FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, OWERRI

A SEMINAR PAPER PRESENTED

ON
SOIL EROSION

BY

OKONTA, OLISA
(20121829955)

SUPERVISED BY
DR. ESSIEN

SUBMITTED TO

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY

(GEOLOGY OPTION)

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE AWARD OF B.TECH (HON.) DEGREE IN SLT (GEOLOGY
OPTION)

JUNLY, 2018

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 ABSTRACT
Soil erosion is one form of soil degradation along with soil compaction, low
organic matter, loose soil structure, and poor internal drainage, salinisation,
and soil acidity problems. These other forms of soil degradation, serious in
themselves, usually contribute to accelerate soil erosion. Soil and gully
erosion include both the process of material acquisition or detachment and
that of transportation of soil material by the erosive agent of water, wind
and ice, and of lat e, man’s activities. Soil and gully erosion have been
seriously identified in the southeastern parts of Nigeria. Apart from
developing into natural disaster, soil and gully erosion have serious
implications to agriculture, geology, geotechnics, water resources, and socio-
economic, etc. Controlling soil and gully erosion need serious expertise work
in engineering.

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

2.0 DYNAMICS AND FACTORS CONTROLLING SOIL EROSION

3.0 CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION

4.0 PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF SOIL EROSION

5.0 CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

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 CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Soil erosion is one form of soil degradation along with soil compaction, low
organic matter, loss soil structure, and poor internal drainage, salinisation,
and soil acidity problems. These other form of soil degradation, serious in
themselves, usually contributes to accelerate soil erosion.

Erosion is the process of weathering and transport of solids (sediments, soil,

rocks and other particles) in the natural environment or their source and
deposits them elsewhere. It usually occurs due to transport by wind, water
or ice, by deep- slope creep of soil and other material under the force of
gravity; or by living organisms, such as burrowing animals, in the case of
bio-erosion. Soil erosion may be a slow process that continues relatively
unnoticed, or it may occur at an alarming rate causing serious loss of topsoil.

Erosion is a natural process, but it has been increased dramatically by human

land use, especially industrial agriculture, deforestation and urban sprawl.
Land that is use for industrial agriculture generally experiences a significant
greater rate of erosion than that of land under natural vegetation, or land
used for sustainable agricultural practices. This is particularly true if tillage is
used, which reduces vegetation cover on the surface of the soil and disturbs
both soil structure and plant roots that would otherwise hold soil in place.
However, improved land use practice can limit erosion, using techniques
such as terrace building, conservation tillage practice and tree planting.

A certain amount of erosion is natural an in fact, healthy for the ecosystem,

for example gravels continuously move downstream in water courses.
Excessive erosion, however, causes serious problems, such as receiving
water sedimentation, ecosystem damage and outright loss of soil. The loss

4
of soil form farmland may be reflected in reduced crop production potential,
lower surface water quality and damaged drainage networks.
Erosion is distinguished from weathering, which is the process of chemical
or physical breakdown of the minerals in the rocks, although the two
processes may occur concurrently.

1.2 SOIL ERODIBILITY

Soil erodibility is an estimate of the ability of soils to resist erosion, based on
the physical characteristics of each soil. Generally, soils with greater
infiltration rates, higher levels of organic matter and improved soil structure
have a greater resistance to erosion. Sand, sandy loams and loam textured
soil tends to be less erodible than silt, very fine sand, and certain clay
textured soil.

Tillage and cropping practices which lowers soil organic matter levels, cause
poor soil structure, and result of compacted contributes to increase in soil
erodibility. Decreased infiltration and increased run off can be a result of
compacted subsurface soil layers.

Past erosion has an effect on a soil’s erodibility for a number of reasons.

Many exposed subsurface soils on eroded soils tends to be more erodible
than the original site were, because of their poorer structure and lower
organic matter.

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 CHAPTER TWO
2.0 WATER BY SOIL EROSION
Water is the important most erosion agent and erodes mostly commonly as
running water in streams. However, water in all its forms is erosional.
Raindrops (especially in dry environment) create splash erosion that moves
tiny particles of soil. Water collecting at the surface of the soil collects as it
moves towards tiny rivulets and streams and creates sheet erosion.

In streams, water is a very powerful erosional agent. The faster water moves
in streams, the larger objects it can pick up and transport. This is known as
the critical erosion velocity. Fine sand can be moved by streams flowing as
slowly as three-quarters of a mile per hour- streams erode their banks in
three ways:-
(a) The hydraulic action of the water itself moves the sediment
(b) Water acts to corrode sediments by removing ions and dissolving them.
(c) Particles in the water strike bedrock and erode it.

Water erosion is a two-part procedure relating the separation and movement

of soil. The water erosion processes consist of distinct phases from raindrops
down to the creation of gully erosion. Each stage has its own developmental
procedures and features.

2.1 FACTORS CONTROLLING EROSION BY WATER

The rate and magnitude of soil erosion is controlled by the following factors:-
Slope Gradient and Length:
Naturally, the steeper the slope of a field, the greater the amount of soil loss
from erosion by water. Soil erosion by water also increases as the slope
length increases due to the greater accumulation of run-off. Consolidation of
small fields into larger ones often results in larger slope lengths with

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increased erosion potential due to increased velocity of water which permits
a greater degree of scouring (carrying capacity for sediment)

Vegetation
Soil erosion potential is increased if the soil has no or very little vegetation
cover of plants and/ or residues. Plant and residue cover protects the soil
form raindrop impact and splash, tends to slow down the movement of
surface run-off and allows excess surface water to infiltrate.

The erosion-reducing effectiveness of plants and/or residue covers depends

on the type, extent and quantity of cover. Vegetation and residue
combinations that completely cover of soil, and which intercept all falling
raindrop at and close to the surface are the most efficient in controlling soil
(e.g. forest, permanent grasses etc).

Partially incorporated residues and residual roots are also important as these
provide channels that allow surface water to move into the soil.

Rainfall Intensity and Run-Off

Both rainfall and run-off factors must be considered as assessing a water
erosion problem. The impact of raindrops on the soil surface can break down
soil aggregate and disperse the aggregate material. Lighter aggregate
material such as very fine sand, silt, clay and organic matter can be easily
removed by the raindrop splash and run-off water. Greater raindrop energy
or run-off amounts might be required to move larger sand and gravel
particles.

2.2 FORMS OF SOIL EROSION BY WATER

Soil erosion by water is of different forms. They include.

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Splash Erosion:
This is the detachment and airborne movement of small soil particles caused
by the impact of raindrops on soil.

Sheet Erosion
This is the detachment of soil particles by raindrop down slope by water
flowing overland as a sheet instead of in definite channels or rills. The impact
of the raindrop breaks apart the soil aggregate.

Particles of silt, clay and sand fill the soil pores and reduce infiltration. After
the surface pores are filled with sand, silt or clay, overland surface low of
water begins due to the lowering of infiltration rates.

Once the rate of falling rain is faster than infiltration, run-off takes place.
There are two stages of sheet erosion. The first is rain splash, in which soil
particles are knocked into the air by raindrop impact. In the second stage,
the loose particles are moved down slope by broad sheets of rapidly flowing
water filled with sediments known as flood sheets. This stage of sheet
erosion commonly travel short distances and last only for a short time.

2.3 MECHANICS OF SHEET EROSION

Sheet erosion occurs in two distinct stages, thus:-
(a) The loosening of soil particles due to rain splash, known as pluvial
erosion, and
(b) The transportation of the soil particles away from their location by
surface run-off.

Each raindrop has considerable kinetic energy which is expended on splash

in detaching a single particle or hump of soil from the adjoining soil mass.

8
The action of detachment involves punching out the particles or hump over
the surface of detachment by the expenditure of the kinetic energy of the
raindrop.

However, the mechanics of soil detachment is still not yet well understood,
even though it is appreciated that soil detachment is a basic component of
soil erosion. An understanding of this mechanics will not only improve the
modeling of the erosion process, but could also suggest approaches to
erosion control.

Laboratory studies have suggested that statistical laws govern the motion of
bed-particles in water, thus;
(a) The probability of a given sediment particle being moved by the
flow from the bed surface depends on the particle size, shape and
weight, and on the flow pattern near the bed.
(b) The particles moves if the instantaneous hydrodynamic lift overcomes
its weight.
(c) Once in motion the probability of the particle being re-deposited is
equal in all points of the bed where the local flow would not
immediately remove the particle again.
(d) The average distance traveled by a bed- load particle between
consecutive points of deposition in the bed is constant and
independent of the flow condition, the rate of transport and the bed
composition.

Rill erosion
This refers to the development of small, ephemeral concentrated flow paths,
which functions as both sediments source and sediments delivery system for
erosion on hill-slopes.

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Generally, where water erosion rates on disturbed upland areas are greatest,
rills are active. Flow depths in rills are typically on the order of a few
centimeter or less and slopes may be quite seep. These conditions constitute
a very different hydraulic environment than typically found in channels of
streams and rivers. Eroding rills evolve morphologically in time and space.
The rill bed changes as soil erodes, which in turn alters the hydraulics of the
flow.

Gully erosion
It occurs when water flows in narrow channels during or immediately after
heavy rain. This is particularly noticeable in the formation of hollow ways,
where, prior to being tarmacked, an old rural road has over many years
become significantly lower than the surrounding fields.

A gully is sufficiently deep that it would not be routinely destroyed by tillage

operations, whereas rill erosion is smoothed by ordinary farm tillage. The
narrow channels or gullies, maybe of considerable depth, ranging from 1 to
2 feet to as much as 75 to 100fts.

2.4 MECHANICS OF GULLY EROSION

The mechanics of gully erosion is more complex than that of sheet erosion
and hardly has any quantitative analysis been published in the technical
formal on this subject. The descriptive analysis of the mechanics of gully
erosion given by Ogbukagu (1977) and Nwajide and Hoque (1979) are
typical of the general approach in this regard. According to Nwajide and
Hoque (1979), "The loose sand of the Nanka formation transmits ground
water which slowly but persistently accomplished the subsurface mechanical
eluviations of hire elastics, and emerges as an erosive effluent over
impermeable clay of shale bed's and "when eight of soil and rock is increased

10
due to infiltration of water, there is a decrease in the shear strength along
the gully edges (Leopold et al, 1964).

In the full range of gully evolution, sheet erosion is the forerunner. The
follow the incidence of incision and slope failure. Figure 1.0 shows a
schematic representation of the stages of gully evolution, subsequent to
sheet erosion. A little irregularity due to ground morphology represented by
"O" in Fig 1.0a causes a cementation of flow and a progressive development
of the incision through configurations '1' to "3". When the incision is deep
enough as in configuration "3" of Fig. 1.0a, or as shown by the broken
contour in Fig. 1.0b, slope failure occurs. The debris from the upper part fills
the bottom part of the incision, thus modifying the channel section as
represented by the full contour of Fig 1.0b. This process of alternating
deepening of the incision and gentle slope failure continues through Fig. 1.0c
to Fig. 1.0d. The effect of the incision at the stage of Fig. 1.0d is to under-
cut the bank of the developed gully. When this under-cutting is sufficiently
developed to un-stabilize large wedge of wedge of soil, a major slope failure
occurs as depicted in Fig. 1.0d.

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12
The process of geological denudation of the soil or rock mass is essentially
an accelerator, incision and slope failure being the real major factors
responsible for the formation of ground craters or gullies. While incision is a
necessary prerequisite to gully evolution, slope failure appears to be the
determinant of gully size and rate of evolution.

Gully incision includes both the securing of the ground and the removal of
the debris. The transportation of the debris is exactly the problem of
sediment transportation, which was considered under sheet erosion.
Generally, on y the question of scouring is treated here. A strictly
mathematical analysis of the mechanics of the initiation and development of
gully incision has not yet been accomplished. The constitutive equation in
such an analysis can be based on the principle that gully incision results
when the kinetic energy flow of surface run off which is converted into a
shearing force exceeds the shearing resistance mobilized by the ground.

The cross-sectional area of the incision in the soil due to erosion action was
adopted as a representative channel characteristics, and thus also of the
mass of soil loss, and this quantity was then correlated with some of the
relevant parameters. Some tests were carried out using lateritic soil which
can be described as a clayey silt, and a number of parameters were
considered, such as flow rate of runoff, duration of flow remoteness from
gully head, slope of gully and shear strength of soil.

2.5 SOIL EROSION BY WIND

Erosion by wind is known as Aeolian erosion (named after Aeolus, the Greek
god of winds) and occurs almost always in deserts. It engages the carrying,
detachments and re-deposition of soil elements by wind. Wind removes and
shifts soil particles according to size. Wind erosion is common on even,

13
uncovered location with dry sandy soils. Aeolian erosion of sand in the desert
is partially responsible for the formation of sand dunes. The general wind
circulation moves small particulates such as dust across wide oceans
thousands of Kilometers downward of their point of origin.

There are two main processes of erosion by wind first, wind causes small
particles to be lifted and therefore moved to another region. This is called
deflation. Second, these suspended particles may impact on solid objects
causing erosion by abrasion.

2.6 FACTORS AFFECTING EROSION BY WIND

The rate and magnitude by soil erosion by wind is controlled the following
factors.

Erodibility of soil
Very fine particles can be suspended by wind and then transported to great
distance. Fine and medium size particles can be lifted and deposited, while
coarse particles can be blown along the surface (commonly known salutation
effect). The abrasions that result reduce particle size, and further increase
soil erodibility.

Soil surface roughness

Soil surface that are not rough or ridged offer little resistance to wind.
However over time, ridges can be filled in and the roughness broken down
by abrasion to produce a smoother surface vulnerable to the wind. Excess
tillage can contribute to soil structure breakdown and increased erosion.

14
Climate
The speed and duration of the wind have a direct relationship to the extent
of soil erosion. Soil moisture level can be very low at the surface of
excessively drained soils or during periods of drought, thus releasing the
particles for transport by wind. The effect also occurs in freeze drying of the
surface during winter months.

Unsheltered distances
The lack of wind breaks (trees, shrubs) allows the wind to put soil particles
into motion for greater distance thus increasing abrasion and soil erosion.

15
 CHAPTER THREE
3.0 CAUSE OF SOIL EROSION
The rate of erosion depends on many factors. Climatic factors include the
amount and intensity of precipitation, the average temperature, as well as
the typical temperature range, and seasonality, the wind speed, storm
frequency. The geologic factors include the sediment or rock type, its
porosity and permeability, the slope (gradient) of the land, and whether the
rocks are tilted, faulted, folded or weathered. The biological factors include
ground cover from vegetation of lack thereof, the type of organisms
inhabiting the area, and the land use.

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In general, given similar vegetation and ecosystems, areas with high-
intensity precipitation, more frequent rainfall, more rain, or even more
storms are expected to have more erosion. Sediments with high sand or silt
contents and areas with steep slope erode more easily, as do areas with
highly fractured and permeability of the sediment or rock affects the speed
with which the water can percolate into the ground. If the water moves
underground, fewer run-offs are generated, reducing the amount of surface
erosion. Sediments containing more clay tend to erode less than those with
silt or sand.

3.1 DEFORESTATION
The factor that is most subject to change is the amount and type of ground
cover. In an undisturbed forest, the mineral soil is protected by a litter layer
and an organic layer. These two layers protect the soil by absorbing the
impact of rain drops. These layers and the underlying soil in a forest are
porous and highly permeable to rainfall.

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Typically, only the most sever rainfall and large hailstorm events will lead to
overland flow in a forest. If the trees are removed by fire or logging,
infiltration rate become high. Severe fires can lead to significantly increased
erosion if followed by heavy rainfall.

3.2 CONSTRUCTIONS
In the case of construction or road building, when the litter layer Is removed
or compacted, the susceptibility of the soil to erosion is greatly increased.

Roads are especially likely to cause increased rates of erosion because, in

addition to removing the ground cover, they can significantly change the
drainage patterns, especially if an embankment has been made to support
the road.

A road that has a lot of rock or one that is "hydro logically invisible" (that
gets the water off the road as quickly as possible, mimicking natural drainage
patterns) has the best chance of not causing increased erosion.

3.3 HUMAN ACTIVITIES

Many human activities removes vegetation from an area, making the soil
easily eroded. Logging can cause increased erosion rate due to soil
compaction. However, it is the removal of the forest floor not the canopy
that can lead to erosion. This is because raindrops striking the leaves
combine with the other raindrops creating larger drops. When these larger
drops fall, they again may reach terminal velocity and strike the ground with
more energy.

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3.4 OVER GRAZING
Heavy grazing can reduce vegetation enough to increase erosion. Changes
in the kind of vegetation in an area can also affect erosion rates. Different
kinds of vegetation lead to different infiltration rates of rain into the soil.
Forested areas have higher infiltration rates, so precipitation will result in
less surface run-off.

3.5 SOIL EROSION AND CLIMATE CHANGE

The warmer atmospheric temperatures observed over the past decades are
expected to lead to a more vigorous hydrological cycle, including more
extreme rainfall events.

Soil erosion rates are expected to change in response to change in climate

for a variety of reasons. The most direct is the change in the erosive power
of rainfall. Other reasons include:

(a) Change in plant canopy caused by shifts in plant biomass Reduction

associated with moisture regime.
(b) Change in litter cover in the ground caused by changes is both plant
residue decomposition rates driven by temperature and moisture
dependent soil microbial activity as well as plant biomass production
rates.
(c) Change in soil moisture due to shifting precipitation regimes and
Evapo-transpiration rates, which change infiltration and run-off ratios.
(d) Soil erodibility changes due to decrease in soil organic matter
concentration in soil that leads to a soil structure that is more prone to
erosion and increase run-off due to decreased soil surface sealing and
crusting.

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3.6 EFFECTS OF EROSION
Soil erosion removes valuable top soil which is the most productive part of
the soil profile. This results in lower yield and higher cost of production. The
subsoil left after topsoil has been removed is often unable to support
agriculture because advanced erosion causes rills and gullies that make
cultivation paddocks unworkable.
Downstream effects include:
 Damage to roads and railway lines.
 Situation of water -course and water storages.
 Overall reduction in water quality in creeks, rivers and coastal areas.

Approximately 40% of the world's agriculture land is seriously degraded. If

current trends of soil degradation continues, the continent might be able to
feed just 25% of its population by 2025 according to UNU's Ghana -based
institute for Natural Resources in Africa.

The farmlands become unproductive or entirely barren. The agricultural

output of these regions won't be able to feed the population, and this will
cause immigration which is an important cultural and economic problem.
As the pastures disappear, raising livestock becomes harder and harder. The
income and job vacancies drop. The disappearances of vegetation cover
cause landslides and floods. The soil carried by erosion fills artificial lakes
lowering their economic life time.

Land without soil and vegetation isn't able to absorb rain and snow and
natural water resources can't replenish themselves.
Loss of soil and vegetation causes climate change, the ecological balance
becomes disturbed and large amounts of natural resources are also lost.
Thousands of years are required for the re-creation of the lost soil.

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3.7 EFFECTS OF EROSION ON WATER QUALITY
The deposition of sediments into water -way can significantly diminish the
water quality and aquatic habitat. Sediments deposition in water -way makes
the water more turbid and does not allow as much light to penetrate the
water. This causes problems for aquatic plants that need sunlight in -order
to perform photosynthesis.

Furthermore, suspended sediments in the water have the potential of

clogging the gills of aquatic organisms and covering the stream bottom.
Deposition of sediments on the stream bottom can lead to suffocation if fish
eggs and benthic micro invertebrates and can cause the destruction of
natural spawning substrates. Also with an increased amount of particles in
water, dissolved oxygen level are reduced because of higher temperature.
Pesticides, some metals and other toxins may sometimes cling to suspended
sediments in water and increase the concentration of toxins in water with
high amounts of suspended sediments.

Similarly, phosphates can also enter the water-way by attaching to eroded

particles. When in higher levels, phosphate in water can lead to algal blooms
and lower the amount of dissolved oxygen in the waterway.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
1.0 PREVENTION AND CONTROL
Preventive measures usually are effective only if they succeed in forestalling
inception of the problem. Thus, they are applicable before the incidence of
the erosion on farmland. Once erosion is known to occur in an area, steps
can subsequently be taken to prevent, or minimize its occurrence. A crucial
factor to the success of a preventive measure in any discipline is an effective
public enlightment. It is well known that certain factors accelerate erosion
and these factors occur as a result of the action or lack of them by people.

When erosion has occurred, with or without any preventive steps, measures
may be required to check the menace. Sheet erosion is checked essentially
through agricultural measures, such as land use patterns, land management
and crop husbandry, cropping practices calls for the implementation of
engineering measures.
The basic principles of preventing and controlling erosion are to:
 Use land in accordance with its capability
 Protect the soil surface with some form of cover.
 Control run-off because it develops into an erosive force.

There are numerous ways soil erosion could be prevented or checked. They
include:

4.1 TERRACE FARMING

Slopes have natural tendency to release top soil due to gravity effect and
force of water. Thus by incorporating terrace farms, it is possible to reduce
the force of water and prevent the gravity factor. In terrace farming, the
fields will be built at right angles to the slope which will be the best use in

22
effectively reducing the erosion of top soil. This method of erosion control
can be predominantly seen areas where there is tea and coffee plantation.

4.2 LAND CAPABILITY

Soil type and land slope determine how vulnerable land will be to erosion. If
the risk of erosion is serious, land may be unsuitable for an agricultural use,
or suitable only for a type less conducive to soil erosion.

4.3 SURFACE COVER

Adequate surface cover is a major factor controlling erosion because it
reduces the erosive effect of rain-drops falling on bare-soils and the ability
of winds to remove soil particles.

4.4 INCREASE OF VEGETATION

By increasing the density of vegetation, it is possible to interlock the soil due
to the hold, which is being applied by the plants on the soil. The roots of the
plants and trees interlock and inter-lace to bind the soil particles. This helps
in three ways:
 Does not allow the soil particles to be carried away by wind or water.
 Does not allow free flow of water over the soil which prevent erosion
of soil by flowing water
 The falling leaves of the plants get converted to humus by
decomposing action of the soil microbes. This enriches the soil.

Several methods can be employed to increase the vegetation cover of land.

Some of them are as follows:
(a) Crop Rotation: the practice of growing different crops at different
times on the same land are called crop rotation. This keeps the topsoil

23
 covered with vegetation. Rotation of cereal crops with legumes also
keeps the soil enriched with nitrogen (from the legumes).
(b) Reforestation: Slopes are more subject to soil erosion by running
water, growing tress on lands which have lost their vegetation is called
reforestation. Trees like Albizia, Cassia, Butia are suitable for this.
(c) Strip Cropping: It involves growing of crops in strips. The most
common method followed is the contour farming where the strips of
crops are at right angle to the slope wind -strip cropping is when the
strips of crops are placed at right angle to the direction of wind.
(d) Restoring soil fertility: Fertile soil supports vegetation. Loss of
fertility results in loss of vegetation and this exposes the land to
erosion. Fertility of soil can be increased by addition of natural and
synthetic fertilizers.
(e) Control of Grazing: Covering the land with small plants and grasses
helps the topsoil to remain in place. As the roots of these plants bind
with the soil particles. Cattles graze on these plants and expose the to-
soil. Thus, grazing should be allowed only on lands meant for the
purpose and other areas should be protected from grazing.
(f) Dam Building: With the dams, the speed and amount of water
flowing can be controlled. This will control the soil erosion of river
banks.
(g) Wind -Breakers: Trees are planted across the wind direction to
protect against the high velocity wind these rows of trees are called
shelter belts or wind-breakers.

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 CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION
Conclusively, the term erosion embraces the general wearing down and
molding of all land farms on the earth's surface, including the weathering of
rock in its original position, the transport of weathered materials.
A narrow and somewhat limiting definition of erosion excludes the transport
of eroded material by natural agencies. The exclusion of the transport
phenomenon makes the distinction between erosion and weathering very
vague.

Erosion therefore, includes the transportation of eroded or weathered

material from the point of degradation, but not the deposition of materials
at a new site.

The complementary action of erosion operates through the geomorphic

processes of wind, moving water, and ice to alter existing landforms and
creates new landforms.

25
 REFERENCES
Capper, P.C. and Cassie, N.F. 1969. The Mechanics of Engineering Soils. E.
And Span, London.

Egboka B.C. and Nwankwor G.I., 1983. The Hydrological and geotechnical
parameters as agents for gully-type erosion in the Rain-Forest Belt of
Nigeria.

Egboka B.C. and Orajiaka I.P., 1987, soil and gully Erosion models for
effective control programmes.

Ibe K. Snr., Unpub. 1985, Erosion problems in Imo State.

Nwajide, C.S. and Hoque, M. 1979. Gullying processes in Southern-Eastern

Nigeria. The Nigerian Filed Vol, XLIV, No.2, June 1979, PP. 64-74.

Ofomata, G.E.K. 1978. Man as a factor of soil erosion in Southeastern

Nigeria. Geo-Eco-Trop., Vol. 1, PP. 143-154.

Ogbukagu, K.N. 1977. Soil erosion in the Northern parts of Awka-Orlu

Uplands, Nigeria. J. Min Gcol Vol. 13, No. 2 PP. 6-19

Okoye, P.I. 1980. A study of the factors which control gully erosion. BSc.
Dissertation, University of Nigeria, Nsuka.

Taylor, D.W. 1948, Fundamentals of soil mechanics. John Wiley and sons
Inc. N.Y.

Terzaghi, K. and Peck, R.B. 1948. Soil mechanics in engineering practice.

John Wiley and Sons Inc, N.Y.

www.google.com/soilerosion
www.wikipedia.com/soilerosion

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