SOIL AND WATER

CONSERVATION ENGINEERING

2017

By
Prabhat Chandra Pradhan
Precision Farming Development Centre, OUAT, Bhubaneswar
Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is the detachment of soil from its original location and
transportation to a new location.
Causes of Soil Erosion
There are many factors responsible for this process, some induced by
nature and others by human being. The main causes of soil erosion can be
enumerated as:
(1) Destruction of Natural Protective Cover by
(i) indiscriminate cutting of trees,
(ii) overgrazing of the vegetative cover and
(iii) forest fires.
(2) Improper Use of the Land
(i) keeping the land barren subjecting it to the action of rain and wind,
(ii) growing of crops that accelerate soil erosion,
(iii) removal of organic matter and plant nutrients by injudicious cropping patterns,
(iv) cultivation along the land slope, and
(v) faulty methods of irrigation.
Types of Soil Erosion
According to Origin: Soil erosion can broadly be categorized into two types i.e. geologic
erosion and accelerated erosion.
Geological Erosion: Under natural conditions an equilibrium is established
between the climate of a place and the vegetative cover that protects the soil layer.
Vegetative covers like trees and forests retard the transportation of soil material
and act as a check against excessive erosion. A certain amount of erosion,
however, does take place even under the natural cover. This erosion, called
geologic erosion, is a slow process and is compensated by the formation of soil
under the natural weathering process.

Accelerated Erosion: When land is put under cultivation, the natural balance
existing between the soil, its vegetation cover and climate is disturbed. Under
such condition, the removal of surface soil due to natural agencies takes places at
faster rate than it can be built by the soil formation process. Erosion occurring
under these condition is referred to as accelerated erosion. Its rates are higher than
geological erosion. Accelerated erosion depletes soil fertility in agricultural land.
According to Erosion Agents: Soil erosion is broadly categorized into different types
depending on the agent which triggers the erosion activity. Mentioned below are the four
main types of soil erosion.

Water Erosion: It refers to erosion caused by water. This includes rivers which
erode the river basin, rainwater which erodes various landforms, and the sea waves
which erode the coastal areas. Water erodes and transports soil particles from
higher altitude and deposits them in low lying areas. Water erosion may further be
classified, based on different actions of water responsible for erosion, as : (i)
raindrop erosion, (ii) sheet erosion, (iii) rill erosion, (iv) gully erosion, (v) stream
bank erosion(vi)sea shore erosion
Wind Erosion: Wind erosion is most often witnessed in dry areas wherein strong
winds brush against various landforms, cutting through them and loosening the soil
particles, which are lifted and transported towards the direction in which the wind
blows. The best example of wind erosion are sand dunes typically found in deserts.
Glacial Erosion: Glacial erosion, also referred to as ice erosion, is common in
cold regions at high altitudes. When soil comes in contact with large moving
glaciers, it sticks to the base of these glaciers. This is eventually transported with
the glaciers, and as they start melting it is deposited in the course of the moving
chunks of ice.

Gravitational Erosion: The gravitational erosion is not as common a

phenomenon
. as water erosion, it can cause huge damage to natural, as well as
man-made structures. It is basically the mass movement of soil due to
gravitational force. The best examples of this are landslides and slumps While
landslides and slumps happen within seconds, phenomena such as soil creep take
a longer period for occurrence.
Agents of Soil Erosion
• Mainly water is responsible for this erosion although in many
locations wind, glaciers are also the agents causing soil erosion.
• Water in the form of rain, flood and runoff badly affects the soil.
• When the rain falls along the mountains and bare soil, the water
detaches the soil particles, and takes away the silt and clay particles
along with the flowing water.
• Similarly, when wind blows in the form of storms, its speed
becomes too high to lift off the entire soil upper layer and causes
soil erosion
• Other factors responsible for soil erosion are human and
animal activities.
• Vegetation is the natural cover of soil. When the animals
continuously graze in the pastures, the vegetation is removed
due to their walking and grazing.
• Bare lands left behind are easily affected by soil erosion.
• Activities of human like forest cutting, increased agriculture,
and clearing of land for different purposes are the other agents
that cause erosion of the soil. The soil erosion agent can be
classified and summarized as shown below
Soil erosion agents, processes and effects.
 WATER EROSION
It is the soil erosion caused by water over the land surface. The

rate of water erosion depends on land slope, soil type, density of

vegetation and intensity of rainfall.

Types:

1. Splash erosion 2.Sheet erosion

3. Rill erosion 4.Gully erosion

5. Stream bank erosion 6.Sea-shore erosion

7. Land slide erosion

 SPLASH EROSION
It is also known as raindrop erosion, because it is caused by
the impact of raindrops on exposed soil surface. Factors influencing
the rate of erosion are:

a) Rainfall characteristics

b) Soil texture

c) Topography(steepness and length of slope)

d) Vegetative cover and mulches

Falling raindrops break soil aggregate and detach soil

particles from soil mass.
Fig. Splash erosion.
 SHEET EROSION
• It is the removal of a fairly uniform layer of soil from the land
surface in form of thin layers or ‘sheet’ form by the flowing water.

• In sheet erosion two basic processes are involved. First process is

one in which soil particles are detached from the soil surface by
falling of raindrop and in the second process detached soil particles
are transported away by surface runoff from the original place .

• It is very slow process and is common in sloping land areas.

Fig. Sheet erosion.
 RILL EROSION

• It is the removal of soil by running water with the formation of

small but well demarcated channels.

• The rill erosion is sometime also known as micro channel

erosion.

• If proper care is not taken ,rill develops into gully erosion.

Fig. Rill erosion.
 GULLY EROSION
• If the rills are not cared for a long time, they develop further
in their depths and widths and finally result to formation of
gullies. It is advanced stage of rill erosion.

• Major causes of gully erosion include steepness of land

slope, soil texture, rainfall intensity, land mismanagement,
Incorrect agricultural practices.

• Large gullies and their networks are called ravines.

Fig. 3.4. Gully erosion.
 STREAM BANK EROSION
 Stream bank erosion is defined as the removal of stream
bank soil by water either flowing over the sides of the stream
or scouring from there.
 Flood flows cause the major part of the erosion while the
normal flow after floods also causes considerable amount of
erosion.
 The destruction of the vegetation cover over the stream
banks accelerates the bank erosion.
 Stream bank erosion damages adjoining agricultural lands,
highways, railroads, bridges etc.
Fig. Stream bank erosion.
 SEA-SHORE EROSION

• It is also called coastal erosion.

• Sea shore erosion is wearing away of land and
removal of soil by wave action, tidal currents
etc.
• Waves generated by storms,winds or fast
moving motor boats cause coastal erosion.
Fig. Sea-shore/ coastal erosion.
 LANDSLIDE EROSION

• When gravity combines with heavy rain or

earthquake, whole slopes can slump, slip or
slide.
• Slips occure when the soil( top soil and sub
soil) on slope becomes saturated.
• Unless held by plant roots to the underlying
surface,it slides downhill,exposing the
underlying material.
Fig. Cross-section of landslide characteristics.
 MAJOR FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL EROSION
A. Climate
 Rainfall, temperature and wind are the main climatic factors affecting soil
erosion.
 The amount of soil particles contained in runoff water depends upon the rainfall
amount, intensity and frequency. During periods of frequent or continuous
rainfall, saturated field condition results into more runoff and soil loss.
 Temperature affects the type and amount of vegetative cover on the land which
in turn affects soil erosion.
B. Topography
 The intensity of erosion of a soil depends upon the degree or percentage of the
slope and on the length of the slope.
 If the land slope is increased by two times, the velocity of water flowing over it
will be doubled. When the velocity is doubled, erosion capacity of the water is
increased by 4 times.
C. Vegetation
 Vegetation is probably the most important physical factor influencing soil erosion.
 A good cover of vegetation protects the soil from the impact of raindrops.
 It also binds the soil together, making it resistant to runoff.
 A vegetative cover provides organic matter, slows down runoff and filters sediment.
It improves soil aeration and permeability.
 Vegetation results into greater infiltration capacity of the soil which results into
reduction of runoff and hence reduction in soil erosion.
D. Soil
 The physical characteristics of soil have a bearing on erodibility.
 The soil properties influencing erodibility include texture, structure and cohesion.
 Soil having more silt size particles is most susceptible to erosion from both wind and
water.
 Soil with clay or sand particles is less prone to erosion.
Mechanics of Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is initiated by detachment of soil particles due to action of rain. The
detached particles are transported by erosion agents from one place to another and
finally get settled at some place leading to soil erosion process. Different soil erosion
processes are shown in Figure below:

Fig. Process of water erosion

Mechanics of Water Erosion

There are three steps for erosion by water:

i) Detachment or loosening of soil particles caused by the impact of
falling raindrops and flowing water on the top soil.
ii) Transportation of soil particles by suspension, saltation and
surface creep.
iii) Deposition of transported particles at some places of lower
elevation.
 STAGES OF GULLEY DEVELOPMENT
1. Initiation stage: In the beginning stage of gully formation stage, the

channels erosion takes place by downward scour of the top soil.

2. Development stage: In this stage ,the gully head moves upstream

and simultaneous enlargement of width and depth of gully takes
place.

3. Healing Stage: In this stage, the vegetation begins to grow in the

channel and the gully starts establishing itself. Further erosion
ceases.

4. Stabilized stage : In this stage, the gully bed and sides reach a stable
slope and sufficient vegetation grows to catch the soil flowing from
upstream. New top soil develops and vegetation cover grows.
 CLASSIFICATION
1. U/V/Trapezoidal -shaped (based on shape of gulley)
i. U-shaped gullies : The cross section is of U-shape. Such a gully develops in a land
with very small slope, almost approaching zero. The catchment area contributing the
runoff is large and hence the discharge in the gully is large. The velocity of flow is
relatively less. These are formed where both top soil and subsoil have the same
resistance against erosion.

ii. V-shaped gullies : The cross sections of such gullies are of V-shape. These are
generally found on sloping fields. Catchment area contributing the runoff is small.
There is small discharge with greater velocity. Such gullies are usually found in hilly
regions, where subsoil has more resistance than topsoil against erosion.

iii. Trapezoidal shaped gullies: The cross section of such gullies are trapezoidal. These
gullies are formed where the gully bottom is made of more resistance material than
the top soil. Below the bottom of gully , the subsoil layer has more resistance to get
eroded and thus the development of further depth of gully is restricted.
2. Active/Inactive (based on state of gulley)

i. Active gully : That gully whose dimensions enlarge with time is called

active gully. Such gullies are generally found in plain area.

ii. Inactive gully : That gully whose dimensions do not change with time is

called inactive gully. Such gullies are generally found in rocky area.

3. Small/Medium/Large(based on size of gulley)

i. Small gully :(gully depth <1.0 m and catchment area <2 ha)

ii. Medium gully :(gully depth 1.0 – 5.0 m and catchment area 2-20 ha)

iii. Large gully :(gully depth >5.0 m and catchment area > 20 ha)
 WIND EROSION

 It is the process of detachment, transportation and deposition

and of soil particles by the action of wind.
 It is a serious problem in arid and semiarid regions of the world.
 It occurs when wind blows across cultivated bare fields,
especially if the soil is loose and dry.
 Favourable conditions for wind erosion.
a. A dry period.
b. Lack of vegetation cover on the land.
c. A broad, flat or undulating topography.
 Indicators of occurrence of wind erosion.
a. Removal of top soil.
b. Changes in soil texture.
c. Baking of the soil surface
d. Exposure of root system of trees and shrubs.
e. Sand deposits

Mechanics of soil erosion due to wind

Wind erosion occurs where soil is exposed to the dislodging force

of wind. The intensity of wind erosion varies with surface
roughness, slope and types of cover on the soil surface and wind
velocity, duration and angle of incidence. Fine soil particles can
be carried to great heights and distance. The overall occurrence of
wind erosion could be described in three different phases. These
are initiation of movement, transportation and deposition.
Initiation of Movement: The initiation of the movement of soil particles is caused by
several factors acting separately or in combination. It occurs when the wind force
or the impact of moving particles is strong enough to dislodge stationary soil
particles.

Transportation: The transportation of the particles once they are dislodged take
place in three ways:
i) Suspension – When the particles of soil are very small (less than 0.1 mm) they
are carried over long distances. Finer suspended particles are moved parallel
to the ground surface and upward.
ii) Saltation – In saltation soil particles of medium size (0.10-0.15 mm diameter)
are carried by wind in a series of short bounces. These bounces are caused by
the direct pressure of the wind on soil particles.
ii) Soil Creep – saltation also encourages soil creep (rolling or sliding) along the
surface of the particles (0.5-1.0 mm diameter). The bouncing particles carried by
saltation strike the large aggregates and speed up their movement along the
surface.
Deposition: Deposition of the particles occurs when the gravitational force is
greater than the forces holding the particles in air. Deposition could occur when
the wind velocity is decreased due to surface obstructions or other natural
causes.
 EFFECTS OF WIND EROSION

 Loss of soil fertility

 Formation of sand dunes

 Extension of deserts.

 High dust concentrations in atmosphere resulting in

environmental health hazards.

 EROSION CONTROL MEASURES / METHODS / PRACTICES
The basic approaches to control soil erosion caused by water are aimed
at reduction of impact of rainfall, decrease in corrosive power of runoff water
and increase in resistivity of soil against getting eroded.
By soil management and reduction in
slope
Reduction of raindrop
impact
By providing crop cover

By providing resistance to runoff through

Controlling soil Decrease in corrosive tillage and mechanical measures
erosion by water power of runoff water

By decreasing runoff velocity through

reduction

Increase in resistivity By improving soil structure by

of soil amendments

By increasing organic matter

 TYPES OF EROSION CONTROL
(i) Biological measures.
The biological measures are also known as vegetative measures or
agronomical measures and are adopted when the land slopes are
small (upto 2% in general) and where erosion problems are not severe.
It is economical and effective.

(ii) Engineering measures.

The engineering measures or the mechanical measures are generally
adopted for more than 2% land slopes. However, the engineering
measures are sometimes also adopted in conjunction with biological
measures.
 AGRONOMICAL OR BIOLOGICAL OR VEGETATIVE MEASURES
The agronomical measures include contour cultivation, strip cropping,
cropping system, tillage practices and mulching to control the soil erosion.

(i) Contour Cultivation

 It is a system of farming sloping lands in such a way that all the tillage practices and
mechanical treatments like ploughing, planting, sowing and intercultural
operations are performed nearly on the contours of the area and hence across the
land slope.

 In low rainfall regions, the primary purpose of contour cultivation is to conserve

the rain water into soil as much as possible. In humid regions its basic purpose is to
reduce the soil erosion or soil loss by retarding the overland flow.
(ii) Strip Cropping
 Strip cropping is the system of growing alternate strips of erosion permitting crops
and erosion resisting crops in the same field. Erosion permitting crops are row
crops such as maize, jowar, bajra, cotton etc. while those of erosion resisting crops
are the close growing crops such as green gram, black gram, groundnut ,fodder
crops etc.

 This technique reduces the velocity of runoff and checks the eroded soil from being
washed away.
Types of strip cropping
a) Contour strip cropping : In this system, alternate strips of erosion permitting
and erosion resisting crops are practiced along the contours. The widths of
strips depend upon topography.
b) Field strip cropping : In field strip cropping, the strips of crops are laid across
the slope in uniform width without taking into consideration the exact
contours. This system is useful for lands of regular slopes and with soils of
high infiltration rates.
c) Buffer strip cropping : In this type of strip cropping, permanent strips of
grasses or legumes or mixture of grass and legume are laid either in badly
eroded areas or in areas that do not fit into a regular rotation.
d) Wind strip cropping : In this system , the crop strips are laid at right angles to
the direction of the prevailing winds without considering the direction of the
land slope.
Cropping System
 It refers to a sequence of crops grown on a given area over a period of time.
 It is determined for maintenance of soil fertility, protecting the soil from erosion
and utilizing the available soil moisture.
 Crop rotations, intercropping, strip cropping and crop mixtures are the different
cropping systems.

Tillage Practices
 A tillage practices may be defined as mechanical manipulation of soil to provide a
favorable environment for good germination of seed and crop growth, to control
the weeds, to maintain infiltration capacity and soil aeration.
 Tillage practice protects and maintains a strong soil structure to fight against
erosion.
 Different types of tillage practices (operations) include ploughing, secondary
cultivation with harrowing, minimum tillage, zero tillage etc.
Mulching

 Mulching may be defined as the application of any plant residues or other

materials to cover the top soil surface around the plant for conserving the

moisture, minimizing the raindrop splash, reducing evaporation, controlling

weeds, improving the soil temperature, and improving the micro-

environment of the soil.

 Mulching material may be either natural or artificial.

 Stubbles, trash and other types of vegetation are common natural mulches

while different types of polyethylene/plastic mulches are examples of

artificial mulches.
Types of mulching material: To protect the land from
erosion different types of materials are used as listed
below.
• Cut grasses or foliage
• Straw materials
• Wood chips
• Saw dusts
• Papers
• Stones
• Glass wools
• Metal foils
• Cellophanes
• Plastics
Effect of mulch rate on runoff and soil loss
Mulch rate Runoff Soil loss
( t/ha) (%) (t/ha)

0 50 4.83

2 19.7 2.48

4 8.0 0.52

6 1.2 0.05
 Plastic mulch – most versatile of all inorganic mulches
as does not decompose easily. Polyethylene films are used as
mulch materials.
Plastic film mulches, low density polyethylene (LDPE) or
linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE), are available in different
thickness, widths and colours in the market.
Plastic mulches are available in different colours viz. black,
white, yellow, blue, red mulches and bi-colour mulches viz. silver-
black, black - white etc and degradable mulches.
Engineering or Mechanical Measures
Engineering measures usually consist of creating mechanical barriers
across the direction of flow of water and thus retard or retain the runoff. They
are used to control the soil erosion and to conserve required amount of
rainwater. They supplement agronomical practices when the latter alone are not
adequate to handle the available runoff.

(i) Increasing the time of concentration to allow more runoff water to be

infiltrated into soil.
(ii) Breaking a long slope into several short ones for reducing the flow
velocity.
(iii) Protecting drainage channels against damage due to excessive runoff
in them.
(iv) Minimizing soil and water losses
Bunds
Bunds are small embankments constructed across the slope. The common
bunds are of two types-contour bunds and graded bunds. The choice of the type of
bund is dependent on land slope, rainfall, soil type and purpose of making the bund
in the area. In general, bunding is suitable for lands having slopes from 2% to 10%.
For lands having slopes greater than 10%, terracing is adopted.

Contour Bund
When bunds are constructed on contours, they are called contour bunds.
Thus, contour bunding consists of building earthen embankments across the slope
of the land, following the contour as closely as possible. A series of such bunds
divide the area into strips and act as barriers to the flow of water, thus reducing the
amount and velocity of the runoff and hence controlling the soil erosion. Generally,
no cultivation is done on contour bunds as these are narrow-base structure.
 Contour bunds are generally used for the slope upto 6% in relatively low

rainfall areas (annual rainfall < 600 mm) for the purpose of controlling soil erosion

and storing the rainwater. Such bunding is suitable for all types of relatively

permeable soils but not for clay or deep black cotton soils.

Contour bunds are also not successful in very shallow soils having a depth

less than 7.5 cm. no cultivation is generally allowed on the earthen embankments

of contour bunds. Therefore under contour bunds an area of about 5 percent is lost

under the bunds and is not available for cultivation.

Design of Contour Bund
1. Spacing of Contour bund. Bund spacing is expressed as the vertical or
the horizontal distance between corresponding points on two adjacent bunds. The
horizontal spacing is also known as horizontal interval (HI) and is useful in
determining the row arrangement. Vertical distance is commonly known as the
vertical interval (V. I.).
V.I. is determined by the following formulas suggested by C.E. Ramser :
In low rainfall zones.
V.I. = 15 S + 60
and in medium and heavy rainfall zones,
V.I. = 10 S + 60
where V. I. is in cm and S is land slope in % in both the equations.
The horizontal spacing of the bund is given by :
V.I.
H.I.  100
S
Cross Section
The cross-section of the bund includes height, top width and bottom width. The shape of
the bund is trapezoidal and therefore, cross sectional area (C.S.A) of the bund is given by :
1
C.S.A  (base width  top width )  height
2
The factors affecting height of the bund are (i) depth of water to be stored,
(ii) design depth of flow over the waste weir, and (iii) freeboard. The depth of water to be
stored or the depth of impounding is sometimes arbitrarily taken as 30 cm. However, the
depth of impounding is actually given by the following formula.

R  V.I.
h
50
Where h = depth of impounding near the bund, m
R = 24-hour excess rainfall to be stored (cm) for 10 years recurrence interval
V.I. = vertical interval, m
To the calculated depth of impounding (h), depth of flow over the waste weir and a
freeboard of about 25% should be added. Generally, a depth of flow of 30 cm is considered
above the weir.
Graded Bunds
 If a grade is provided in longitudinal direction of a bund, then such a
bund is called graded bund. Such bunds are designed for safe disposal of
excess runoff from agricultural fields.

 In high rainfall areas (annual rainfall > 800 mm) and fine textured soil, the
entire runoff cannot easily and economically be stored in the catchment
or the field through contour bunding. Under such cases, graded bunds
can be used to dispose off the excess runoff safely.

 The contour bunds are mostly used for conservation of moisture in low
rainfall areas with permeable soils whereas the graded bunds are used
partly for conservation of moisture and partly for safe disposal of the
excess runoff water in high rainfall areas and / or in light soils.
Design considerations for graded bund
The design of graded bund includes determination of V.I., grade, and
cross-section. In general, the same formula as that for contour bund is used to
determine V.I. and H.I. In graded bund, either a uniform or a variable grade is used.
For short bunds of 100 to 150 m length, uniform grade is used while for longer
bunds variable grade is used. Grade can be in the range of 0.2 to 0.4% for most of
the soils.

The cross-section of the bund should be sufficient for stability, and highest
flood level should be below the top of the bund. Generally a top width of 50 cm is
used. However, it may vary from 30 to 90 cm depending upon height of the bund.
The height may be from 50 to 80 cm. The stable side slope for clayey soil may be as
steep as 1:1, for loamy soil 1.5:1, and for sandy soil 2:1. The base width should be
decided accordingly.
 Terracing
Function of Terraces:
• The function of terraces is to decrease the length of the hill
side slope thereby reducing sheet and rill erosion, preventing
the formation of gullies and retaining runoff in areas of
inadequate precipitation.
• The graded terraces are more effective in reducing erosion
than runoff in most areas.
• Level terraces are effective in reducing runoff as well as
controlling erosion.
Classification:
• The two major types of terraces are bench terrace, which
reduces land slope and the broad base terrace,which removes
or retains water on sloping land.
Types of Bench Terraces
Bench terraces are classified depending upon the slope of benches. The
different types are :
(i) Bench terraces sloping inward
(ii) Bench terraces sloping outward.
(iii) Bench terraces with level top.

Bench terraces with slopes inside are to be adopted in heavy rainfall areas
where a major portion of the rainfall is to be drained as surface runoff. In the case of
these terraces, a suitable drain at the inward end of each of these terraces is to be
provided to drain the runoff. These drain ultimately lead to suitable outlet. These
are also known as hill-type bench terraces.
Inward sloping bench terraces
Outward sloping bench terraces
Level bench terraces
 Bench terraces sloping outward are to be used in low rainfall areas with
permeable soils. For bench terraces sloping outward a shoulder bund is essential even
though such a bund is provided in the other two types also for giving stability to the
edge of the terrace. In these terraces, the rainfall coming over the area is to be
conserved by retaining the shoulder bund and the rainfall thus conserved will have
more time for soaking into the soil. Bench terraces with narrow width (about 1 m) are
sometimes constructed for orchards and are known as orchard bench terraces.
made.
Bench terraces with level tops are suitable for areas of medium rainfall,
evenly distributed and having deep and highly permeable soils. Due to the fact that
no slope is given to the benches it is expected that most of the rainfall coming over
the area is to be absorbed by the soil and very little water is to go as surface drainage.
These types of terraces are also used where irrigation facilities are available and
referred to as irrigated bench terraces.
 CONTOUR TRENCHING
Contour trenching implies excavating trenches along the contour or along a uniform-level. A
typical cross-section of the trench is shown in Fig.1 Contour trenches are used both on hill slopes as
well as on degraded and bare waste lands for soil and moisture conservation and afforestation
purposes. These trenches break the slope lengths, reduce the velocity of surface runoff and
consequently retard its scoring action and carrying capacity. The water retained in the trenches help in
conserving the moisture and provide advantageous sites for sowing and planting.

Even though contour trenches have been used on all slopes, trenching on slopes
exceeding 20% is not advisable either technically or economically. Contour trenches have
been profitably used in both high rainfall and low rainfall conditions, varying soil types and
depths, for soil and water conservation and afforestation.
 SPECIFICATION OF TRENCHES
Contour trenches may be continuous or interrupted as shown
in Fig.2. The interrupted trenches may be constructed in series or in a
staggered manner. Continuous trenches are essentially used for moisture
conservation in low rainfall areas and required careful layout. Intermittent
trenches are adopted in high rainfall areas.

The size of the trenches depends upon the soil depth available
at the site. Normally sizes between 1000 sq.cm to 2500 sq. cm in cross-
section are adopted. The dimensions of the trench may be 30 cm base
with 30 cm top width and square in cross-section. The trench may also be
trapezoidal in cross-section with side slopes of 1 :1. Knowing the amount
of rainfall to be retained in an unit area, it is possible to calculate the size
and the number of trenches required. As far as the length of the trenches
are concerned, shorter lengths viz. 3.5 or 7 m lengths are generally
adopted for convenience of layout and construction. However, if careful
layout is done longer lengths of trenches (upto 300 m) can be adopted. In
areas for pasture development such long trenches are used.
Q. 1. A land has an average slope of 5% and falls under low rainfall zone. Estimate V.I. and H.I.
Sol. For low rainfall zone,
V.I. = 15 S +60 = 15 × 5 + 60 = 135 cm = 1.35 m
Further,
V.I. 1.35
H.I.   100   100  27 m
S 5
Q. 2. Design the cross-section of a contour bund for storing 24-hour excess rainfall of 8 cm at 10 years
recurrence interval. The land is located in moderate rainfall zone and has a slope of 2.5%. The soil is
clayey.
Sol. V. I. = 10 S + 60 = 10 × 2.5 + 60=85cm = 0.85 m
Depth of impounding,
R  V.I 8  0.85
h   0.37m
50 50
Depth of flow over the waste weir is assumed as 0.3 m and a freeboard of 0.1 m (25% of h) is taken.
Hence, total height of bund = 0.37+0.3+0.1 = 0.77 m.
As the soil is clayey, the side slope may be taken as 1:1.
Taking top width as 50 cm, bottom width is given by
b = 0.5 + 2 × 0.77 = 2.04 m
Thus, the dimensions of the cross-section of the contour bund are :
Top width = 0.5 m, Bottom width = 2.04 m, Height = 0.77m, Side slope = 1:1
GULLY CONTROL MEASURES / METHODS
This gully control methods include (i) diversion of runoff, (ii) vegetative methods,
(iii) construction of temporary structures, and (iv) construction of permanent structures.

Diversion of Runoff
A gully can be controlled if the runoff entering into it can be diverted to some other
safe channels. It is achieved by constructing diversion drains. A diversion drain is a shallow
channel put across the slope above the gully. It intercepts the runoff water coming from the
area above the gully and discharges the intercepted runoff at a safe point. The slope of the
diversion drain is generally kept less than 0.5% and usually between 0.10 to 0.25%.
Vegetative Methods
In vegetative methods, the gully erosion is controlled by using vegetation. In such
methods, the vegetation may be natural or artificial. If the runoff is diverted and the grazing is
controlled from the eroded area, natural vegetation begins to get established. The growth of
natural vegetation protects the gully area with grasses, shrubs and trees. Artificial vegetation of
the gully beds and banks accelerates the process of establishing the vegetation and helps in
establishing the gully. Selection of grasses, shrubs or trees should be carefully done and should
suit the local conditions.
Temporary Structures
Temporary gully control structures are designed to check the flow of
water and hence reduce the channel erosion. The also retain some quantities of
water and sediment which help in establishment of vegetation.
The advantages of temporary structures are :
(a) Temporary structures are cheaper than permanent structures.
(b) They can be constructed by using locally available materials.
(c) Their constructions do not require technical skill.
Various types of temporary structures include :
(i) Brushwood dams
(ii) Loose rock dams
(iii) Rock filled dams
(iv) Woven wire dams
Fig.1 Single post row brushwood dam
Fig.2 Double post row brushwood dam
Fig.3 Loose rock dam
Fig.4 Rock fill dam
Permanent Structures
• PGCS built of masonry, reinforced concrete or earth are efficient
supplemental control measures in soil and water conservation.
• They are helpful in situation where vegetative measures or
temporary structures fail to serve the purpose of controlling the
concentration of runoff or reclaim a gully.
• PGCS are generally used in medium to large gullies
with medium to large drainage area.
• PGCS are designed to handle runoff from the heaviest rains that
may be expected once in 25 to 50 years or more depending upon
the estimated life of the structure.
 General requirements for permanent gully control structures are :

(a) To check the advancement of overfall at gully head.

(b) To stabilize the grade so that a gully can be changed to
vegetative waterway.
(a) Permanent structures should be constructed with permanent
materials.
(b) A gully control structure must not only have sufficient capacity
to pass the design discharge, but the kinetic energy of discharge
must also be dissipated within the confines of the structure in a
manner and to a degree that will protect both the structure and
the downstream channel from damage.
Types of permanent structures
The three basic permanent structures are generally adopted for the purpose of
gully control are:
(a) Drop spillways
(b) Chute spillways and
(c) Drop inlet spillways or pipe spillway

Basic Components of Permanent structures

These components can be divided into three groups

a) Inlet: Water enters the structures through the inlet, which may be in the
form of a box or weir in a wall.
b) Conduit: The conduit receives the water from the inlet and conducts it
through the structure. The conduit may be closed in the form of a box
channel or it may be open as in a rectangular channel.
c) Outlet: The outlet dissipates the energy of the flowing water and provides
non-erosive velocity downstream.
Drop Spillway
It is a weir structure, in which flow passes through the weir
opening, fall or drops on an approximately level apron or stilling basin and
then passes into the downstream channel. Its use is limited to a maximum
drop of 3 m.

It is mainly used at the gully bed to create a control point. Several

such drop structures are constructed across the gully width throughout the
length at fixed intervals. The series of such structures, develop a continuous
break to flow of water, causing deposition of sediments and thus filling the
gully section. Sometimes, the drop structures are also used at the gully head
to pass the flow safely and controlling the gully head. The different
components of drop structures are shown .
Fig.5 A typical drop structure
Chute spillway:

• Chute spillway is a spillway whose discharge is conveyed

from the upper reach of the channel or a gully to the
downstream channel level through an open channel
placed along abutment (supporting wall).
• Chute structures are useful for gully head control and they
could be used for drops upto 6m. Chute spillways are
constructed at the gully head to convey the discharge
from upstream area of gully into the gully through a
concrete or masonry open channel.
• Chute spillway has more advantage than a drop spillway,
when a large runoff volume is required to be discharged
from the area.
• In general, chute spillways are used whenever a channel
is to be constructed down a steep slope.
Fig.6 A typical chute spillway
Drop Inlet spillway:
• These structures are suitable as gully control structures for the
stabilization and control of advancing gully heads when the
gully is more than 3 m deep.
• Drop inlet structures are used in gullies towards the
downstream part to create storage of water.
• These structures not only help in protecting gullies but also
create water storage
• It consists of an earthen dam and a pipe spillway. The dam
provides the temporary storage of runoff from the contributing
watershed while the spillway permits the design discharge to
pass downstream
• The drop inlet structure consists of the inlet, conduit and the
outlet. Where the inlet is funnel shaped, this type of structure
is often called as Morning glory or Glory hole spillway.
Fig.7 A typical drop inlet structure
 GRASSED WATERWAYS
Grassed waterways are open channels protected with suitable grasses. These are
constructed along the slope and act as outlet for the terraces or graded bunds. Grassed waterways are
also used to safely convey runoff from ponds.

Design : The design of the grassed waterways is similar to the design of irrigation channels outlined.
The design of the grassed waterway consists in determining the size and shape of the waterway.

Size of Waterway : The size of the waterway depends upon the expected runoff. A 10 year recurrence
interval is used to calculate the maximum expected runoff to the waterway : As the catchment area of
the waterway increases towards the outlet, the expected runoff is calculated for different reaches of
the waterway and used for design purposes. The water way is to be given greater cross-sectional area
towards the outlet as the amount of water gradually increases towards the outlet. The cross-sectional
Q
area is calculated using the formula : a 
V
Where, a = area of cross-section, (22.9)
Q = expected maximum runoff, and
V = velocity of flow.
Shape of Waterway
The shape of the waterway depends upon the field conditions and the type of the
construction equipment used. The three common shapes adopted are trapezoidal, traingular and
parabolic shapes. In course of time due to flow of water and sediment deposition the waterways
assume an irregular shape nearing the parabolic shape. If farm machinery is to cross the waterways
parabolic shape or trapezoidal shape with very flat side slopes are preferred. The geometric
characteristics of the different shapes of the waterways are given in Fig.3. These are useful for design
purposes.
Velocity of Flow

The velocity of flow through the grassed waterways is dependent upon the ability of the
vegetation in the channel to resist erosion. Even though different types of grasses have different
capabilities to resist erosion an average of 1.5 m per second to 2 m per second are the average
velocities used for design purposes. It may be noted that the average velocity of flow is higher than
the actual velocity in contact with the bed of the channel. Fig.4 shows the velocity distribution in a
grass-lined channel.
 Design of Cross-section. The design of the cross-section is done using Eq. 1 for finding
the area required and then using the Manning’s formula for checking the velocity. A trial procedure is
adopted for the purpose. For the required cross-sectional area, the dimensions of the channel sections
are assumed. Using the hydraulic properties of the assumed section, the average velocity of flow
through the channel cross-section is calculated using the Manning’s formula.
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V  R S
n
Where, a = area of cross-section, (1)
Q = expected maximum runoff, and
V = velocity of flow.
The coefficient of roughness is to be selected depending upon the existing and
proposed vegetations to be established in the bed of the channel. If the velocity calculated
by the Manning’s formula exceeds the permissible velocity, the cross-section is suitably
altered and the velocity is calculated again. The process is repeated till the desired velocity
is obtained with selected cross-section.
Example : Design a grassed waterway of parabolic shape to carry a flow of 2.6 m3/s down a slope of 3
per cent. The waterway has a good stand of grass and a velocity of 1.75 m/s. can be
allowed. Assume the value of n in Manning’s formula as 0.04.
Construction of the Waterways.

It is advantageous to construct the waterways at least one season before the

bunding. It will give time for the grasses to get established in the waterways. The

area marked for the waterway and unnecessary vegetation like shrubs etc. are

removed. The area is then ploughed if necessary and smoothened. Establishment of

the grass is done either by seeding or sodding technique.

Maintenance of the waterways is important for their proper operation.

Removal of weeds, filling of the patches with grass and proper cutting of the grass

are of the common maintenance operations.

 WIND EROSION CONTROL MEASURES
 Wind erosion can be controlled by adopting the measures/methods which either reduce
surface wind velocities or improve soil characteristics.
 Wind erosion control measures is divided into two classes.
 Measures to reduce surface wind velocities.
 Measures to improve soil characteristics.
Measures to reduce surface wind velocities.
 The surface wind velocities can be reduced by three methods.
 Vegetative methods.
 Tillage practices.
 Structural or mechanical methods.
Vegetative methods.
 Vegetative measures are considered generally the most effective and economic means.
 These measures can be temporary or permanent.
 The temporary measures include crop management practices to provide a cover to the soil.
 The popular permanent measures for controlling wind erosion are wind breaks and shelter
belts.
Tillage practices
 Tillage machinery and tillage practices can either increase or reduce the soil blowing
problem.
 Tillage equipment that will prove most effective is that which will do a good job of
creating a cloddy surface and at the same time avoid burying the crop residue.
 The equipment should leave a rough, cloddy and a residue covered surface with
residues well anchored and standing.
 In order to obtain maximum roughness the land normally should be cultivated as soon
after a rain as possible.
 Small ridges normal to the direction of prevailing winds are effective in wind erosion
control.
 For a height of about 15 cm above the ridges there is an area of considerable
turbulence.
 Crop residues exposed on the surface are an effective means of control, especially when
combined with a rough soil surface. This practice is usually called stubble mulch tillage.
 Crop residues act in two ways : they reduce wind velocity and trap eroding soil.
Structural or mechanical methods
Mechanical barriers such as : Wind breaks and shelter belts
 A wind break is any type of barrier, either vegetative or mechanical, which protects an area like
building, orchard, or farmstead from wind.
 A shelter belt is a longer barrier than the wind break and consists of shrubs and trees. Shelter belts
exert wider influence than wind breaks.
 The width of shelter belt may vary from one to five rows or even more.
 Wind breaks and shelter belts are advantageous in many ways in addition of controlling the wind
erosion.
 They provide fuel, reduce evaporation, protect from hot and cold wind, and helps in insect control.
However, they may affect crop yield in the nearby fields by their shades and root competition.