. Because of the well-definedness, it is sufficient to demon-
f
Therefore, we further assume that { B N1 } = {Z/2 N }. It follows that f
strate the associativity for a single instance. Let F 1 = ( f 1 , { B N1 })δ ,
f
{ B N2 } = {Z/2N } because F = 0. f f
F 2 = ( f 2 , { B N2 })δ , and F 3 = ( f 3 , { B N3 })δ . Then, this corollary fol-
Using Lemma 3, we see that lows immediately from the facts that ( f 1 f 2 ) f 3 = f 1 ( f 2 f 3 ) and
f f f f f f
supp F 1 G 1 ⊂ supp F ∩ supp G , (108) ( B ∞1 ∩ B ∞2 ) ∩ B ∞3 = B ∞1 ∩ ( B ∞2 ∩ B ∞3 ). 2

and
4. exp-Series distribution and convolution
supp F 2 G 2 ⊂ supp F ∩ supp G . (109)
4.1. Definition
Moreover, according to Lemma 5, f 1 = f 2 on supp F and g 1 = g 2
on supp G, so that f 1 g 1 = f 2 g 2 on supp F ∩ supp G.
In this subsection, we define the convolution corresponding to
Next, we will show that supp F 1 G 1 = supp F 2 G 2 . For this pur-
the multiplication defined in Section 3. First, we define a class of
pose, suppose that supp F 1 G 1 = supp F 2 G 2 , and derive a contra-
f g f g
distributions for convolution.
diction. Noting that neither of { B N1 1 } and { B N2 2 } are equal to
{Z/2N }, we can assume without loss of generality that there ex- Definition 3. Given that f and { B N } satisfy conditions (I) and (II)
ists x ∈ supp F 2 G 2 \ supp F 1 G 1 . Here, we choose ε > 0 such that of Definition 1, if F ∈ S is expressed as
(x − ε , x + ε ) ∩ (supp F 1 G 1 ∪ supp F 2 G 2 ) = {x}, (110)  1
F = lim J N f (h) exp(iht ) (119)
and set ϕ as N →∞ 2π
h∈ B N

t−x
ϕ (t ) = θ . (111) in terms of J N from Definition 1, then we call F an exp-series
2ε distribution and denote F by ( f , { B N })e .
Then, we find that
Let us call the set of exp-series distributions Ae . The elements
 F 1 G 1 , ϕ  = 0, (112) of Ae and those of A δ are in a one-to-one correspondence by the
Fourier transform, i.e., for any ( f , { B N })e ∈ Ae ,
 F 2 G 2 , ϕ  = f 2 (x) g 2 (x), (113)
which means that f 2 (x) and g 2 (x) are both not equal to 0. Mean- F [( f , { B N })e ] = ( f , { B N })δ . (120)
while, f 1 (x) = f 2 (x) and g 1 (x) = g 2 (x) are also not equal to 0, Therefore, Ae can be written as
f g
although  F 1 G 1 , ϕ  = 0. Thus, we have x ∈
/ B ∞1 1 , so that at least
f1 g1
one of B ∞ and B ∞ does not contain x. Let x ∈
f
/ B ∞1 , without loss of Ae = {F −1 [ F ]| F ∈ A δ }. (121)
f1 f2
generality. Because neither of { B N } and { B N } are equal to {Z/2 N },
there exists η for which Remark. Ae is not equal to A δ . For example, the derivative of δ ,
  for which
f f
(x − η, x + η) ∩ B ∞1 ∪ B ∞2 = {x}. (114)  
δ , ϕ = −ϕ (0), (122)
Then, given that is not in A δ . This can be derived from the fact stated in [2] that
 for any tempered distribution T ∈ S that has support {0}, there
t−x
ψ(t ) = θ , (115) uniquely exist c 0 , c 1 , ... such that
2η
∞

we see that
T= c j δ ( j) , (123)
f
 F , ψ = ( f 1 , { B N1 })δ , ψ = 0, (116) j =0

while where δ ( j ) denotes the jth derivative of δ . Meanwhile,

f ( f , { B N })δ ∈ A δ is a linear combination of δ(t − h) if { B N } =
 F , ψ = ( f 2 , { B N2 })δ , ψ = f 2 (x) = 0. (117)
{Z/2N }, and is a function if { B N } = {Z/2N }, according to Theo-
This contradiction shows that supp F 1 G 1 = supp F 2 G 2 . rem 5. Therefore, δ must not be in A δ .
10 D. Akita / Digital Signal Processing 56 (2016) 1–14

However, δ = (it , {Z/2 N })e ∈ Ae , because Now, let us calculate f ∗ g according to Definition 4:
    
it , {Z/2 N } = F −1 it , {Z/2 N } = F −1 [it] = δ . (124) f ∗ g = (F [ f ], {Z/2 N })e ∗ (F [ g ], {Z/2 N })e
e δ
Conversely, f (t ) = it is not in Ae , because F [it ] = −2π δ is not = (F [ f ]F [ g ], {Z/2 N })e = (F [ f ∗ g ], {Z/2 N })e . (133)
in A δ . We can determine whether or not a tempered distribution
F is in Ae by considering whether F [ F ] is in A δ . Thus, the convolution of Ae is consistent with that of L 1 .

Example 12. δ ∈ A δ belongs to Ae , because Example 15. δ is the identity element of this convolution. In fact,
for any F = ( f , { B N })e ∈ Ae ,
F [δ] = 1 = (1, {Z/2 N })δ ∈ A δ . (125)
That is to say, δ = (1, {Z/2 N })e . F ∗ δ = ( f , { B N })e ∗ (1, {Z/2 N })e = ( f , { B N })e = F . (134)

Example 13. Let f ∈ L 1 . Then, the Fourier transform of f is a Example 16. We can calculate the convolution of distributions
bounded continuous function [9]. Therefore, f = (F [ f ], even if their periods are √ different. For example, given f (t ) =
{Z/2N })e ∈ Ae . That is, L 1 ⊂ Ae . exp(it ) and g (t ) = exp(i 2t ),
√
Convolution is now defined for exp-series distributions: f ∗ g (t ) = (2π , {1})e ∗ (2π , { 2})e = (4π 2 , ∅)e = 0, (135)
f
Definition 4. Given F = ( f , { B N })e and G = ( g , { B N })e , the convo-
g where ∅ denotes an empty set.
fg
lution of F and G is defined as F ∗ G = ( f g , { B N })e , where we
fg
choose { B N } satisfying condition (I) of Definition 1 and Example 17. Let us confirm that the convolution of exp-series
distributions agrees with the convolution in formula (33). An
fg
B∞ = B∞ ∩ B∞.
f g
(126) arbitrary ϕ ∈ S is an exp-series distribution, because F [ϕ ] =
(F [ϕ ], {Z/2N })δ , so that ϕ = (F [ϕ ], {Z/2N })e . Therefore, we can
This convolution, in fact, is derived from calculate the convolution of F = ( f , { B N })e ∈ Ae and ϕ ∈ S .
First, suppose that { B N } = {Z/2 N }. Then, for any ψ ∈ S ,
F ∗ G = F −1 [F [ F ]F [G ]]. (127)
Therefore, the relationship in equation (35) holds, and we can see  F ∗ ϕ , ψ = ( f F [ϕ ], {Z/2 N })e , ψ
that the convolution is well-defined, because the multiplication is = ( f F [ϕ ], {Z/2 N })δ , F −1 [ψ]
well-defined and there is a one-to-one correspondence between
A δ and Ae . It is interesting that the convolution derived from ∞
equation (127) is the product of the coefficients of complex ex- = f (ω)F [ϕ ](ω)F −1 [ψ](ω)dω
ponential functions, whereas the multiplication is the product of −∞
the coefficients of δ . We can find a convolution corresponding to
the one described in Smith’s paper [4] for tempered distributions ∞ ∞
1
F and G that have the same period P , where F and G are ex- = f (ω)F [ϕ ](ω) ψ(t ) exp(i ωt )dtdω
2π
pressed with the coefficients an and bn as −∞ −∞
∞
 ∞ ∞
F= an exp(2π t / P ), (128) 1
= f (ω) F [ϕ ](ω) exp(i ωt )dωψ(t )dt
k=−∞ 2π
−∞ −∞
∞

G= bn exp(2π t / P ). (129) ∞ ∞
k=−∞ = f (ω)F −1 [ϕ (t − x)](ω)dωψ(t )dt
Then, Smith’s convolution F ∗ G is given by −∞ −∞

∞
 ∞
F ∗G= P an bn exp(2π t / P ). (130) = ( f , {Z/2 N })δ , F −1 [ϕ (t − x)]ψ(t )dt
k=−∞ −∞
Thus, Smith’s convolution also calculates the coefficients of com- ∞
plex exponential functions, and agrees with our convolution. Fur- = ( f , {Z/2 N })e , ϕ (t − x)ψ(t )dt
thermore, our definition does not depend on the period of the
−∞
signal, nor on whether the signal is continuous or discrete.
∞
Example 14. Suppose that f , g ∈ L 1 . Then, the convolution of f =  F (x), ϕ (t − x)ψ(t )dt =  F (x), ϕ (t − x), ψ(t ).
and g is defined as −∞
∞ (136)
f ∗ g (t ) = f (x) g (t − x)dx, (131)
Next, let { B N } = {Z/2 N } and T 1 , ..., T n , p 1 , ..., pn be positive
−∞ real numbers such that
for which the following formula holds for the Fourier transform of
functions [9]: 
n
B∞ ⊂ T jZ + p j. (137)
F [ f ∗ g ] = F [ f ]F [ g ]. (132) j =1
 D. Akita / Digital Signal Processing 56 (2016) 1–14 11

Then, the convolution is calculated as follows:

∞  1
= ψ(t ) f (h)F [ϕ ](h) exp(iht )dt
 ∞ 2π
1 −∞ h∈ B ∞
 F ∗ ϕ , ψ = f (h)F [ϕ ](h) ψ(t ) exp(iht )dt
2π ∞  
h∈ B ∞ −∞ 1
= ψ(t ) ( f , { B N })δ , F [ϕ ](ω) exp(i ωt ) dt
 
∞ 2π
1 −∞
= f (h)F [ϕ ](h) ψ(t ) exp(iht )dt . (138)
h∈ B ∞ −∞
2π ∞
= ψ(t )( f , { B N })δ , F −1 [ϕ (t − x)](ω)dt
We will show that the order of the summation and the integration
−∞
is interchangeable.
Noting that B ∞ is a countable set, take a sequence {h j } such
∞
that = ψ(t )( f , { B N })e , ϕ (t − x)dt
−∞
B ∞ = {h j | j ∈ N}, (139) ∞

∀ j, k ∈ N j < k ⇒ h j = hk ∧ |h j | ≤ |hk | , (140) = ψ(t ) F (x), ϕ (t − x)dt =  F (x), ϕ (t − x), ψ(t ).
and we set −∞
(147)
1
g j (t ) = f (h j )F [ϕ ](h j ) ψ(t ) exp(ih j t ). (141) Thus, convolution of exp-series distributions is consistent with
2π
∞ ∞ the convolution given by the formula (33).
If j =1 −∞ g j (t )dt converges absolutely, then,
Example 18. Let G ∈ S have compact support. It is known that
  ∞ ∞
∞
1 
f (h)F [ϕ ](h) ψ(t ) exp(iht )dt = g j (t )dt . F [G ] ∈ O M , (148)
2π
h∈ B ∞−∞ j =1−∞ G ∗ ϕ (t ) = G (x), ϕ (t − x) ∈ S , (149)
(142) F [G ∗ ϕ ] = F [G ]F [ϕ ], (150)
In fact, for any ϕ ∈ S (see, e.g., [1]), where the convolution in (150)
 
∞  ∞   ∞ is in the context of the equation (149). Hence, G = (F [G ],
   ∞ {Z/2N })e ∈ Ae , so that we can calculate the convolution of G and
 g j (t )dt  ≤ | g j (t )|dt
 F = ( f , { B N })e ∈ Ae . The result is as follows.
j =1   j =1
−∞ −∞  

∞ ∞  F ∗ G , ϕ  = ( f F [G ], { B N })e , ϕ  = ( f F [G ], { B N })δ , F −1 [ϕ ]
1  
≤ | f (h j )||F [ϕ ](h j )| |ψ(t )|dt 1
2π = ( f , { B N })δ , F [G ](t ) F [ϕ ](−t )
j =1−∞
2π
∞ ∞  
 1 1
= | f (h j )||F [ϕ ](h j )| |ψ(t )|dt . (143) = F, F [F [G ](t )F [ϕ ](−t )]
2π 2π
j =1 −∞  
∞  ∞ = F , F −1 [F [G ](−t )F [ϕ ](t )]
Moreover, because j =1 −∞ | g j (t )|dt has a finite value,4 it fol-  
lows that = F , Ǧ ∗ ϕ , (151)
∞ ∞
 ∞ 
∞
which means the convolution is consistent with the formula
g j (t )dt = g j (t )dt . (146) in (34).
j =1−∞ −∞ j =1
4.2. Impulse response of continuous LTI systems
Therefore, we have

 
∞
This definition of convolution enables us to derive an important
1
 F ∗ ϕ , ψ = f (h)F [ϕ ](h) ψ(t ) exp(iht )dt theorem regarding continuous linear time-invariant (LTI) systems.
2π First, we define a continuous LTI system:
h∈ B ∞−∞

Definition 5. A mapping A : S → S is called a continuous LTI sys-

4
Here, we used the following theorem: Given that ( X , B, μ) is a measure space tem if A meets the following conditions:
and E ∈ B, if f n is a measurable function on E for all n ∈ N and

∞  (I) Continuity:

| f n |dμ < ∞, (144) For any converging sequence of tempered distributions { F N } →
n=1 E F ( N → ∞),
∞
then n=1 f n is finite for almost all x ∈ E and lim A ( F N ) = A ( F ). (152)
N →∞
∞ 
  
∞
f n dμ = f n dμ. (145)
(II) Linearity:
n=1 E For any α , β ∈ C and F , G ∈ S ,
E n=1

The proof can be found in textbooks on the Lebesgue integral (e.g., [23]). A (α F + β G ) = α A ( F ) + β A (G ). (153)
12 D. Akita / Digital Signal Processing 56 (2016) 1–14

(III) Time-invariance: Here, J is not bounded, because if there exists a positive number
For any h ∈ R and F ∈ S , r for which J ⊂ [−r , r ], then given

A (τh F ) = τh A ( F ). (154) λr = 1 + max |λ(a)| (167)

a∈[−r ,r ]

To prove the theorem to follow, we introduce a lemma regard- we have

ing continuous LTI systems.
∀a ∈ R |λ(a)| ≤ λr λx (1 + |a|) K , (168)
Lemma 6. Any continuous LTI system A admits exp(iat ) as an eigen- which contradicts the assumption. Thus we can take a sequence
function for any a ∈ R, and the eigenvalue λ(a) is a continuous function. {a j } ( j ∈ N) such that
Moreover, there exist C > 0 and a non-negative integer K such that
∀ j, k ∈ N j < k ⇒ |a j | + 1 < |ak | (169)
|λ(a)| ≤ C (1 + |a|) K (155)
and
for any a.
∀ j ∈ N |λ(a j )| > λx (1 + |a j |) j . (170)
Proof. We denote exp(−iat ) A (exp(iat )) by H (t ; a), where the
Then, we consider the following function:
product of exp(−iat ) and A (exp(iat )) is in the context of the mul-
tiplication of O M and S . Then, ∞
 1
ψ(t ) = θ(t − a j ). (171)
A (exp(iat )) = exp(iat ) H (t ; a). (156) |λ(a j )|
j =1
We will show that H (t ; a) is in fact independent of t.
We will show that ψ ∈ S . For any non-negative integers n and k,
Considering A (τh exp(iat )) for a real number h, we see that
 ! "
A (τh exp(iat )) = τh (exp(iat ) H (t ; a)) , (157) k (n) (n) (1 + |a j | + 1/2)k
sup(1 + |t |) |ψ | ≤ sup θ (t ) sup .
t ∈R t ∈R j ∈N |λ(a j )|
exp(−iah) A (exp(iat )) = exp(ia(t − h)) H (t − h; a), (158)
(172)
A (exp(iat )) = exp(iat ) H (t − h; a). (159)
Here, supt ∈R θ (n) (t ) is finite, because θ(t ) ∈ S . Thus, we consider
Therefore, we have
the latter term. Because
∀h ∈ R H (t ; a) = H (t − h; a), (160)
|λ(a j )| > λx (1 + |a j |)k (173)
which means that H (t ; a) is independent of t, and in fact takes
a constant value that depends on a.5 Therefore, for any a ∈ R, for j ≥ k, we see that
exp(iat ) is an eigenfunction of A. Moreover, because A is continu-
ous, it holds for any a0 ∈ R that (1 + |a j | + 1/2)k 1 (1 + |a j | + 1/2)k
sup < sup
j ≥k |λ(a j )| j ≥k λx (1 + |a j |)k
lim A (exp(iat )) = λ(a0 ) exp(ia0 t ). (161)
a→a0  k
1 1
This means that λ(a) is a continuous function. = 1+ . (174)
λx 2(1 + |ak |)
Consider the condition that there exist C > 0 and a non-
negative integer K such that Therefore,
 k
∀a ∈ R |λ(a)| ≤ C (1 + |a|) K . (162) (1 + |a j | + 1/2)k 1 1
sup < 1+
j ∈N |λ(a j )| λx 2(1 + |ak |)
Let
(1 + |a j | + 1/2)k
λx = 1 + max |λ(a)|, (163) + max
a∈[−1,1] 1≤ j ≤k−1 |λ(a j )|
and let K be a non-negative integer larger than K for which < ∞. (175)
K −K It follows that ψ ∈ S .
2 λx > C . (164)
Furthermore, we set
Then, we have
∞


∀a ∈ R |λ(a)| ≤ λx (1 + |a|) K . (165) F= δ(t − a j ), (176)
j =1
That is, the existence of C and K for which equation (162) holds
is equivalent to the existence of K in equation (165). Hence, we and will show that F ∈ S . Take an arbitrary ϕ ∈ S . Then, there
suppose that there exists no non-negative integer K satisfying exists L such that
equation (165), and derive a contradiction to prove that λ(a) is
L
slowly increasing. |ϕ (t )| < , (177)
According to this assumption, for any non-negative integer K (1 + |t |)2
there exists a set J ⊂ R such that for all t. It follows that
K
∀a ∈ J |λ(a)| > λx (1 + |a|) . (166) ∞
 ∞
 ∞
 ∞

L L L
|ϕ (a j )| ≤ ≤ # $ ≤ ,
(1 + |a j |)2 (1 + |a j | )2 (1 + j )2
j =1 j =1 j =1 j =1
5
More correctly, because the derivative of H (t ; a) is 0, H (t ; a) is constant. See
also Schwartz [2]. (178)
 D. Akita / Digital Signal Processing 56 (2016) 1–14 13

∞
so  F , ϕ  = j =1 ϕ (a j ) converges. For a sequence of rapidly de- Theorem 9. Let A be a continuous LTI system. Then, if A (δ) has a com-
creasing functions {ϕl } that converges to 0, we can take a decreas- pact support,
ing sequence { Ll } such that
A ( F ) = F ∗ A (δ) (186)
Ll
|ϕl (t )| < , (179) for any F ∈ S .
(1 + |t |)2
where Ll → 0 as l → ∞. Then, Furthermore, he gave an example of a continuous LTI system
A such that A (δ) does not have compact support, and such that
∞
 equation (186) holds when applied to any rapidly decreasing func-
1
| F , ϕl | ≤ Ll → 0 (l → ∞), (180) tion belonging to the set
(1 + j )2 ⎧  ∞ ⎫
j =1
⎨  ⎬

so that F ∈ S . Although F [ A (F −1 [ F ])] must be in S too, we see χ0 = ϕ ∈ S  ϕ (t )dt = 0 . (187)
⎩  ⎭
that −∞

⎡ ⎛∞ ⎞⎤ 
 1 The following example, in contrast, presents a case in which
F [ A (F −1
[ F ])], ψ = F ⎣ A ⎝ exp(ia j t )⎠⎦ , ψ supp A (δ) is not compact and the codomain of A is S .
2π
j =1

⎡∞ ⎤  Example 19. Choose a rapidly decreasing function ψ and let the
 1 mapping A : S → S be defined by
= F⎣ λ(a j ) exp(ia j t )⎦ , ψ
2π
j =1 
K

∞
 ∞  A ( F ), ϕ  = lim ψ(k)τ−k F , ϕ  (188)
  λ(a j ) K →∞
= λ(a j )δ(t − a j ), ψ = , (181) k=− K
|λ(a j )|
j =1 j =1 for all ϕ ∈ S . First, we will show that A is a continuous LTI system.
Given that F ∈ S and ϕ ∈ S , we have
which does not converge. Therefore, F [ A (F −1 [ F ])] does not have
any value at ψ , giving a contradiction. 2 
K
 A ( F ), ϕ  = lim ψ(k)  F , ϕ (t − k)
K →∞
k=− K
In the following, we present a theorem regarding the impulse
response A (δ), which is a well-known theorem in signal process- 
K

ing. = lim ψ(k) F ∗ ϕ̌ (k)

K →∞
k=− K

∞

Theorem 8. Let A be a continuous LTI system. Then, given F ∈ Ae , 
= F ∗ ϕ̌ (k)δ(t − k), ψ , (189)
A ( F ) = F ∗ A (δ). (182) k=−∞

where ϕ̌ (t ) = ϕ (−t ) and the convolutions are defined as in for-

Proof. Noting that δ = (1, {Z/2 N })e , we have mula (33). Using the fact that F ∗ ϕ̌ (t ) ∈ O M , we see that  A ( F ), ϕ 
∞
   has a finite value, according to Corollary 1. K
1 1 ikt It is straightforward to show that lim K →∞ k=− K ψ(k)ϕ (t − k)
A (δ) = lim A exp . (183) K
N →∞ 2 N 2π 2N converges to a function φ(t ), and that lim K →∞ k=− K ψ(k)ϕ (n) ×
k=−∞
(t − k)
converges to φ (n) (t ), for all positive integers n. In addition,
Here, it follows from Lemma 6 that there exists a function λ(a) φ(t ) = k∞=−∞ ψ(k)ϕ (t − k) is a rapidly decreasing function, be-
such that A (exp(iat )) = λ(a) exp(iat ). Therefore, we find cause for any non-negative integers n and K , there exist C 1 and C 2
∞
   such that
1 1 ikt
A δ = lim A exp
N →∞
k=−∞
2 N 2π 2N ∀t ∈ R (1 + |t |) K +2 |ψ(t )| < C 1 , (190)
∞
     ∀t ∈ R (1 + |t |) |ϕ K (n)
(t )| < C 2 . (191)
1 k 1 ikt
= lim N
λ exp = λ, {Z/2 N } .
N →∞ 2 2N 2π 2N e That is,
k=−∞  
 ∞ 
(184)   
K 
K (n)
(1 + |t |) |φ (t )| = (1 + |t |)  ψ(k)ϕ (t − k)
(n)
Then, letting F = ( f , { B N })e , we find that k=−∞ 
 ∞
A ( F ) = lim J N f (h) A (exp(iht )) 
N →∞ ≤ (1 + |k|) K |ψ(k)|(1 + |t − k|) K |ϕ (n) (t − k)|
h∈ B N
 k=−∞
= lim J N f (h)λ(h) exp(iht ) ∞

N →∞ C1C2
h∈ B N ≤ , (192)
(1 + |k|)2
N k=−∞
= ( f λ, { B N })e = ( f , { B N })e ∗ (λ, {Z/2 })e = F ∗ A (δ). 2
(185) for all t. Moreover, let C 3 be a number for which

∀t ∈ R (1 + |t |) K +2 |ϕ (n) (t )| < C 3 . (193)

In his book [10], Krabs described the following similar theorem,
where the conditions are different. Then, given that N is a natural number, it holds that
14 D. Akita / Digital Signal Processing 56 (2016) 1–14

 
 N 
  signals and discrete-time signals are transformed to subsets of
(1 + |t |) K φ (n) − ψ(k)ϕ (n) (t − k) tempered distributions by ring homomorphisms. Moreover, this
 k=− N  proposed convolution is consistent with conventional convolutions
 
  of periodic distributions and non-periodic distributions.
 
= (1 + |t |) K  ψ(k)ϕ (n) (t − k) As a result of these new definitions of operations, we have ob-
|k|> N  tained a proof of a well-known theorem regarding the impulse
 response of continuous LTI systems of tempered distributions, un-
≤ (1 + |k|) K |ψ(k)|(1 + |t − k|) K |ϕ (n) (t − k)| der the assumption that the input of the system satisfies the con-
|k|> N ditions for the convolution. However, because A δ = Ae , not all
⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ elements of A δ are suitable for calculating the convolution. For
 ∞
 C3 applications, it is more useful to have a convolution that is defined
≤⎝ |ψ(k)|(1 + |k|) K⎠⎝ ⎠ , (194) for A δ , because some noise filters are defined using a convolution.
(1 + |k| + 1/2)2
|k|> N k=−∞ This extension of the convolution will be the subject of further re-
∞ search.
k=−∞ |ψ(k)|(1 + |k|)
K
for all t. Noting that converges, we have
 
 N  Acknowledgments
 
lim sup(1 + |t |) K φ (n) − ψ(k)ϕ (n) (t − k) = 0, (195)
N →∞ t ∈R   I would like to thank professor Tohsiyuki Nakagaki, associate
k=− N
professor Katsuhiko Sato, and assistant professor Shigeru Kuroda
N for their discussions regarding this theory.
which means that k=− N ψ(k)ϕ (t − k) converges to φ(t ) in S .
Therefore, given a sequence of tempered distributions {G N } that
converges to G, it follows that References

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We have defined a new multiplication of A δ ⊂ S and con-

volution of Ae ⊂ S that do not contradict the theories of Dai Akita received his Bachelor of Engineering and his Master of En-
continuous-time periodic signals, continuous-time non-periodic gineering degrees from Osaka University in 2012 and 2014. He is now a
signals, discrete-time periodic signals, and discrete-time non- doctoral student at Hokkaido University studying information processing
periodic signals. Under the multiplication, both continuous-time of organisms through experiments on slime mold.