TECTONICS, VOL. 19, NO.

5, PAGES 814-833 OCTOBER 2000

Geodynamics of flat subduction: Seismicity and

tomographic constraints from the Andean margin
Marc-Andrd Gu•scher •
Laboratoire de Gdophysique,Tectoniqueet Sddimentation,UMR 5573, Universit• de Montpellier,
Montpellier, France

Wim Spakman and Harmen Bijwaard

Vening MeineszResearchSchoolof Geodynamics,Faculty of Earth Sciences,Utrecht University,
Netherlands

E. Robert Engdahl
Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder

Abstract. The cause and geodynamic impact of 1. Introduction

fiat subduction are investigated. First, the 1500 km
long Peru fiat slab segment is examined. Earthquake The 1500 km long segment of fiat subduction be-
hypocenter data image two morphologichighs in the neath Peru and the associated volcanic gap have re-
mained a puzzling phenomenonever since their discov-
subductingNazca Plate which correlatewith the posi-
tions of subducted oceanic plateaus. Travel time tomo- ery [BarazangiandIsacks,1976;Pilger,1981;Hasegawa
graphic images confirm the three-dimensionalslab ge- and Sacks,1981]. During the past 20 years,variousex-
ometry and suggesta lithospherictear may bound the planationshave been offeredfor the unusualgeometry
NW edgeof the fiat slabsegment,with possibleslab de- of the Peru and other fiat slab regions. These will be
tachment occurringdown dip as well. Other fiat slab re- discussedin detail below. The geometry of the Nazca
gions worldwide are discussed:central Chile, Ecuador, Plate beneathsouthernPeru, initially descending
at an
NW Colombia, Costa Rica, Mexico, southern Alaska, angle of 30ø down to a depth of 100 kin, before pro-
SW Japan, and western New Guinea. Flat subduction ceeding horizontally for several hundred km, was first
is shown to be a widespreadphenomenon,occuring in constrainedby a local seismicnetwork [Hasegawaand
10% of modernconvergentmargins. in nearly all these Sacks,1981;Boyd ½tal., 1984;Jamesand Snok½,1994].
cases,as a spatial and temporal correlation is observed While the subduction of Nazca Ridge correlatesspa-
tially and temporally with this southern portion of the
between subductingoceanicplateaus and fiat subduc-
tion, we conclude that fiat subduction is caused pri- fiat slabsegment[Pilger, 1981;Nut and Ben-Avraham,
marily by (1) the buoyancyof thickenedoceaniccrust 1981;McGeary et al., 1985;yon Huene et al., 1996],its
vast northward extent rcrnained unexplained until the
of moderateto youngageand (2) a delayin the basalt
recent evidencefor a secondsubductedplateau beneath
to eclogitetransition due to the cool thermal structure
of two overlappinglithospheres.A statistical analysisof northernPeruwasput forward[Gutschefet al., 1999a]
seismicity along the entire length of the Andes demon- (Figure 1). Thus the Peru segmentis, in effect,com-
strates that seismicenergy releasein the upper plate posedof two adjacent fiat slab regions. The combined
at a distance of 250-800 buoyancyof Nazca Ridge and the completelysubducted
km from the trench is on aver-
age 3-5 times greater above fiat slab segmentsthan for Inca Plateau support a 1500 km long segmentof the
adjacent steep slab segments. We propose this is due Nazca Plate with an interveninglithosphericsag.
to higher interplate coupling and the cold, strong rhe- This paper investigates the fine three-dimensional
ology of the overriding lithosphere which thus enables structure, geodynamicdevelopment,and governingmech-
stress and deformation to be transmitted hundreds of anism causing fiat subduction beneath Peru, the An-
kilometers into the heart of the upper plate. dean margin, and elsewhere. This phenomenonnot only
has direct implications for the seismicity and tecton-
ics of Peru, but also, since a similar fiat slab episode
•Now at UBO / [UEM, UMR DomainesOcdaniques, has been proposedduring the North American Sevier-
Plouzand, France. Laramideorogeny[Jordanet al., 1983;Bird, 1984,1988;
Dumitru et al., 1991],bearsstronglyon suchmodels.
Copyright 2000 by the American GeophysicalUnion.
Furthermore, the thermal and mechanical evolution of
Paper number 1999TC001152. a slab undergoingfiat subduction can be expectedto
0278-7407/00/1999TC001152512.00 govern the rheology and thus style of deformation in

814
 GUTSCHER ET AL- GEODYNAMICS OF FLAT SUBDUCTION 815

Carib. Plate
10øN
Cocos
•• - ...

Plate
Eastern
Cordillera

South

American o

Inca Plate
7.0
Plateau

Brazilian
10øS

Shield

7.Bcrn•===•

Bolivian
Subandes
Nazca
20øS
Plate

Sierras
Pamp-
8.4 eauas
30øS

Juan
Fernandez
R.

90øW 75øW 60øW

Figure 1. Tectonic setting of the Andean margin with fiat slab segmentsindicated by thick
bracketsand subductingoceanicplateaus shadedgray. Andes are definedby the 2000 m contour
with activevolcanoes
shownas blacktriangles.Inferredsubductedplateaus(Inca Plateau) and
uncertaincontinuations
(e.g., Cocos,Carnegie,Nazca,and Juan FernandezRidges)are dashed.
DGM is the Dolores-GuayaquilMegashear. Plate convergencevectors are based on a global
kinematicmodel [DeMetset al., 1990].

the upperplate givingriseto strongsegmentation along by fiat slabsegments [Isacks,1988;Gephart,1994]sug-

strike [Jordan et al., 1983; Isacks, 1988; Dumitru et
al., 1991]. The remarkablecoincidence that the high-
est and broadestpart of the orogen,the central Andes
(includingPuna and Altiplano, with a severalhundred
kilometer wide fold and thrust belt in the Bolivian Sub-
andes), is flanked both to the north and to the south
gestsa causal,subduction-related mechanismlinking
these phenomena. Finally, it has been proposedthat
fiat subductionmay havebeenwidespread duringearly
stagesin the Earth's historyand contributedgreatlyto
the processof continentalgrowthin the Proterozoicand
Archean[ Vlaar,1983;Vlaar,1985;Abbottet al., 1994].
816 GUTSCHER ET AL.- GEODYNAMICS OF FLAT SUBDUCTION

:....

Inca
Plateau

140 km -J
/
Figure 2. Three-dimensional
view (lookingsouth)of the subductedNazca slab surfaceas
determined from gridding of earthquake hypocenters. The location of oceanic plateaus at the
surfaceand their estimatedsubductedpositions(dashed)are shown.Two morphologic
highscan
be seenwith an intervening "sag". The highscorrespondto the subductedcontinuation of Nazca
Ridge and to the subductedInca Plateau [Gutschefet al., 1999a].

Indeed, recently publisheddeep seismicdata (SNOR- above70km beyond200kmfromthetrench)andthen

CLE) from the 1.9 G yr old, NW CanadianSlaveRegion applyinga griddingalgorithmwith GenericMapping
imagean accretedslab at 70 km depth, whichappears Tools(GMT) software[Wessel andSmith,1991].The
to be a fossilflat slab[vander Veldenand Cook,1999]. tracesof 10 seismological
crosssections(Figure3) as
well as the estimated positionsof subductedoceanic
2. Three-Dimensional Structure plateausare shown.The 3-D viewclearlyimagestwo
of the Subducted Nazca Plate morphologichighsin theNazcaPlatebeneathPeru,one
correponding to the subducted continuation of Nazca
2.1. Seismicity Data
Ridgeand onecorresponding to the predictedposition
of the subductedInca Plateaubasedon plate kinematic
Relocatedearthquakehypocenters[Engdahlet al., reconstructions[Gutschefet al., 1999a].Betweenthese
1998] were usedto constrainthe geometryof the sub- two highsis a saddle-shaped
lithosphericsagbetween
ducting Nazca Plate in three-dimensions.A 3-D per- 50 and8øS.This is consistent
with the recentinterpre-
spective view of the subducting Nazca Plate was ob- tation of the 1500 km long Peru flat slab as a "double
tained by griddingthe locationof earthquakeshypocen- flat slab",with two light bodieseachsupporting ap-
ters along the Wadati-Benioffzone (Figure 2). This proximately500 km of the Nazca Plate [Gutschefet
wasachievedby filteringout upperplate seismicity(i.e., al., 1999a].
 GUTSCHER ET AL.- GEODYNAMICS OF FLAT SUBDUCTION 817

[km]
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

,. , , Sec,on:S.cuor-moer,e,.,ee,.,,vo,
c.rc
• -8ø
-t!' ''*•;:ii:"•i•!::•:;•;.:"•
-œ;)"ø
'møderatel
' • •'•"
"-•:--•:'•••••i
' ii"•i:iiiii•'
'"ii;i:'i

• ,. -so
I •, q::::::..
"•'-:"%'k:...............
-';;?':•-.-':"•'-
:'::"'"• :LL:_•.•
-•;ø':•'e;-.•'
-':'•
•..... z•oo
'W-----'•"•'•:'•'•••.--••••:.••::.:....:.....:,:':•.i•:!
'- '--

t B: N. Peru - flat slab, Inca Plateau segment

lo

• -12o
• ,•_ .......... ..-••:::•::::•:;.;•j•.::%;
-• -.•-..•.• .......
• -160

e •,•
-2•
"sag"
region
,,"
Section C: Central Peru - interm. subduction, "sag"

!...iii:iii:•i'?,'i•!?"'
..::..i!?iiii•iii!'i;i•½•i'•'"":'•?
•.....................
'½':"•½•i

Section D: S. - Central Peru - Nazca Ridge flat slab

-4of"'""•:
:':•'•:'"•'•":':•i•-•::':.;'•E':
-..• % o•o,-•;, ,
I , •--•::• .v'• •.. ,

-8o
J_
-120

460
___
' ½'%•'•':'•?.
Nazca
flat:
slab
Ridge"•
-2• - I
o

NazcaRid'""•"•••:•••••'-'""•-..-."•
:•..•..
'.'.••:••.•..••.:.:..•••
b'
-8o , .....
:.•;;•fz•,:•::•;•i•E.•.•:•:•?•::½•;:::•:j•:::;::
__
-•2o

-160

-2•

.... Section E: S. Peru/Bolivia - steep slab, volc. arc

....::::•::•;.•:;•:;•-•:•:•::•:•:•:::•:::•:•<..•
•..................
.•,•:•

ß o 10

-2• 0 5

• •o
....... '......
• , ø'::?•'ed%•ff&%:.ø
steep
slab •-'==============
• -16o ""-•• T

Figure 3.
818 GUTSCHER ET AL.: GEODYNAMICS OF FLAT SUBDUCTION

A series of 10 ENE oriented 2-D cross sections per- densermaterial. Earthquakes are shownas small white
pendicular to the trench and to the Andes are presented circles.
in Figure3 (left), eachwith a samplingwidth of 1ø lat- The verticalcrosssections(Figure3, right)constrain
itude. They cover, from north to south, a moderately the geometryof the downgoingNazca Plate in threedi-
steepslabin southernEcuador(section1), the flat slab mensions.They correspondto seismictysections1, 3,
due to Inca Plateau (sections2 and 3), the sagregion 6, 8 and10respectively.
In southern
Ecuador(Figure3,
(sections4-6), the flat slabdueto NazcaRidge(sections sectionA) the NazcaPlate dipsmoderatelysteeplyto-
7 and 8) and the steepslab in southernPeru/Bolivia wardthe NE, curvinggentlydownto a depthof 600km,
(sections9 and 10). While the sagis not a major first- where the great 1970 Colombiaearthquakeoccurred.In
order feature, earthquakesin this region are roughly 20 northern Peru the flat slab near Inca Plateau is sam-
km deeperthan thosein the flat slabto the north (Inca pled and is shown to "underslide" the South Ameri-
Plateau) and 40 km deeperthan in the flat slabto the canlithosphere
horizontally
for roughly800km (Figure
south (Nazca Ridge). The maximumdistanceof pene- 3, sectionB). The lack of continuitybetweenthis flat
tration of the horizontal slab correspondsto the north- slab portion and the subductedlithosphereat 500-600
ern Inca plateau. Here the horizontal plate bendsdown km depth suggestsslab detachmenthas likely occurred
steeply or "resubducts" some 700 km from the trench here, perhaps along an age discontinuityas described
(section2), whereasin the sagregion(section6) resub- by previousauthors[Vlaar and Wortel,1976; Wortel,
duction occurs 500-600 km from the trench. Although 1984].Spiketests(not shown)indicatemoderatereso-
the continuation of Nazca Ridge representsthe shallow-lutionat thesedepths(200-400km) andsuggest theslab
est portion of the flat slab, at depths between 80 anddetachment imagedis not an artifact.In the sagregion
100 km (sections8 and 9), it is not possibleto deter- (Figure3, sectionC) the overallplatedip is transitional
mine the distance of penetration basedon hypocenters between the flat slab north and south. Here the Nazca
alone, owing to the seismicgap here, though the to- Plate curvesgently,becomingsteeperasit descends
and
mographicimage(Figure3, sectionD, seealsobelow) is relativelycontinuous.Near NazcaRidge(Figure3,
suggestspenetrationof up to 800 km. sectionD) the slab is again shownto proceedhorizon-
tally, underslidingthe SouthAmericanlithosphereover
2.2. Tomographic Model 500km beforebendingsharplyat a nearly90ø angleand
Tomographicmodels can reveal information about descendingalmost vertically to the 670 km discontinu-
lithosphericand mantle structure at great depths and ity. Finally, the section beneath southern Peru reveals a
in regionswhereno informationis availablefrom in situ steepslab segment,descendingcontinuouslyand curv-
seismicity[En9dahlet al., 1•)95].Improvements
in the ing smoothlytowardthe 670 km discontinuity
(Figure
inversion techniquesof global earthquake travel time 3, sectionE).
data now allow resolution comparable to regional to- The horizontalsections(Figures4a-4d)revealveloc-
mographicstudies[Bijwaardet al., 1•)•)8].The tomo- ity variations in layers of 50 km thickness. Wadati-
graphicvelocitymodel is a globalmodelobtainedby a Benioff contoursare also shownbasedon an analysis
travel time inversion based on 82,000 well-constrained of hypocenters[Gutschefet al., 1999a]and correlate
earthquakesfrom a global relocated hypocenterdata well with the depth range of the high-velocityanoma-
set [Engdahlet al., 1•)•)8],using7.6 million P and pP lies. The abrupt northern termination of the flat ly-
arrivals with absolute residuals <7.5 s. The descend- inglithospheric
slab(topleft cornerof Figure4b) sug-
ing oceaniclithospherecan be seenas zonesof higher gestsslower,warmer material to the NW and supports
seismicvelocities(darkestshading)due to the colder, the hypothesis of a lithospheric tear beneath south-

Figure 3. left' tenseismicity

crosssections
perpendicular
to thetrenchusingrelocated
hypocen-
ter data, scaledby magnitude. Each sectionhas a samplingwidth of 1ø The vertical dashed
linesrepresentthe trenchaxisandthe position600km inboard.(verticalexaggeration)VE =
2:1. The sectionssample,fromnorthto south,thesteepslabin southern Ecuador(section1),
the flat slabdueto IncaPlateau(sections
2 and3), the intervening
sag(sections
4-6), the flat
slabdueto NazcaRidge(sections 7 and8) andthesteepslabin southernmostPeru(sections 9
and 10). Right: Tomographic images,crosssections:
sectionA, southernEcuador,moderately
steepNE dippingslab,volcanicarc;sectionB, northernPeruflat slab,Inca Plateausegment,no
volcanicarc, with possibleslabdetachment;
sectionC, "sag"region,no volcanicarc;sectionD,
NazcaRidgeflat slabsegment,shallowestregion,no volcanicarc, sharpkink; sectionE, southern
Perusteepslab,volcanicarc. (noverticalexaggeration)VE = 1:1.Hereandin Figures4 and5,
darkestshading= fastvelocities= dense,coldlithosphere,
mediumgray(seegrayscale)= slow
velocities
= hot, lightmaterial(below100km depthtypicallyasthenosphere).
 GUTSCHERET AL.- GEODYNAMICS
OF FLATSUBDUCTION 819

.....;}:,
'•'•';'":••:: • ".... ....
•:: •.:
.-.'•,...:•-.:?
....... %V:-': •. • -
.: :--•'..•-.•
•
':•...... , , .Inca Plateau. -:•:.....•
...... :•--•
..... :' ;Inca Plateau
:;,:.::;:
]- -..•.'.:.....,. .,.:• - i • ::•'

;................
:.......,..a**..:..'*<'•>,;..,.,,
.... .:.....
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....... . .-. ....**.--•,....s .
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.... '/• .,•,? .. '..-.• :..•
.....-..•. . . ._.;;:•'•;........ .'--.-.•.

:.a ':*:*'..
':-*
.......ß
.... ':?':*-,:
"':": ;• ' :• ,:*--.,,
.':",' '*;•:.: *::::<
..... • ,.

}*•a"::•'•:•
, :'"'•;
.a • '.•:;':;•:' •

:'
.......
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....*'::••':.•'•
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•:' :.•a '•••••.;•:.::•'
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'• .................................
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.............
-................
-:::.::::4.
ß :•/•... ".• • • .......... . .:::;?.:..:.?
.... :.....'•'<..•..•.•: :•:;::a:c...
'•..•.•.x:.• •:.

variationsin P-wavevelocity -2.0% .......

,.::.:...•.•
............................
**......... +2.0%
Figure 4. Tomographicimages,horizontallayers:(a:)35-70km; b' 70-120km; c' 120-170km;
170-230kin. Positionsof known(solid)and inferred(dashed)subductedoceanicplateausshown.

ern Ecuador along the continuation of the ENE trend-
ing Grijalva fracture zone [Pennington,1981;Hall and
Wood,1985; Gutschefet al., 1999b].
3. Discussion
3.1. Flat Subduction:
Beforeaddressingthe question,What causesflat sub-
duction7,it is usefulto examineother regionswherethis
phenomenonis observedand thus gain insightsthrough
comparativeanalysis.While the Peru flat slab segment
is by far the longest,the central Chile fiat slab seg-
ment extending from 28o to 32øS is equally well docu-
mented [Pilger, 1981; Sinalleyand Isacks,1987; Cahill
and Isacks, 1992; Kay and Abbruzzi,1996]. Here the
Juan FernandezRidge is currently subductingbelow
Other Regions
the margin at 31øS [Pilger, 1981; 1984; yon Huene et
al., 1997]. In contrastto Peru, only one buoyantstruc-
ture is present, and accordingly,the fiat slab segment
and volcanicgap are only 500 km in width. As in Peru
 An. 6B
Colombia 7 ø N E. Cordillera Section A: NW Colombia - flat slab

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 "••..•'"••••'••i .....•:•"",•i• .:=,
.........
-........
'............
0

•=
'-•=.
',.'•.;.,.'i!:.
-20 ?.=.-- •.•:= ,.•:.

-40
-60
-80
-100
-120

-160
-180

z• 0 •00 200 300 400 500 600 700 8o0 900 •000 "'"""'*-.--'-:•.$';;.?'-'""'"•'
.'.=• •'••.• •?'
".... ..--
0/ ' _ ' ___'.._ ' ..... '.....•-t -_----• k•
.......... • ß • • '•000 o "a:x"•*•'$
:=-'•
:•:•*:,<:•:'.'•o
4 ',::"•':•x'.,.'s
,,.. • ß' ßß

-60
-80t - '-(•?, An.
6b?'::'"
*•**•½•;•;'"'"•'•... [• Section
.:W . -steep
Colom,,aslab
-1O0 '*;**it•
-120 .,*';- '
-180 *'*•'
-2oo 15 -22?Ma crust

3,oO
,o,o
^.,0oh";o44;o
.,o
:o:.,oo
,,:o
9oo
lOOO '
60 ß-.•,:-:*:-:'.•
....... •.'• . - •. ':*•;';•--.:::•:
.:-•-.---.-.-.'.;-•'.S.
:;•::•'

-140 • .•

-160
-220
• •00 o *.................
o
Chile 31 o S Sierras
An.20 Pampeanas
4) , i , t , , • ,,• • • i ,

' -......
-40
ß •"*' SectionC:CentralClfile/ NWArgentina
- flatslab
-60
-8o ....
•':•G•'-'-":":":L...
%*"
% • • ', 24'•
-120
-140
-160

-18o
-2oo 43 -55Macrust ,

Chile41 oS 5 •0 •5
5) i , t , An.5B/5E
i , i , i , I , i , • •
01............
-60

-80
• :;.:%- ?:... ... :•.c:F:•:.•;*•.....:•:•:.•:•:..`•*:.;•.•::::•:::::;..:•.:•%?:•b.•.•:*•*•::•:•:•::•
.....

-160

-180
t 15-25
-200
-220 Ma
crust • , VE=
2'1 -1.5% •-'aJ•?•'""'"::'•::i')!•!:...
' +1.5%

Figure 5. (]½œ•)Five •½p•½sent•tjv½

s½ismicit• c•osssectionsœ•oms½v½•!d•ff½•½n•steep•nd
fl•t s]•b segments•long •h½Andeswith known
t•½nchm•d estimated•g½beneaththe •c (whenp•½scnt).VE -- 2:Z. Note th½•½is no direct
co•½]•tion betweenyounglithospherem•d fi•t subduct•ion.(•i•ht) Tomog•phic images,c•oss
sections:section A, •W Co]ombi• fi•t s]•b, no vo]cm•ic•c; sectjori•, w½stcn•Co]ombi• sleep
s]•b, volcanic•c; sectJoriC, ccnt•] Chile / NW A•gcnth• fl• s]•b, •o vo]cm•ic•c. ¾• = 1:1.
 GUTSCHER ET AL.: GEODYNAMICS OF FLAT SUBDUCTION 821

Table 1. Flat Slab SegmentsWorldwide

Region
• L,bkm Thickened
Crust? Age,
• m.y. V,dcm/a Arce Adkf,m.y. Deform.
g

1 Chile (28ø-33øS) 550 Juan-Fernandez R. 43 8.4 no 4-7 C

2 Peru (2ø-15øS) 1500 Nazca R., Inca Plat. 30-43 7.8 no 3-6 C, SS, E
3 Ecuador(IøS-2øN) 350 CarnegieRidge 16-24 7 yes 0-3 C, SS
4 Colombia(6ø-9øN) 350 Choco/ Carib. Plat. 20 6 no - C, SS
5 CostaRica (82ø-84øW) 250 CocosRidge 14-20 8-9 no 1-3 C
6 Mexico (96ø-100øW) 400 TehuantepecR. 13-20 6-8 yes - minor
7 Cascadia(46ø-49øN) 350 - 8 4 yes 0 C
8 Alaska (145ø-150øW) 500 Yakutat Terrane 45 6 no 0 C, SS
9 SW Japan(132ø-137øE) 600 Izu-Bon.,Pal.-Ky. R. 15-20 4 yes 0 SS
10 New Guinea(136ø-142øE) 550 Euripik Ridge 20 4-9 no 2-4 C, SS

•Sources:1, Pilger[1981],CandeandHaxbit[1991],and Kay andAbbruzzi[1996];2, BarazangiandIsacks[1976],Petford

and Atherton[1996],and Gutschefet al. [1999a];3, Lonsdaleand Klitgord[1978],Monzier et al. [1997],and Gutschefet
al., [1999b];4, Pennington[1981],Hardit[1991],and van der Hzlstand Mann [1994];5, Derant et al. [1993]and Protti et
al., [1994];6, McGearit et al. [1985],Suarezet al. [1990],and Singhand Mortera [1991];7, Crossonand Owens,[1987]
and Derant and Drummond[1993];8, Pennington,[1984]and Brocheret al. [1994];9, Hirahara [1981],Morris [1995],and
Gutschefand Lallernand[1999];10, McGearit et al. [1985],Pubellieret al. [1998],and Okal, [1999]
bLengthof flat slab segment,alongtrench. Cumulativelength is 5400 km, or 10% of modernconvergentmargins.
CAgeof the subductingoceaniclithosphereat trench.
dRelative plate velocity.
ePresence of Quaternary volcanic arc.
fAge of adakitic volcanism,if present. A zero indicatesadakitic geochemicalsignaturein modern arc magmas.
gUpper plate deformationbased on earthquakefocal mechanisms.C, compressional(thrusting); SS, strike-slip; E,
extensional
(normal).In mostcasesthe P axesare alignedparallelto the relativeplate motion(i.e., seeFigure9).

the Nazca Plate proceedssubhorizontallyfor 300 km at lithosphere[Suarez et al., 1990; Singh and Mortera,
a depthof about 100 km (Figure5). The tomographic 1991]. In southernAlaskathe accretionof the Yaku-
imagefrom centralChile confirmsthis well established tat Terrane, a buoyant block of thickenedcrust, along
flat slabgeometry(Figure5, sectionC). the easternmost Aleutian Trench causes a remarkable
There are several other subduction zones worldwide flattening of the angle of subductionas constrained
exhibiting an "abnormal"flat to low-anglesubduction by the great trench arc gap of 600 km, by abundant
geometry.In general,theseare not as well constrained earthquakehypocenters,and by wide-angleseismicdata
as central Chile or Peru and subsequently,are less well [Pcnnington,1984; Brocheret al., 1994]. The Juan
known. In nearly all these cases,as in Peru and Chile, de Fuca slab beneath Cascadia also descendsat a very
subductingplateausor arcsare associatedspatiallyand shallowangle[Crossonand Owens,1987],althoughin
temporallywith this anomalousstyleof subduction(Ta- this case, no thickened crustal block has been identi-
ble 1). In Ecuador,CarnegieRidgesubductsbeneath fied at present. At the Nankai trough, oceaniclitho-
the northernAndes[Pennington,1981; Gutschefet al., sphereflankedby the Izu-Bonin Arc and Palau-Kyushu
1999b](Figure1). In NW Colombia, thePanama/ChocoRidgeunderslides SW Japanat 50-70km depth [Hira-
Block is collidingwith South America [Pennington, hara, 1981; Sacks, 1983; Morris, 1995; Gutschefand
1981;McGear!let al., 1985]. A portionof the Caribbean Lallemand,1999; Gutschef,2000]. Finally, there is the
Plateau is subductingalong the North Colombia De- New Guinea thrust beneath Irian Jaya [Okal, 1999].
formed Zone toward the SE while others portions may This subduction system, with no known arc volcanism,
currentlybe underslidingColombiafrom the west [van also appearsto exhibit flat slab behavior,likely related
der Hilst andMann, 1994](Figure1). The tomographic to the subductingEuripik Ridge, a 2 km high oceanic
image(Figure5, sectionA) supportsthis flat slab in- plateau[McGearyet al., 1985].
terpretation for NW Colombia. In Costa Rica, Cocos In many cases of flat subduction an intermediate
Ridgesubductsat the terminationof the Middle Amer- depth seismicgap is present[McGcaryet al., 1985;Mc-
ica Trench [Gardner et al., 1992; Protti et al., 1994, Cann and Habermann, 1989], and thus the geometry
1995; Kolarsk!let al., 1995] (Figure 1). In southern of the slab below 60 km depth must be constrained
Mexicoa shortflat slab segment(200-300km downdip by indirect observation(e.g., tomographic,volcanolog-
length) appearsto bottom out at a shallowdepth of ical, etc.). In Colombiaand CostaRica a volcanicgap
only 50 km, implying an unusually thin continental correlates with the position of the subducting arc or
822 GUTSCHER ET AL.. GEODYNAMICS OF FLAT SUBDUCTION

o lOO 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 o lOO 200 300 400 5O0 6OO 7OO 8OO
o • [ s , , ,

, Suarez et al., 1990

lOO lOO
Chile 31 o S
Mexico 98øW
20o 200

lOO lOO
6os
Peru Cascadia 48øN
200 200

1 oo lOO
Ecuador 0ø Alaska 148øW
200 200

o
.....,.•s i [ , , , • ,
lOO lOO

20o
Colombia
7oN • 200
SW Japan 133øE

adjacent arc
o • • • ' ' ' i , , i i , i

lOO lOO

SE Costa Rica New Guinea 138øE

200 200

Figure 6. Slab geometriesfrom all 10 fiat slab regionsworldwidebasedon our analysisof

hypocenterdata. All sectionsare shownat the samescale,VE = 1:1. In Alaska[Brochcr½tal.,
1994],Cascadia[Parsons½tal., 1998],CostaRica[Bialas½tal., 1999],and SW Japan[Kodaira
½tal., 2000]constraintson the upper 20-30km are availablefrom wide angleseismicdata. Note
there are typically up to three inflection points as the slab steepensat the trench, fiattens for
one to severalhundred km and then finally steepensagain.

ridge, while in Ecuador a broad arc is present. In tion behavior.For Peru (Figure3, sectionsB and D),
Costa Rica/Panama, Ecuador, and SW Japan, anoma- centralChile (Figure5, sectionC), NW Columbia(Fig-
lous "adakitic" geochemicalsignaturesare foundin relic ure 5, sectionA) and southernAlaska(not shown)the
or present-dayarc magmas[Dcfant½tal., 1993;Monzicr tomographicimages confirm an underthrustingof the
½t al., 1997; Morris, 1995]. In central Chile, adakitic oceanic plate over several hundred kilometers at a low
signatures werefoundin the relic (6-12Ma) arc and at- angleas constrainedby the hypocenterdata. In regions
tributed to the shallowingof the subductingslab [Kay where relatively young, thus warm, oceaniclithosphere
and Abbruzzi,1996]. Suchadakitic magmashave been is subducting(Ecuador,CostaRica, Mexico,Cascadia,
attributed to partial melting of very young (<10 m.y. and SW Japan), no fiat slab is clearly visible. This
old) oceaniccrust [Derantand Drummond,1990;Pea- may be attributed to lack of resolution in the upper
cock½tal., 1994],althoughparadoxically,they are com- 100 km and/or the possibilitythat a relatively warm
monly found in many arcswhere crust of moderateage slab may not possesssufficientseismicvelocity contrast
(45-10m.y. old) is subducting(Table 1). This intrigu- with respect to the ambient mantle. In other regions
ing correlation between adakitic magmas and many fiat (e.g., westernNew Guinea)the spatialresolutionis too
slab segmentssuggestsa possiblelink to the evolution poor to draw inferences. In all cases,however, the to-
of fiat subduction,but this subject is beyondthe scope mographic model does not exclude the presenceof a
of thispaperandis discussed elsewhere [Gutschef½tal.,
fiat slab. On the basisof our analysisof (1) earthquake
•000]. hypocenterdata [Engdahl½tal., 1998], (2) the tomo-
The globaltomographic
model[Bijwaardet al., 1998] graphicimagesdiscussed above,and (3) publisheddeep
has been examined for the subduction zones listed in seismicdata, simplified sectionsof the subductingslab
Table 1, interpretedto exhibit fiat to low-anglesubduc- geometryhavebeen compiledfor all 10 of theseregions
 GUTSCHER ET AL.: GEODYNAMICS OF FLAT SUBDUCTION 823

(Figure6) at the samescale,withoutverticalexagger- counterexampleis Mexico (105ø-103øW),where very

ation. This allows an objective assessment of slab dip
youngoceaniclithosphere3-10 m.y. old (directly ad-
while illustratingthe rangeof observedfiat subduction
jacent to the East PacificRise) subductssteeplyto the
geometries.Typically,up to three inflectionpointsare north. The plate dip is well constrainedby intermediate
present,and it is immediately apparent that this com- depth seismicity and by the narrow 150-200 km trench
plex curvature cannot be accuratelydescribedwith a arc gap [$ingh and Mortera, 1991]. Contrary to these
single value for slab dip. areas, the age of the oceanic crust at the Peru trench
is 30-43m.y. old (magneticanomalies10-20)[Gutschef
3.2. What Causes Flat Subduction?
et al., 1999a] and for the central Chile fiat slab is 43
Let us examine some of the models previously pro- m.y. (anomaly20)[CandeandHaxby,1991](Figure5).
posedto explain the phenomenonof fiat subduction. Thus, while lithospheric age influencesthe buoyancy,it
For the particular caseof Peru the large northwardex- doesnot seemto be the primary controllingfactor.
tent of the fiat slab region was proposedto be caused 3. A third hypothesisis a delayin the basaltto eclog-
by other unknownplateaus. One suggestionwas an off- ite transition[Sacks,1983;Pennington,1984].Thermal
set continuationof CarnegieRidge [Pennington,1981]. shielding occuring as a result of superpositionof two
This is not easily ruled out, but there are no compelling lithospherescan delay the temperature- and pressure-
argumentsto supportit. It further necessitates that the dependent metamorphic reactions involved in the trans-
CarnegieRidge trace be older than the breakupof the formationof basalt amphiboliteto the 15% densergar-
Farallon Plate into Cocos and Nazca Plates at 25 Ma net eclogitephase. This appearsto be a both logical
[Hey,1977;Lonsdale
andtflitgord,1978].Finally,if this and necessaryfactor contributing to the developmentof
werethe cause,then why is there a short sectionof steep fiat subduction. Like hypothesis1, it doesnot directly
slab (between10 and 2øS)betweenthe proposedsub- answerthe question,Why here?,but [Sacks,1983]adds
ducted offset continuation and the portion of Carnegie "the buoyant zonescontain aseismicridges."We agree
Ridge currently subductingat the trench? A second with this analysis.
suggestionwas a northward kink in the subductedpor- 4. A fourth suggestionis the curvatureof the margin
tion of Nazca Ridge [Pilger, 1981]. This is not sup- [Bevis,1986; Cahill and Isacks,1992; Gephart,1994].
ported by recentkinematicreconstructions [Candeand While the Peru margin exhibits an overallgentleconvex
Haxby,1991; Gutscheret al., 1999a].More importantly, shape, the sharpest curve is around Equador, where a
the prominent intermediate depth seismicgap and the moderately steep subduction segment and narrow arc
shallowest portionof the fiat slab (<100 km depth)and are observedbetween 10 and 2øS [Pennington,1981;
the low velocityregionimagedin the tomography(Fig- Gutschefet al., 1999b]. Furthermore,the centralChile
ure 4c) are directlyin line with the trendof NazcaRidge fiat slab occursalong a straight sectionof margin with
at the trench, thus contradicting this model. almost no curvature. There are other convexmargins
The followinghypotheseshave alsobeen put forth to all around the world where 20-50 m.y. old oceaniclitho-
explain flat subductionin general. sphere(comparableto the agesof Andeanfiat slablitho-
1. The first is interplatehydrostaticsuction[Jischke, sphere)descendsat a steepangle(e.g., SandwichArc,
1975]. This may contributeoncetwo lithospheresare New HebridesArc, Ryukyu Arc). Thus the predictions
in contact, but since this force could potentially act of this model are not borne out by the observations.
everywherewhere one plate subductsbeneath another it Such "membrane forces" may play a role when very
doesnot answerthe question, Why doesfiat subduction young, neutrally buoyant crust is subducted and has
occur in Peru and central Chile (and elsewhere)and been suggestedto explain shallow subduction beneath
why not everywhere? northernCascadia[Crossonand Owens,1987].
2. The secondis subduction of very young, warm and 5. A fifth hypothesis is rapid absolute motion of the
thusbuoyantlithosphere[ Vlaar and Wortel,1976; Wor- upper plate, which is consideredto override the oceanic
tel and Vlaar, 1978; Vlaar, 1983; Sacks, 1983; Cloos, lithospherefaster than the latter can sink [Crossand
1993; Abbott et al., 1994]. Age certainly is an integral Pilger, 1982; Olbertzet al., 1997]. This is the casewith
part of buoyancyand for extreme cases(i.e., <5 m.y. South America in general, which is sweepingwest in re-
old lithosphere)may inducefiat subduction.However, sponseto the opening of the South Atlantic at an abso-
age alone seemsinsufficient to explain most areas of fiat lute velocityof 3-4 cm/a. This hasoften beeninvokedto
subduction. Counter-examples include western Colom- explain the difference between the supposedChilean or
bia between(3ø-5øN)[Pennington,1981; Gutschefet Andean(low angle)styleof subductionversusthe Mari-
al., 1999b]and southcentral Chile (40ø-42øS),where anas(steep)styleof subduction[Uyedaandt•'anamori,
moderately young oceanic lithosphere 15-25 m.y. old 1979]. A careful examinationof the Andean margin,
(magneticanomalies5 - 6) subductssteeplyto >150 however, shows this terminology to be inappropriate.
km beneathan activevolcanicarc (Figure5). A further As shown in Figure 5 and Figure 1, there are at least 5
824 GUTSCHER ET AL.: GEODYNAMICS OF FLAT SUBDUCTION

normal normal 1 km high 2 km high normal 1 km high 2 km high

crust crust plateau plateau crust plateau plateau reference
lithosph.age 10 Ma 25 Ma 25 Ma 25 Ma 50 Ma 50 Ma 50 Ma column
thickness 40 km 60 km 60 km 60 km 80 km 80 km 80 km
water depth 3.6km 4.2km 3.2km 2.2km 5.0km 4.0km 3.0km [9= 3.230
water
crust

:-:•:---':
3.•:-•:•--
•:-:::•:. ..•?-:::?•'•
•:•:t:
upper
mantle
33 km(3.30) ?•:iiii.i:il-;';i::i:;:'::::,.:::.:.:
::/:iii::":
ii.:i-:.
53km(3.30)
48 km (3.30)
:•.:•i:::•:.::

.::-....::-
..........................
-.................................
-. 68km(3.30) 5O
?as!henO•i•-•:.-
::':;';•;;;;;::;?::::}:,;;i::;i;
i::-;::::i::•::!::iiiii!::::iiii:::i::!::':::.::i::;::i•;::;;;::;::;:::i
'' . ................................

densities in [km]
[103kg/m3]

lOO

bulkdensity3.230 3.253 3.220 3.180 3.265 3.240 3.210

of lithosph.

buoyancy 0.000 -0.023 +0.010 +0.050 -0.035 -0.010 +0.020 0.000

Figure7. Buoyancy ofplateausandoceanic
crust.Isostatic
columnsfor10-50
m.y.oldoceanic
lithosphere
arecompared to a 100km deepreference
column of asthenosphere
assumingno
eclogitization.
(seetext fordiscussion).

abruptchanges stylealongthelengthof steep subduction. Assuming the simplest case of Airy

in subduction
isostasy,
a uniformcrustaldensityof 2900kg/ma, and
the Andesfromfiat to steepto fiat to steep,andsoon.
Colombia
(4øN),Bolivia,
andsouth
central
Chile(34o- a density contrastof 400 kg/ma at the crust mantle
42øS)withsubduction anglesof 20o-30ø,aremostcer- boundary, then a 1 km high plateau in isostatic equi-
tainlyAndeanandnotlowanglesubduction. A general librium correspondsto an anomalousoceanic crust 12
tendency towardslowanglesubduction as a resultof km thick, and a 2 km high plateau correspondsto an
rapidabsoluteupperplatemotionmaybeaccentuated18 km thick crust (Figure 7). Upon subductionthe
bytheotherfactors discussedabove:along-strikevaria- entire lithosphere(plateau/crustand uppermostman-
tionin lithospheric
age(andthusbuoyancy) ofthesub- tle), is "immersedin asthenosphere" and the buoyancy
ducted slab,variations
in relativeplatemotions (caused (i.e., subductability) is simplya measure of the mean
byalongstrikevariations ofthemargin geometry) and bulk density of the subducted lithosphere compared to
the positivebuoyancy of oceanic plateaus.Thus,we the surrounding asthenosphere. The isostaticand buoy-
cannot exclude a contribution of absolutemotion to ancy calculationspresentedhere are basedlargely on a
(regional)flatnessof subduction. Further,wecannot similaranalysis[Cloos,1993]but are targetedmoreto
exclude dynamic effects in the questionof subductionof overthickened
fromalongstrikevariations (plateauor
regionalmantle convection,
e.g.,localupwelling,
down- arc) oceaniccrust.
Our calculations demonstrate that for reasonable
welling,or horizontalcurrents.
Summingup, whilea varietyof factorsmay con- crustal, mantle and asthenospheredensities, a 2 km
tribute,theoneperturbing
element to be high, 18 km thick oceanicplateau is sufficientlybuoy-
whichseems
involved
in nearlyall cases isthepres- ant to support itself and an adjacent portion of slab of
offiatsubduction
enceof overthickenedoceaniccrust. Thus, on the basis comparable width for lithospheric agesof up to 50 m.y.
of thiscomparative it wouldappearthat the (thoseencountered
analysis in knownflat slabsegments).For
simplestexplanation,
crustal
buoyancy,isthebestcan- example a 200 km wide, 18 km thick plateau and 110
didate to explainfiat subduction. km of normal 50 m.y. old oceanic lithosphere, taken
Thereforelet usexaminethe buoyancyforcesinvolved together will have a neutral buoyancyand will likely
in the subductionof an oceanicplateauin orderto de- produce a 310 km wide flat slab segment A more
termine whether these are suflScientto inhibit normal modest 1 km high, 12 km thick plateau can barely
 GUTSCHER ET AL.: GEODYNAMICS OF FLAT SUBDUCTION 825

support itself for 25 m.y. old lithosphere,and for 50 ence(i.e., centraland southernChile). Published[Jor-
m.y. old lithosphere,the column is denserthan the dan et al. , 1983; $uarez et al. , 1983; Gutschef et al.,
surroundingasthenosphere and will thus subductnor- 1999b]and regionalearthquakefocalmechanisms (Fig-
mally. This appears to be the casefor the 10-15 km ure9) arepredominantly compressional(thrusttype)to
thick Hikurangi Plateau, embeddedin Cretaceousage transcurrent(strike-slip)with P axestypically aligned
lithosphereand thereforesubductingbeneathNorth Is- parallel to the plate motion (east-west)suggestingthe
land New Zealand at a steep angle [Davy and Wood, subduction plate boundary stressesare transmitted far
1994;Ebevhavt-Phillips andReyncvs,1997].Conversely, (severalhundredkm) into the heart of the upperplate.
thicker plateaus will presumablybe able to support We attribute this increased seismicity to an overall
even wider fiat slab segments. The above valuescor- increasein viscousinterplate coupling betweenthe two
lithospheres(Figure 9). Becausethe interplate inter-
respond to the range of crustal thicknessesreported
for severaloceanicplateausworldwide,Galapagos(14-
faceis up to 400-500km longfor fiat subduction(com-
18 km)[FeighncvandRichards,1994],Tuamotu(30-32 paredto 100-200km for steepsubduction),platebound-
km) [Talandierand Okal,1987],CocosRidge(18 km) ary forcesare transmitted more effectivelyto the upper
[Bialaset al., 1999],Nazca Ridge (17 km)[Bialas et plate. The fact that the increasein seismicenergy re-
al., 2000],Marquesas(14-18km)[Caresset al., 1995], leased(a factor of 3-5 times greater for fiat slab seg-
and Kerguelen(20-30km)[C harris et al., 1995],sug- ments) correspondswell to the increasein interplate
gestingthat these globally abundant structuresare ca- contact area suggestsa causal link between these quan-
pableof alteringthe modeof subductionof moderately titires as proposedpreviouslyby other workers[Cross
old <60 m.y. crust. Most of the fiat slab segments and Pilger, 1982]. While it is generallybelievedthat the
aroundthe world causedby singleplateaus,(e.g., cen- base of the lithosphere deforms plastically and therefore
tral Chile, Ecuadoror CostaRica) exhibitlateral widths releasesaccumulated stress aseismically,numerical cal-
from 300 to 500 km. Larger widths (600-1500km) are culations show that stress can still be transmitted from
observed for plateaupairs(i.e., SW Japan,Peru). The the subducting plate to the crustal regionsof the over-
scaleof these global fiat slab segmentsmatcheswell riding plate [Spencer,1994]. Increasedinterplatecou-
with the sizespredictedby the buoyancycalculations. pling abovefiat slab regionshas also been suggestedto
Once oceaniclithospherebecomesmucholder (e.g., 80 be responsiblefor thick-skinned deformation in the up-
m.y. old and 100 km thick [Cloos,1993])and denser, per plate, resulting in large-scaleblock-type uplifts as
fiat subduction becomesnearly impossible. in the PampeanasRange [Jordanet al., 1983; Sinalley
et al., 1993] and in the Eastern Cordilleraof Colom-
3.3. Impact of Flat Subduction: Interplate bia (Figuresi and 9). Many workershavesuggesteda
Coupling, Deformation and Thermal Structure similar origin for the eastern Rockies Laramide uplifts
While it has been pointed out by previousworkers [Jordanet al., 1983; Bird, 1984, 1988; Dumitru et al.,
that upperplate seismicityis moreabundantabovefiat 1991].
slabregionsthan overneighboring steepslabsegments Interplate couplingalso appearsto be an important
[Jordan½tal., 1983;Sinalleyet al., 1993],no study factor governingstrain partitioningin casesof oblique
has attempted to quantify this variation. We presenta convergence as suggested by analogmodelingand nu-
statisticalanalysisof the upper plate seismicityalong merical modeling [P'i•ct and Cobbold,1992; Pubellier
the entire lengthof the subductingNazca Plate, from and Cobbold, 1996; Chemenda et al., 2000], yet the
8øNto 44øSin Figure8. This coversthe twobestdocu- mechanism for modifying this parameter remains un-
clear. We have shown that fiat subduction increases
mentedfiat slabregionsin PeruandcentralChileaswell
as two inferred shorter fiat slab segmentsin Ecuador interplate coupling and suggestthat fiat subduction
(Carnegie Ridge)andColombia (ChocoBlock)(Figure will enhance strain partitioning at a position far in-
1). The seismic energyreleased by eachearthquake is board of the trench forearcregion (Figure 10). Two
calculated and summedup in each 10 north-southbox prominentexamplesprovide usefulinsights,the NW
for a distance of 250-800 km from the trench. This Andean margin and SW Japan. In both casescon-
spansfrom west of the volcanicarc (whenpresent), vergenceis 20ø-40¸ with respectto trenchnormal,and
across the central cordillera and in all cases, except major dextral strike-slipmotion occurs.GPS data sug-
the 800 km wide central Andes and Bolivian sub-andes gestdisplacement of the northAndesblockby 1-2cm/a
to thewest), alongthe Dolores-Guyaquil
(wheretheBrazilianShieldisunderthrust megashear
(Figure1) [Kel-
all the way to the undeformedforeland.The histogram loggand Vega,1995]. In Ecuadorthis dextral slip (see
analysisof the seismicitydemonstratesthat the seismic focal mechanismsin Figure 9) occurs300-400km from
energyreleasedin the upperplate abovefiat slabseg- the trench, at the level of the adakitic volcanic arc
mentsis on average3-5 times greaterthan in adjacent and appearsto be causedby increasedcouplingabove
steep(>30 ø dipping)slab segments.In someextreme the CarnegieRidgefiat slabsegment[Cutschefet al.,
cases,there is more than an order of magnitudediffer- 1999b]. Similarly,beneathSW Japanfiat subduction
 9oow 75ow
10øN

Colom. F.S.
5.4 / 8.8
6.913.7

1.218.8

5.4! 4.1
1.510.
9
Carn. F.S.
oß 5.4 ! 10.3

4.3113.3

Peru
flat slab
8.5 ! 2.2
10øS
Seismic Energy Release

all steep slab (1964-1995)1.4 0.0/1.

1.0 / 9.0
all flat slab (1964-1995) 7.5
0.7 / 0.0

all steep slab (1900-1963) 3.2 ,.

all flat slab (1900-1963) 5.0

o.o 13.1 "Bolivian"
20øS
0.6/ 4.1 steep slab
o 0.712.7
, (N of 28øS)
ß ß "
1.013.4 1.7 / 4.2
o •
0.516.6

ß 2.311.4
per hundred years
•..
ß
':•:'"•G
1.813.2...i
::ili::;!';•;i;
for all steep slab segments: 4.8
for all flat slab segments: 13.0
•.C1.911.6
I'"• Central Chile
flat slab
7.9 ! 5.4
30øS
. .... .' ....".•i
•..:
:..:':.
:.:i'
•:":.'
"..i•!::i!iii•iii:•::•i•i::i!i•i!i•:!::ii:•
::i

5.3 / 8.4

1.415.1

SISRA
Catalog
(1900-1963)
0.010.8

: 0.010.8
EHBCatalog
(1964-1995)
..

%
•"' 0.310.3
all energy in units of
......
'""::
........
--• 0•210.1
J/ 100kmmargin
length .. -:....,.,
'........
.7 SChile
40øS•o . ß o.•lO.1 steep slab
o.s/o.o 0.7 / 1.4
0.310.1

0.010.0

0.010.0
.e ...

Figure 8. Shallowseismicity(•70 km) in SouthAmerica,with histogramof seismicenergyreleased

in the upperplate250-800km fromthe trenchfrom8øNto 44øS(energyin 10eJ).North-south width
ofsamplingboxesis1ø. Grayshadedboxesatrightindicate
fiatslabsegments,
withpairsofnumbers indi-
catingseismic
energyreleased1900-1963
(left)and1964-1995(right).Numbers
at extremerightindicate
averagesper 100 km marginlengthfor eachmajor segmentof the Andes.
 GUTSCHER ET AL.- GEODYNAMICS OF FLAT SUBDUCTION 827

Figure 9. Relief and focal mechanismsin South America from the Harvard CMT catalog
for shallow(<70 kin) earthquakes(1976-1999). Shadedhill relief from digital topographyand
bathymetrydatabase[Smithand Sandwell,1997].

occursalongthe NankaiTrough [Hirahara,1981;Mor- has produced four M7 dextral strike-slip earthquakes

ris, 1995].Dextral motionis observed
by GPS alongthe
M•di•n TectonicLine (MTL) [Le Pichonet al., 1998]
and along a newly identifiedfault zone to the north
of the MTL, the North Chugoku Shear Zone, which
in the past 130 years [Gutschefand La!!emand,1999;
Gutschef,2000]. As in Ecuador,partitioningfollows
the adakitic volcanic arc, some400 km from the Nankai
trough.
828 GUTSCHER ET AL.- GEODYNAMICS OF FLAT SUBDUCTION

A)
oceanic lithosphere volcani
"•arc deformation
incordillera
O- accr.wedge • ••
.... ''::'-• • margin ....
.... •on --_ -•4•:-.•.o i warm,aselsmlccrust
ß
--600oc
.............
•'.'--"'L
.L-•.•.
_....;
.... Moho_ • "-..... •o
..........
'- 900ø0
........... '...... "•-•.':.,••_. ...... :-----
-----
.... :--:--=--:-
...........--...........600C..................
.... ..... '........ ...... .............................................
9oooc ..................
'. .... '":
•:'--5:;:'--,...
"'-....'_'-...."
•,';-..•_:" ? continental
lithosphere
[km]
_-
100 -

-- ... •.•.•.....- .:. ...........

;;;E;iiiiE;•.::•½i:;•i;L
......... •.•,. •,• ,, o ,, , ,• .:.:.:. :•.;'i-:.-":.•:i•i-i,.,?½:_
..... :........... -.
--' ' ....•;;:;::'•;;;;;!;;i½;i:??iii:-:'"'
%:-...::',
•.. ', '" ø ,. •',t,:':
...... ?::;.•.:;;;;i!:•i!i•i•;
................';i•,!::i;
...... :':

150 - -* 1.4000C
.., :-;:;:;;",::?•
............ ............
,.......... "?'"".?½:
"'%•'i•i::?:!•i:;:i:i•!:?i
"::':•?';':;!i'i:i-i•i:i'?!;::•!•:;;•;:i•?!:;::
""'::%":;;;:.i;:;:ii•.:::':"?:"?;""!:!?--i•i•!•;:;;;?:'i?,,:..
;•,,½•,'-:>.,',,",.::"::::;;.;i•i-i;;;;;;;;•;;:;-i;;:.;::?!?,;•;•:.::i;•,:7:,
'"'"":•';•;•'•::•":•,'"'"'•'
.......................
:'-•"'
•'•':":':
"::"'•:'
..::":::";:.
•......... " .......
..•......'..}:::.;:-.
!:::i::.::;i::::.:..:.-ii.i-!;::-iii;i'::".::;'
..::::.•:•::i;5:;:(:.:::::::.i;;•;;•:i:::::;.::::i:i..:::.::•;:::;;::•.;.!::.::.i!i.•::•.•*.-•
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
', ,, c o• ============================================================================
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
•.:.•'-:..:.:,.-;
•.i. ;::..::
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0 1O0 200 300 [km] 400 500 600 700

B) transcurrentfault / blockfault uplift

oceanic lithosphere
o accr.
wedge noactive
vofcanrsm ,•.._•••..• •
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, •:;:/i%•.',
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i i I I I I I I I I I i 1
0 1O0 200 300 [km] 400 500 600 700

Figure 10. Effectof subduction

styleon thermalregimeand deformationin the upperplate.
Note the increasedviscousinterplate coupling for fiat subduction and transfer of deformation
inboard(to the backarc).

Last, we wish to emphasizethe impact of fiat sub- of this asthenosphericwedge which is responsiblefor the
ductionon the temperatureandrheologyof the margin cessationof calco-alkalinearc magmatism[McGeary et
sincethis directly controlsthe deformationprocesses al., 1985; Kay and A bbruzzi,1996]. Thus, prolonged
in the upper plate and along the interface. Flat sub- fiat subduction cools both plates and greatly increases
duction completely alters the thermal structure of the the strengthof the upper plate [Vlaar, 1983; Spencer,
margin, bringingcold oceaniclithosphereto a position 1994]. Finally, the impact of the coldthermal structure
beneaththe upper lithosphere,wheretypically hot as- of fiat subduction on the downdip limit of the seismo-
thenosphereis present,at depths of 60-100 km and 200- genic zone, commonly consideredto be related to the
500 km from the trench(Figure10). The thermaleffect 350ø or 450øCisotherms[Oleskevich et al., 1999],re-
is best illustrated by heat flow observationsfrom Peru mains to be investigated and is potentially of tremen-
andBolivia.Highheatflowof 50-120mW/m • ispresent dous importance for the assessmentof seismic risk.
abovethe steepslabin Boliviaowingto the underlying
asthenosphere,
whereasabovethe Peru fiat slab, where 4. Conclusions
the asthenosphereis absent,low "forearc"valuesof 30-
70 mW/m • areobserved
up to 500km fromthe trench On the basis of the evidence presented here we con-
[HenryandPollack,1988].It is alsothe disappearance cludethe following. (1) Flat subductionis causedpri-
 GUTSCHER ET AL.: GEODYNAMICS OF FLAT SUBDUCTION 829

marflyby the buoyancy effectof anomalously

thick(15- A3. Ecuador
20 km) oceanic crust,i.e., commonly foundin oceanic
plateaus. However,a possibleregionalcontribution This was proposedas a flat slab segmenton the basis
from the absolute motion of the upper plate cannot beof scant teleseismicearthquakehypocenters[Gutschef
ruledout. (2) Flat subduction completely altersthe et al., 1999b]. A north-southorientedcrosssectionsug-
thermal structureof the margin, bringingcoldoceanic geststhe slab lies some 20-30 km higher than in adja-
lithosphereto a positionbeneaththe upperlithosphere, cent regions farther north .or south. The correlation
is present.Prolonged with modernariakites[Gutschefet al., 2000]servesas
wheretypicallyhot asthenosphere
fiat subductioncools both plates and greatly increases indirect evidencebut alone is not compelling. Tomo-
the strengthof the upperlithosphere.(3) The cooler graphicdata are inconclusive(seetext), and thus the
identification remains uncertain.
thermal structure delays the basalt to eclogite tran-
sition by up to 8-10 m.y. allowingthe subhorizontal
slab to penetratefurther inboard. Oncethe basaltto A4. Northwestern Colombia
eclogitetransition occurs, the averageslab density in-
creases(by up to 10%) and the underridinglithosphere Between 5.60 and 7øN, Panama Basin oceanic crust
collapsesunder its own weight, deflecting and sinking subductseastwardbeneath westernColombia [Lons-
steeplydownto the 670km discontinuity (andbeyond). dale and Klitgovd,1978; Pennington,1981]. This was
At this point slab detachment can also occur as sug- first suggestedas a low angle/fiat subductioncaused
gestedby tomographic images beneath northern Peru. by the Choco/Panama Block collisionon the basisof
(4) Interplate couplingis highestabovefiat slab seg- the volcanicgap [McGeavyet al., 1985]. Tomographic
ments, as expressedby 3-5 times higher seismicenergy data (see also Figure 5, sectionA) are the first to
release than above steep slab segments. This is at- clearly identify this "fiat slab" geometry[Engdahlet
tributed to viscouscoupling acrossthe increasedarea al., 1995]. The subductedoceaniccrust may be of
of interplatecontact. (5) Increasedinterplatecoupling Caribbean OceanicPlateau affinity. Major portionsof
together with the strongertheologyof a cooledupper the CaribbeanPlateauhavebeenaccretedto the margin
lithosphere,allow deformation to be transferredseveral of NW South America sincethe Cretaceous.Magnetic
hundredkm inland (to the backarc). This can take anomaliesIn the easternPanama Basin are poorly con-
two forms: blockfault uplift (SierrasPampeanas,NW strainedbut were assignedChrons6B (22 Ma) at the
Argentina)or transcurrentfaultingfor obliqueconver- trench[Hardy,1991].
gence(SW Japanand Ecuador).
A5. Costa Rica

Appendix- Identification of Flat Slab In Costa Rica, 14-20 m.y. old oceanic flanks the sub-
Segments as Supplement to Table 1 ductingCocosRidge [Pvottiet al., 1994]. On the basis
of local network hypocenterdata a general decreasein
A1. Central Chile
slab dip from >600 in Nicaragua and NE Costa Rica to
Togetherwith Peru this wasoneof the first segments 300 in central Costa Rica is reported. In the segment
to be identified as ::low-anglesubduction"[Barazangi facing the CocosRidge, hypocentersdo not extend be-
and Isacks, 1976]. Subsequentwork refined the slab low60 km (justasin SW Japap.or Cascadia),
yet these
geometry,identifying three inflectionpoints, and thus authorsproposethe slabgeometryfiattens,"continuing
redefiningit as "fiat," whichwasattributedto the sub- along an almost horizontal path like tha• found under
duction of the Juan Fernandez Ridge and expressedat PeruandsouthernMexico"[Pvottiet'al., 1994,p. 282].
the volcanic arc by a change in geochemistryfollowed Here as well, there is a gap in Quaternary stratovol-
by a cessationof activity (volcanicgap) [Pilger,1981; canoes despite active subduction and the presenceof
recent ariakites.
Cahill and Isacks,1992;Kay and Abbvuzzi,1996].

A2. Peru A6. Mexico

The Perusegmentwasfirst identifiednearly25 years This margin was the third to be officially labeled as
ago as low-anglesubduction[Bavazangiand Isacks, fiat subduction[Suarezet al., 1990].The subhorizontal
1976]basedon teleseismicearthquakehypocenters.Lo- slab is unusually shallow, at a depth of 50 km. Inter-
cal network data demonstrated the subduction angle is estingly,in Mexicothe youngest (5-10m.y. old) part of
not constantand shallow,but rather moderately steep the slab (at 102ø-105øW longitude)dipsfairly steeply
300 down to 100 km and then practically horizontal for (>30ø) and is well constrainedby hypoccnters and by
severalhundredkilometers[Hasegawa andSacks,1981] the narrow trench arc gap. As lithosphericagesin-
and first establishedthe conceptof a "fiat slab" geom- creaseto the east, paradoxically,the slab dip decreases
etry. and becomes
truly fiat (at 99ø-96øWlongitude)[Singh
830 GUTSCHER ET AL.: GEODYNAMICS OF FLAT SUBDUCTION

and Mortera, 1991]. Accordinglythe trencharc gap in- A9. SW Japan

creases
alongthe east-westtrendingtrans-Mexican vol- Some workers consider SW Japan to exhibit a shallow
canic belt. The Tehuantepec Ridge, while only a minor
dip angleof 8ø-150[Oleskevichet al., 1999].The precise
structure, has been proposedto be responsiblefor the
geometrydown to 60-70 km depth is only constrained
local perturbation of the Mexico subductionand arc
by intraplate earthquake hypocenterssincethe last ma-
[McGeary et al., 1985]. jor interplate events occuredin 1944 and 1946 (the
famousTonankai and Nankaido earthquakes). Wide-
angledata [I•odairaet al., 2000]areinsufficient
to con-
A7. Cascadia strain slab geometrybeyond25 km. Tomographicdata
[Hirahara,1981]showa highervelocitybody (oceanic
The shallowdip anglealongthe Washingtonsegment
slab) lying subhorizontally
to at least300km from the
(10ø-12
ø) is bestconstrained
by localnetworkmicro- Nankai Trough. This corroboratesearthquakephases
seismicity
hypocenters
[CrossonandOwens,1987].The
interpretedas arriving from a fiat lying unit at depthsof
published
east-west
crosssection(theirFigure2) iscon-
50-70km [Nakanishi,1980]. Recently,the geometryhas
sistentwith either a shallowangleor a fiat slab geom- been identified as fiat and related to deformation in the
etry (threepossible,
but not wellconstrained
inflection upperplate [Gutschefand Lalleraand,1999;Gutschef,
points).Indirectevidenceforfiat subductionisoffered •000].
by the adakiticmagme[tism at MountSt. Helens[De-
rant andDrummond,1993;Gutschefet al., 2000]and A10. Western New Guinea/Irian Jaya
by the along-strike
segmentation of the Cascadiamar-
gin. Oregonhashighheatflow,highvolcanic extrusion Plate convergenceis poorly constrainedalong this
rates,and almostno upperplate seismicity.Washing- margin (4-9 cm/a) which producedthe largestinter-
ton haslow heat flow,low extrusionrates,andvery high plate subductionearthquake(M=8.2 in 1996) in the
upperplateseismicity [Blackwellet al., 1990;Fluehet 24 year CMT catalog [Okal, 1999]. Beforethis event
it was debated whether active subduction occurs here!
al., 1998],exactlythe samepatternasobserved
in the
Andes. On the basis of hypocenter distribution and the total
absenceof e[ modern arc we classify the subduction as
fiat slab. Earlier work discusses western New Guinea

A8. Southern Alaska as shallow angle and suggeststhe Euripik Ridge, a 2

km high oceanic plateau, is responsiblefor modifying
This marginwasidentifiedasshallow-anglesubduc- the slab geometry[McGearyet al., 1985]. Its southern
tion basedon hypocenters
and on the eastwardincrease extremity is currently entering the New Guinea Trench
in thetrencharcgap(in excessof 500kin) [Pennington, (138ø-142øE).
1984]. TACT seismicrefractiondata [Brocheret al., Acknowledgments. Thanks to Jacques Malavieille,
1994],clearlyshowa steepening downto 30 kin, then Serge Lallemand, and Jean-Philippe Eissen for stimulat-
a shallowingof plate dip. Approximately500 km from ing discussions. We also thank the reviewers Steve Kirby
the trenchthe subductingplate steepensagain(on the and Nathan Bangs for constructive and critical comments
basisof hypocenterand tomographicdata), and thus which helped improve the manuscript. Most figures were
three inflectionpointsare constrainedhere. The Yaku- draftedusingGMT software[Wesseland Smith,1991].M.-
A. Gutscher's research was funded by a Marie-Curie TMR
tat Terrane,currentlyaccretingto the Alaskamargin (Trainingand Mobility of Researchers)
Grant from the Eu-
has been suggestedto providethe buoyancynecessary ropean Commission. H. Bijwaard was supported by the
to modifythe slabgeometry[Brocheret al., 1994]. NetherlandsOrganizationfor ScientificResearch(NWO).

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 GUTSCHER ET AL.: GEODYNAMICS OF FLAT SUBDUCTION 833

H. Bijwaard and W. Spaklnan, Vening University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 29280, Plouzand, France. (gutscher@mail-
Meinesz Research School of Geodynamics, sdt.univ-brest.fr)
80309.(engdahl@armstrong.colorado.edu)
Faculty of Earth Sciences,Utrecht Uni- M.-A. Gutscher, Universit• de Bretagne
versity, NL-3508, Utrecht, Netherlands. Occidentale / Institut Universitaire Eu- (receivedJuly 6, 1999;
copden de la Mer, UMR 6538 Domaines revised May 2, 2000;
(wims@geo.uu.nl)
E.R. Engdahl,Department of Physics, Ocdaniques,Place Nicolas Copernic, F- accepted May, 2, 2000.)