RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, SIBERIAN BRANCH

INSTITUTE OF GEOPHYSICS
SCIENTIFIC-INDUSTRIAL ENTERPRISE OF GEOPHYSICAL EQUIPMENT «LOOCH»

VIKIZ METHOD FOR LOGGING

OIL AND GAS BOREHOLES

Novosbirsk
2002
 Translation of: Tekhnologiya issledovaniya neftegazovykh skvazhin na osnove VIKIZ,
Novosibisk: Scientific Publishing Center of the United Institute of Geology, Geophysics
and Mineralogy, SB RAS; Publishing Hourse of the SB RAS, 2000.

VIKIZ Method for logging Oil and Gas Boreholes / Novosibirsk: Branch “Geo” of
the Publishing House of the SB RAS, 2002, 112 ð.

ISBN 5-7692-0510-5

The book represents the fundamentals of High Frequency Induction Logging Isoparametric
Soundings in oil and gas boreholes. This method is known in Russia as the VIKIZ method. There have
been considered a wide range of methodical problems for applying the VIKIZ method along with an
interpretation of logs obtained for terrigenous sections. The experience for more than ten years of
practical application of this technique in different regions has been analyzed and generalized. The
multifunctional computer system of log inversion has been described and the ways for using this sys-
tem have been recommended.
The book is intended for geophysicists and geologists specialized in the field of production
geophysics. The book will be also useful for students, post-graduate students, and researchers inter-
ested in geophysical investigations in boreholes.

Compiled by:
M.I. Epov, Yu.N. Antonov, I.N. Yeltsov, S.S. Zhmaev, A.N. Petrov, V.N. Ulyanov, V.N. Glinskikh,
V.N. Eremin, K.N. Kayurov, V.V. Kiselev, V.T. Lavrukhov, S.V. Martakov, M.N. Nikitenko,
M.Yu. Revva, A.Yu. Sobolev, K.V. Sukhorukova, and A.B. Cheryauka

Translated by:
T.A. Korneva

English version edited by:

Yu.A. Dashevsky

Ó Institute of Geophysics SB RAS, 2002

ISBN 5-7692-0510-5 Ó SIEGE “Looch”, 2002
 1 .
K E Y G E O LO G I C A L A N D G E O P H YS I C A L
P R O B L E M S S O LV E D B Y T H E V I K I Z M E T H O D

The method of High-Frequency Induction Logging Isoparametric Sounding has been

developed for evaluation of spatial distribution of the resistivity in rocks penetrated by oil and
gas boreholes.
This method is widely used in geophysical investigations and it is known in Russia as
the VIKIZ method. In this connection, hereafter we shall use the term “VIKIZ method” to
mean High-Frequency Induction Logging Isoparametric Sounding one.
Using the VIKIZ method allows solution of the following problems on geophysical
investigation in boreholes:
· subdivision of a section with evaluation of a thinly bedded profile with the high
spatial resolution;
· location of oil-water and gas-water contacts;
· determination of the resistivity of undisturbed formation as well as that of an invaded
zone with estimating radial depths of displacement of formation fluids;
· setting and estimation of the radial heterogeneity parameters in zones of invasion
including evaluation of salt formation water accumulations (“bordering zones”) as a
direct qualitative indicator of the presence of moveable hydrocarbons in reservoir
rocks.
The VIKIZ method based on measurement of the relative phase characteristics can be
used for investigation in boreholes filled with highly conductive drilling mud (resistivity is less
than 0.5 ohm × m) as opposed to three-coil probes of Induction Logging by which the abso-
lute values of signals are measured on the background of the compensated source field.
The results of quantitative VIKIZ log interpretation after integrating with data on
other geophysical methods and petrophysical information allow evaluation of the hydrocar-
bon saturation and lithology of a terrigenous section. Estimation of a heterogeneity of reser-
voir properties within intervals of porous permeable formations and distinguishing tight sand-
stone with carbonaceous or silica cement, etc. can be obtained from the interpretation results
as well.
 2 .
PETROPHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE TARGETS
U N D E R I N V E S T I G AT I O N . G E O LO G I C A L
AND GEOPHYSICAL MODELS

2.1. Geological Models of Terrigenous Reservoirs

The sedimentary complex of West Siberia region is represented by Mesozoic-Cenozo-

ic sandy-siltstones and shaly rocks. Their total thickness increases to the center and north of
the region where it is as much as 4–5 km. The hydrocarbon-bearing floor thickness is about
2–3 km. The commercial oil-gas accumulations are stratigrafically confined to Cretaceous
and Jurassic deposits. The greatest oil accumulations are concentrated in the Lower Creta-
ceous and Upper Jurassic deposits; gas and condensate-gaseous accumulations are found in
the Upper Cretaceous (Cenomanian) deposits and Upper Jurassic.
Geological processes of accumulation and formation of deposits caused the great
variety of reservoir rocks by their granulometric and mineral composition as well as by
geochemical features of cementation and, as a result, stipulated the complicated structure of
the space with poraperm propertics. The distinctive features of these accumulations are: the
low oil viscosity, low permeability of productive formations, high initial water saturation, and
increased formation temperature.
Paleozoic, Jurassic, and even Cretaceous deposits in many West Siberia regions were
subjected to the deep fluid treatment. Because of this treatment, productive deposits are
represented by both porous and fractured reservoirs.
Most of oil and gas reservoirs belong to the complicated type since their frame is
made up of minerals of multicomponent composition with the complicated structure of
porous channels. Low-permeable shaly reservoir rocks interbedded with impermeable depos-
its present particular difficulties for investigation.
At the beginning of production, hydrocarbons are taken from cracks and then, with
increasing the differential pressure after the cracks are “shut off”, the porous reservoir struc-
ture provides drainage. In the view of many investigators, the cracked porosity determined by
the real content of hydrocarbons in the exhausted fields is about 0.2 %. The maximum
cracked porosity may be as much as 1.0 %.
The hydrocarbon composition of oil has essential effect on electrical parameters.
Thus, the presence of surface-active naphthenic and oleic acids in oil leads to change in the
values of surface tension at the interfaces of hydrocarbons/water and hydrocarbons/mineral
Petrophysical Description of the Targets under Investigation 5

components. These factors essentially decrease the thickness of the bound water film and
increase the resistivity.
In the invaded zone of productive formations, complicated spatial resistivity distribu-
tions can occur. Thus, for instance, if a borehole penetrates a hydrophilic stratum, two ways
of invasion are possible.
If formation water is tightly bound with the rock frame, so oil is displaced from pores
by water filtrate invading from a borehole. As this takes place, in most cases, a resistivity
increases in the near borehole space. The decreasing invasion is observed only in some
accumulations. The possible explanation is as follows. It has been shown that high-molecular
naphthene acids presented in oil in very small amounts (0.1 %) are capable of producing
rather stable emulsions when interacting with water base mud filtrate which contains ions of
alkali additives (for instance, sodium bicarbonate). These processes lead to isolation of fil-
trate by oil films (“water-in-oil”) and to increase in the resistivity of an invaded zone in spite
of displacement of non-conductive oil by conductive solution. These circumstances impede
the evaluation of the formation porosity from the data on parameters of the invaded zone
obtained from direct current measurements. The problem is compounded by the fact that
emulsifiability of oil with identical density and viscosity varies in the wide ranges. The high
values of water saturation can not be accounted for hydrophobization of rocks, but may be
caused by emulsification. Emulsification in an invaded zone, especially in its “flushed” part,
is responsible for the distinctions between estimations of its resistivity by DC methods and
inductive ones.
Along with the mentioned above features of forming electrical heterogeneity, other
situations can occur in an invaded zone. In particular, the presence of microfracture in
terrigenous deposits, which is of considerable importance for the phase permeability, can not
be ruled out. This fracturing can affect the distribution of electrical properties in the invaded
zone.
Distinctions as in the content of different viscosity fluids so in degree of mixing oil
and water are possible in thin-bedded sedimentary deposits with reservoir features. Displace-
ment of fluids from beds with the high water content is likely to be more intense than that
from less oil-saturated beds. Apparent resistivities in such rock masses can differ greatly from
corresponding transformations in isotropic formations.
If loosely bound water presents in sandstone, the water can be displaced after oil. This
leads to accumulation of loosely bound water in the disturbance zone of formation fluid. A
bordering zone is formed which resistivity is lower than that in the surrounding formation.
The radial depth of the bordering zone is typically about 5–20 % of the total invaded zone
radial depth. The models with a bordering zone are often found in accumulations of the Ob
River oil zone.
A bordering zone does not have to be formed if the productive formation is thinly
bedded since boundaries with different fluid saturation would be at different distances from
the borehole wall because individual beds possess varying permeability.

2.2. Petrophysical Features of Oil and Gas Reservoirs of West Siberia

Petrophysics serves as a link connected geological targets and geophysical methods.

Petrophysics of sedimentary rocks focuses on investigation of porosity with its various man-
6

ifestations, fluid saturation characteristics of rocks, capability of rocks to pass fluids through
a porous space, as well as mineralogical and granulometric composition of rocks.
These petrophysical characteristics as individually so in combination are associated
with particular physical parameters. The conductivity or resistivity as well as the adsorptivity,
density, water content, and natural radioactivity are assigned to these characteristics.
The conductivity of basic types of sedementary rocks does not depend on their min-
eralogical composition since the resistivity of rock-forming minerals is exceedingly high (108–
1014 ohm × m). Anthracite coals and sulfide minerals, which resistivity is less by one order,
provide the exception.
The increased conductivity may be due to water in which salts of various metals are
solved. Chlorides (NaCl, CaCl2, MgCl2, and others) are of primary importance, their mole-
cules being dissociated in a water medium. Depending on the composition of magnitude of
dissolved salts and solution temperature, the resistivity of solution changes by three orders
roughly: from 0.01 to 10 ohm × m.
Because of complexity of describing the real structure of a porous rock space provided
by winding pores and irregular distribution of mineral particles interacting with formation
fluids, the connection between petrophysical parameters (porosity, water-, oil-, and gas-
saturation) and resistivity of reservoir rocks is expressed by empirical dependencies of various
types:

r IZRJ
=3 r
V IZ
=3 3 r .
V S Z

Here rfwog is the resistivity of water-, oil-, and gas-saturated formation; rfw is the resistivity of
the same formation when 100 % saturated with water; rw is the resistivity of formation water;
Ðs and Ðp are parameters of saturation and porosity, respectively.
The saturation parameter Ðs or hydrocarbon resistivity index shows how much times
the resistivity of a rock increases when the rock is partially or completely saturated with oil
and (or) gas.
The dependence of the hydrocarbon resistivity index on the water saturation Êw can
be expressed by the empirical relation:

Ðs = a[Êw]–n.

Here a and n are empirical values depending on the type of coating of a pore surface with
formation fluids (hydrophilic or hydrophobic).
The formation resistivity factor (Ðp or relative resistivity) depends on the porosity
coefficient Êp and structure of the porous space. For example, in the case of shale-free rock:

Ðp = a[Êp]–m.

Here a and m are empirical values characterizing the structure of pores depending on com-
paction of rocks.
At the low conductivity, an influence of polarization properties of a medium on
generation of an electromagnetic field is possible. Polarizability of a medium is stipulated
above all by dipole moments of water molecules being in free and loosely bound states. The
Petrophysical Description of the Targets under Investigation 7

polarizability is described quantitatively by the permittivity. In some cases, polarization ef-

fects caused by the secondary pyritization of terrigenous deposits are possible.
Petrophysical models of the rock resistivity are widely used in practice for the quan-
titative estimation of poroperm parameters of porous-permeability rocks. The resistivities of
multi-component porous-permeability media are determined by variety of parameters: quan-
tity, form, location, mineral properties of solid and liquid phases, and their interaction.

2.3. Basic Geoelectrical Models and Their Typical Characteristics

The presence of water of various salinity in porous-permeability sedimentary rocks

can change their resistivities in the wide range. In this case, the most part of a porous space
is occupied with water (bound, loosely bound, or free water, or all the three types of water in
different ratios), the lesser is the rock resistivity. Formation water, that is saline water as a
rule, may be in two main states: bound water and free one.
In the course of drilling and after its completion, mud filtrate invades into formation.
In the formations when 100 % saturated with formation water, a geoelectrical heterogeneity
occurs due to filling the porous volume with more fresh mud filtrate. Resistivity in this
heterogeneity is higher than that in the undisturbed formation (Fig. 2.1). The heterogeneity
around a borehole can be described in the coordinates “resistivity – radial dimension of the
invaded zone” (Fig. 2.2). The radial depth of invasion and the rate of resistivity change at
the interfaces of different salinity fluids depend on the porosity and permeability of forma-
tion (Fig. 2.3). In formations with the high porosity and good filtration properties, bounda-
ries formed between fluids in the transition zone are more clearly defined than those in
reservoir rocks with increased content of clay minerals subjected to hydration. The depth of
filtrate invasion from a borehole is usually larger in water-saturated formations than that in
oil-saturated reservoirs.
Entering pores, filtrate displaces a moveable formation fluid. The greatest displace-
ment is observed when rock is fractured by a percussive chisel in the course of drilling. As
this takes place, the advanced filtrate invasion occurs. Further, the intervals of previously
penetrated permeable formations are under hydrostatic pressure of drilling mud. Filtration of
water from drilling filtrate is impeded at the expense of a mud cake deposited within the
porous permeable intervals. The filtrate invasion is accompanied by occurrence of the zone
with electrochemical composition of the water solution other than that in the formation.
If formation pores are filled with oil
(gas) along with loosely bound water, the fil-
trate entering pores of the hydrophilic reser-
voir first displaces oil and then formation
water.
In Figs. 2.4–2.6 there are shown the
schemes of forming geoelectrical heterogene-
ity when oil and saline water is displaced by
filtrate of the decreased salinity.
As it can be seen from Fig 2.4, such a
heterogeneity adjoins the borehole. It occurs
at the expense of pores filled with water-base Fig. 2.1. One-dimensional model: borehole – in-
drilling mud filtrate containing residual for- vaded zone – formation.
8
Fig. 2.2. Radial resistivity distribution in a model:
zone of increasing invasion formation.
Fig. 2.3. Forming increasing invasion zone.
Fig. 2.4. One-dimensional model: borehole – bor-
dering zone – formation.
mation water and oil (the filtrate salinity is
less than formation water one). Another
heterogeneity is formed at the expense of
accumulation of formation water being dis-
placed after moveable oil (gas). Next to the
zone of mixed fluids, the “undisturbed” for-
mation with the unaltered composition is
retained.
In reservoirs containing moveable oil
and formation water, two areas with differ-
ent fluid properties occur around a bore-
hole. The near borehole area contains wa-
ter filtrate from the borehole and remains
of non-displaced oil and formation water.
At the some distance from the borehole wall,
pores from which oil was displaced, are filled
with the mixture of residual formation wa-
ter and water from the borehole, the latter
being of increased salinity due to the con-
tact with residual formation water. Thus,
the area of anomalous saline water occurs.
It is clear, that these two zones with solu-
tions of variable concentration will be dis-
tinguished by their resistivities and both
zones will be differentiated from the undis-
turbed formation. The formation part adja-
cent to the borehole can be characterized
by higher resistivity than the undisturbed
formation. It will be observed in the case if
the pore volume filled with fresh filtrate
turns to be less conductive than the forma-
tion. However in practice, the zone nearest
to a borehole is not sufficiently contrast to
be revealed. The reason is that the mean
conductivity of displaced hydrocarbons (of
high resistivity) and formation water (of high
conductivity) is close to the filtrate con-
ductivity. In such cases, the small volume
of displaced formation water together with
oil is found to be comparable by the col-
umn conductance with significantly larger
volume of fresh water from the borehole.
The radial dimensions of invaded
zones depend on the formation permeability
(clay cement), rheological properties of drill-
ing mud as well as drilling conditions and
time of logging. In Fig. 2.7 there are given
the plots of radial resistivity profiles (rf =
Petrophysical Description of the Targets under Investigation 9

= 1–100 ohm × m) for oil reservoirs of com-

plicated polymictic composition depend-
ing on the resistivity of formation water
rw and that of drilling mud rm.
Three groups with the same type
of resistivity profiles can be selected:
· in the models 1–3, the near bore-
hole part includes two zones with lower
resistivity values that are lower than resis- Fig. 2.5. Fluid distribution when forming a border-
ing zone.
tivity values in the undisturbed formation,
the salinity of drilling mud being higher
or close to that of formation water;
· in the models 4 and 5, the drill-
ing mud filtrate resistivity is less or equal
to that of formation water; the pore space
is filled with filtrate after oil is displaced
that leads to decrease in resistivity of the
invaded zone;
· in the models 8 and 9, accumu-
lation of saline formation water displaced
after oil occurs in the forefront of fresh
filtrate.
The last models represent the de-
velopment stages of zones with decreasing
invasion. Transient stages of invasion can Fig. 2.6. Radial resistivity distribution in the pres-
be revealed when analyzing time-lapse ence of a bordering zone.
measurements. The investigations per-
formed by means of the VIKIZ method in
many boreholes of the Surgut Arch con-
firm the occurrence of such processes.
It is obvious that development of
invaded zones by stages depends not only
on water resistivities, but on many other
conditions: the structure of porous-per-
meability space, porosity (in its various
manifestations), fluid composition, prop-
erties of electrical double-layers, etc.
The crucial role of time when form-
ing a heterogeneity especially during in-
termediate round-trip actions in boreholes
can be outlined once again. In many cas-
es, development of invasion depends
strongly on the relationship between in-
tra-formation pressure, hydrostatic one,
and overpressure. By the action of these Fig. 2.7. Radial resistivity distribution for oil-satu-
factors, the micro-fractured porosity is rated formations.
formed and additional flow conditions for
formation fluids occur.
10

Fig. 2.8. Estimates of both resistivity (a–c) and invasion depth (d ) at different fluid saturation of reser-
voir: O stands for oil; O+W stand for oil with water.

Summary results of analysis of log data on the Middle Ob fields are listed in Fig. 2.8.
In the Fig. there are given the ranges of resistivities characterizing invaded zones and rocks
of water- and oil-saturated formations. Here the estimations of invasion depths and shoulder
bed resistivities are given as well. Note that these data are given for mud with the resistivity
of rb=1–2 ohm × m.
For analysis of the spatial resolution of the method, the radial and vertical character-
istics are used. The possibilities for resistivity determination in the undisturbed formation in
the presence of a borehole and an invaded zone are assessed through the radial characteris-
tics. In this case, a cylindrically layered model (borehole – invaded zone – bordering zone –
formation, Fig. 2.9) is a basic model for analysis of radial characteristics, and a horizontally
layered model (overlying rocks – formation – underlying rocks, Fig. 2.10) is a basic model
for analysis of vertical characteristics.
Moreover, there are many cases (thin beds, highly permeable shoulder beds, deep
invaded zones) when it is necessary to take into account as the finite formation thickness so
the resistivity distribution from a borehole to undisturbed formation. In this context, two-
dimensional models (a borehole crosses the formation of the finite thickness and the invaded
zone is present, Fig. 2.11) should be used.
At last, there exist the most complicated tree-dimensional models when the formation
of the finite thickness is crossed by a dipping borehole and invaded zones are present
(Fig. 2.12).
Let us consider the set of geoelectrical models that are typical for West Siberia. The
following basic situations can be selected by the type of the radial resistivity distribution.
Low permeability (tight) formation. The simplest model is a two-layer one. Unchanged
borehole diameter (practically, it always corresponds to the nominal diameter) and the high
resistivity are characteristic properties of the model: the drilling mud resistivity is 0.01–5.0
ohm ×m; the borehole radius is 0.108–0.125 m; the formation resistivity is 50–200 ohm × m.
Shaly formation. Shaly formation with fairly complicated structure is usually repre-
sented by thinly interbedded siltstones, argillites, and shaly sandstones. The borehole profile
Petrophysical Description of the Targets under Investigation 11

is complicated and cavernous in nature. The

simplest model is a two-layer (borehole –
formation) one that reflects its structure ad-
equately. A three-layer model can be con-
sidered as additional one when a shallow in-
vaded zone stipulated by filtration of drilling
mud into the sandiest varieties is present: the
drilling mud resistivity is 0.01–5.0 ohm × m;
the borehole radius is 0.108–0.2 m; the for-
mation resistivity is 2.0–6.0 ohm × m.
Water-saturated formation. The type
of formations is common in terrigenous sec-
tions of West Siberia. The distinctive feature
of the formation is increasing invasion. The Fig. 2.9. Cylindrically-layered model: bore-
radius of the invaded formation part may be hole – invaded zone – bordering zone – forma-
tion.
up to 2.0 m (riz /rb = 2–20). The resistivity of
an invaded zone ranges from 10 to 50 ohm ×m;
that of formation is from 2 to 6 ohm ×m. In
some cases, neutral invasion can be observed,
then the model is degenerated to two-layer
one: the resistivity is 0.01–5.0 ohm × m, 10–
50 ohm × m, and 2.0–6.0 ohm × m for drilling
mud, invaded zone, and formation, respec-
tively; the borehole radius is 0.108–0.125 m;
the invaded zone radius is 0.2–2.0 m.
Oil-saturated reservoir. That is the
main type of formations for which quantita-
tive interpretation is executed. The distinc- Fig. 2.10. Horizontally-layered model: overlying
tive feature of the reservoir is increasing or rocks – formation – underlying rocks.
neutral invasion. Here the formation resis-
tivity ranges from 4.0 to 50 ohm × m. The resistivity of an invaded zone is higher than that of
water-saturated formation due to residual water-saturation and it varies in the range from 10
to 100 ohm × m. As an additional model, a four-layer one may be used in which a bordering
zone exists aside from the invaded zone. The presence of a bordering zone in hydrophilic
terrigenous oil-saturated reservoirs has been proved by the analysis of field logs. The border-
ing zone is a ring layer of insignificant thickness (about 0.1–0.2 m) with the high content of
mineral water. The resistivity of this zone is nearly the same as that of water-saturated
formation (riz >rf >rbz ). An invaded zone that is thin or low contrast by resistivity may occur
in thinly bedded sand-shale reservoir rocks. This zone does not practically affect signals being
measured. In these cases, the model includes two-layers: the resistivity is 0.01–5.0 ohm × m,
10–50 ohm ×m, 2–6 ohm × m, and 4.0–50.0 ohm × m for drilling mud, invaded zone, border-
ing zone, and formation, respectively; the borehole radius is 0.108–0.2 m; the invaded zone
radius is 0.2–2.0 m; the bordering zone thickness is 0.05–0.2 m.
Gas-saturated reservoir. As increasing so decreasing invasion can be revealed in a gas-
saturated reservoir: the resistivity is 0.01–5.0 ohm × m, 10–150 ohm × m, 0.2–2.0 m; 30–200
ohm × m for drilling mud, bordering zone, invaded zone, and formation, respectively; the
borehole radius is 0.108–0.2 m.
12
Fig. 2.11. Two-dimensional model: vertical
borehole – invaded zone – formation.
Fig. 2.12. Three-dimensional model: inclined
borehole – invaded zone – formation.
stratum. The distribution of electrical resistivity is observed in the downward direction: 2–4
ohm × m; 20–300 ohm × m; 2–6 ohm × m.
Gas-saturated reservoir, the top is shaly bed, the bottom is oil-saturated reservoir. The
distribution of electrical resistivity is observed in the downward direction: 2–4 ohm × m; 30–
200 ohm × m; 4–30 ohm × m.
When using the cylindrically layered
model, the thickness of formation being in-
vestigated is assumed to be sufficient for
neglecting shoulder bed effects. Further, the
geological situations are described when the
thickness of formations under investigation
is such that shoulder beds affect the probe
signals. Next in order of complexity model
is that when as a formation so shoulder
beds have an invaded zone.
Low-permeability, tight formation,
shoulder beds are shaly rocks. The resistiv-
ity of shoulder beds is 2–4 ohm × m, that of
formation is 100–200 ohm × m.
Water-saturated formation, shoulder
beds are shaly rocks. The resistivity of
shoulder beds is 2–4 ohm × m, that of for-
mation is 2–6 ohm × m.
Oil-saturated reservoir, shoulder beds
are shaly rocks. The resistivity of shoulder
beds is 2–4 ohm × m, that of formation is
4–30 ohm × m.
Gas-saturated reservoir, shoulder
beds are shaly rocks. The situation is con-
sequently being worse as compared with
water- and oil-saturated formations since
the contrast of electrical resistivities increas-
es as in the invaded zone so in undisturbed
formation. Formation resistivity ranges from
30 to 200 ohm × m.
The other combinations are also
possible.
Oil-saturated reservoir, the top is
shaly bed, the bottom is a water-saturated
stratum. The distribution of resistivity is ob-
served in the downward direction: 2–4
ohm × m; 4–30 ohm × m; 2–6 ohm × m.
Gas-saturated reservoir, the top is
shaly bed, the bottom is water-saturated
 3 .
THEORETICAL FUNDAMENTALS OF THE METHOD.
V I K I Z TO O L R E S P O N SE I N H E T E R O G E N O U S M E D I A

3.1. Focusing Systems in Electromagnetic Logging

The main purpose of electromagnetic logging is to make estimates of formation

resistivities as correctly as possible. To aid this, the multi-coil probes are employed. The
parameters are so chosen that resistivity of the undisturbed formation would determine the
signal being measured and as the borehole effect so invaded zone effect would be relatively
insignificant. It is common practice in logging to designate probes of this type as focusing
ones.
In the induction logging (frequencies up to 250 kHz), the principles of frequency
and geometric focusing based on the theory of generalized geometrical factor are used for
designing probes. When geometric focusing, moments of coils and distances between them
are so fitted that contributions (geometrical factors) from a borehole and an invaded zone
would be significantly diminished. The another, less common approach to focusing systems,
is measuring the inphase component of the secondary field or dual-frequency difference of
the quadrature component.
Improving the radial characteristics of focusing probes leads to increase of shoulder
bed effect on a measured signal. This comes into particular prominence when the formation
thickness is comparable with the probe spacing. The another peculiarity of focusing systems
is essential decrease in the signal level being measured. Thus, when probes are designed, the
compromise between two alternative conditions is required. For improving radial character-
istics, it is necessary to reduce the frequency or elongate the probe spacing. For improving
vertical characteristics and increasing a signal being measured, it is necessary to increase the
frequency and to shorten the probe spacing. All the probes that common used in induction
logging have been designed with regard to these contradictory requirements.
The principle of focusing an electromagnetic field in the high-frequency range is
radically different. It has been established that the relative difference between amplitudes and
phases measured in two closely spaced coils depends very weakly on the borehole parameters
even at very high (up to 15 MHz) frequencies. Thus, the phase difference measurement
allows one to satisfy the two requirements at once: to eliminate a borehole effect without
loosing a good vertical resolution. When high frequencies are used, the signal levels become
high even in a relatively low conductive (up to 120 ohm × m) medium that extends the range
of resistivities being measured.
14

3.2. Phase Difference and Its Relation to the Resistivity

of an Uniform Space. Apparent Resistivities

High frequency methods use three-coil probes when measuring relative characteris-
tics. Such a probe consists of one transmitter coil (T) and two receiver coils (R1 and R2). All
the coils are coaxial. Receivers are arranged on one side from the transmitter. The transmit-
ter coil is supplied with an alternating current:

- LwW
J = J0 H .

Here w =2p f is a circular frequency; f is a frequency, J0 is a current amplitude. The

transmitter coil moment Mt is defined by a current J, the area enclosed by one turn of a coil
S, and the number of turns in the coil nt :

Mt = Jnt S.
Moments of receiver coils Mr are defined by the area S and the number of turns n:

Mr = nr S.

The distance between centers of a transmitter coil and long-distance receiver coil M1
is a probe spacing L1. The relative distance between centers of receiver coils DL/L1 will be
referred to as a probe base. An alternating current in a transmitter coil generates a varying
electromagnetic field in a homogenous conductive medium. If spacing between transmitter
coil and receiver ones significantly exceed their sizes ( / ? 6 ), all the coils can be consid-
ered as magnetic dipoles. In this case, the magnetic field at centers of receiver coils is
described by the expression:

0
+ = H  - LN/   M  .
W LN/M

p /
M M

Here k is the wave number related to medium parameters in the following way:

N = Lwms + emw  ,

s = 1/r is conductivity, r is resistivity; m = m0 m*, m0 = 4p  × 10–7 H/m, m* is the relative mag-
netic permeability; e  = e0 e *, e0 = 8.85 × 10–12 F/m, and e * is the relative permittivity.
In receiver coil of number j, e.m.f. is induced:


H =-
M
,
M
W
where Fj = m Mrj Hj is the magnetic flux.
The phase of a magnetic field jt is described by the expression

,P + M 5H H M
j M = DUFWJ = -DUFWJ .
5H + M ,P H M
Theoretical Fundamentals of the Method. VIKIZ Tool Response in Heterogenous Media 15

When quasistationary conditions in a nonmagnetic medium (wer < 0.1; r £ 150 ohm × m,

e* £ 5–10,
 m * = 1) are satisfied, the wave number k is transformed to the following form:

N = p  + L   IP  r ,

here fm is the frequency in MHz.

In this case, the phase difference Dj between e.m.f. in two coils is

Sd /
j = S d / - DUFWJ ,
 + S  - d /  +  S  - d / 

p Im
here S = / , DL=L1–L2, dL1=DL/L1.
r 

From the expression represented above, one can see that the phase difference in a
homogenous medium will be the same and depend only on the medium resistivity if two
conditions are valid:

D/
I / = FRQVW  = FRQVW .
/

Three-coil probe for which these conditions are realized is given the title isoparamet-
ric probe.
The following parameter values have been chosen for the VIKIZ tool:

D/
I / =  µ     =  ,
/

where f is the frequency, in Hz. The dependence of the phase difference Dj on resistivity of
a homogenous medium for these isoparameter values is shown in Fig. 3.1. As it can be seen,
there exists the simple relation between Dj and r values that is used for introducing the
apparent resistivity ra. It should be emphasized that readings of all VIKIZ probes correspond
to the apparent resistivity value that is equal to the resistivity of a medium (ra = r).
As real measurements have some errors, let us analyze the influence of signal error on
the apparent resistivity uncertainty. As it is known, the relative error of apparent resistivity
determination dra is connected with the relative measurement error dDj by the following
approximate expression:

 OQ _ Dj _
dra » kr Dj, hr =  N r =  .
 OQ r hr

The kr value is called the propagation coefficient of a relative measurement error and
hr is the sensitivity of measured signal Dj relative to the medium resistivity r.
In Fig. 3.2 there are given curves of both the sensitivity hr to resistivity of a homo-
genous medium and the propagation coefficient of error when transforming measured signal
into apparent resistivity. As it can be seen from these curves, the least values of kr (1.3–1.5)
are observed for a high conductive medium ( r » 1–10 ohm × m). The greatest increase in
16

relative error (1.9–2.0) takes place

when transforming the phase difference
into apparent resistivity in low conduc-
tive media ( r > 100 ohm × m).
When the resistivities of a me-
dium are high, the dependence of a
measured signal on dielectric permit-
tivity occurs at high frequencies. For
long VIKIZ probes, quasistationary
conditions (the weak influence of e) are
satisfied with high accuracy when ter-
rigenous deposits and drilling mud have
common values of resistivities. Howev-
er, for the shortest probe located in high
resistive rocks, a signal is affected by
the dielectric permittivity.
In Figs. 3.3 and 3.4 dependen-
Fig. 3.1. Dependence of phase difference on resistivity cies of Dje and Dj0 values on the resis-
of a homogenous medium.
tivity of a homogenous medium are giv-
en for different dielectric permittivity
values, e * (Dje e is the phase difference
that takes account for e * and Dj0 is the
phase difference in quasistationary ap-
proximation).
The relative contribution of
wave processes into a signal of the short
probe is less than 5–7 % for typical
clays with the resistivity less than
4 ohm × m even at e * = 40. In reservoir
rocks, a signal of the shortest probe is
defined by the parameters of an invad-
ed zone. At the typical increasing in-
vasion (riz » 20 ohm × m), the relative
influence of e * = 20 is less than 10 %
at the frequency of 14 MHz.
The dependence of signals from
five three-coil probes at the same depth
Fig. 3.2. Curves of both phase difference sensitivity to
on a spacing of the basic two-coil pair,
resistivity of a medium (blue line) and propagation co-
efficient of error (red line). we will designate as a VIKIZ sounding
curve. Two types of curves will be con-
sidered: dependencies of phase differ-
ence and those of apparent resistivity on the probe spacing. The combination of sounding
curves at different depths is a VIKIZ log. The logs can also be represented in the form of
phase difference and apparent resistivities.
In a homogenous medium, signals of all probes are equal within the limits of meas-
urement errors. If the signals are not equal (i.e., the sounding curve is not a straight line),
this points to the spatial heterogeneity of resistivities. As far as all probes have the different
spacing and those operate at various frequencies, currents that flow in variable medium
Theoretical Fundamentals of the Method. VIKIZ Tool Response in Heterogenous Media 17

Fig. 3.3. Dependence of phase difference on di- Fig. 3.4. Dependence of phase difference on
electric permittivity of a homogenous medium dielectric permittivity of a homogenous me-
(0.5 m probe). dium (0.7 m probe).

spaces contribute to a signal being measured. Here, the lower is the frequency and the more
is the spacing, the farther apart the probe there is the space that influences probe signals.
Particularly, if formations being investigated are rather thick (their thickness exceeds the
probe spacing), the sounding curve reflects the resistivity change from a borehole toward an
undisturbed formation. In this case, measurement of the differential characteristic, i.e., phase
difference, allows the influence of the near the probe area (in particular, the borehole) to be
suppressed.

3.3. The Uncertainty of Model Parameter Prediction as a Function

of Measurement Errors

The five phase differences are measured in the VIKIZ probes: Dji (i = 1,..., 5) from
the shortest probe to the longest one. The model of a medium is characterized by the
r
parameter vector, S = ^ S S SP ` , where m is the number of model parameters. For
instance, there are five model parameters in such a model as borehole – invaded zone –
formation: the drilling mud resistivity, borehole radius, invaded zone resistivity, external
radius of the invaded zone, and formation resistivity.
As it is known, the sensitivity hij of the phase difference Dji measured in i-probe
relative to the j-parameter pj is determined by the following expression:

 OQ _ Dj _
h = .
L
(3.1)
LM
 OQ S M

‰ ‰
The relation between relative changes of model parameters d S and signals d D j
when the parameter variations are small can be written as:
‰ · ‰
d D j  'd S , (3.2)
18

‰
where d Dj = {dDj1, dDj2, ... , dDj5} is the vector of relative errors of measured phase
‰
differences, d S = {dp1, dp2, ..., dpm} is the vector of relative errors of model parameter
·
determination. The matrix ' of dimensionality (5´m) is called a sensitivity matrix:

· Ê  OQ Dj Ú
'=Ë Û , i = 1, ..., 5; j = 1, ..., m .
L
(3.3)
Ì  OQ S ÜM

‰
The relative determination errors of model parameters d S can be estimated from the
‰
relation (3,2) if the relative measurement errors of phase differences d Dj are known:
‰ ·7· ·7
d S =  ' '- '
‰
d Dj . (3.4)
·7 ·
Here ' stands for a transposed matrix ' .
The relation (3.4) is a basic one for analysis of radial and vertical characteristics as
well for evaluation of the inversion quality of both logs and sounding curves.

3.4. Typical Sounding Curves

One of the main VIKIZ problems is estimation of the radial distribution of the resis-
tivity from a borehole toward the undisturbed formation. This problem is solved on the basis
of interpretation of sounding curves. As it has been pointed, the principle of radial sounding
is based on increase in radial depth of investigation with lengthening a probe spacing and
lowering a frequency as well as on measuring phase difference, which depends weakly on the
borehole parameters.
Strictly speaking, the radial soundings are possible only if the formation is thick
enough. In this case, overlying and underlying deposits weakly affect signals linked with
formation. Just such situations are considered here, and therefore, the cylindrically layered
models are used to calculate synthetic logs.
Shaly low resistive formation penetrated by borehole (Fig. 3.5). There is either a shal-
low invaded zone or no invaded zone. When calculating curves, it is taken into account that
clays are characterized by the high dielectric permittivity (e * » 40) that can influence signals
of two shortest probes. Apparent resistivities for all probes except the shortest one coincide
with the true formation resistivity. A borehole influences signals of the shortest probe. But
this influence is less than 10 % even for high conductive mud. Note that the influence of
high conductive mud increases the apparent resistivity as compared with true one. This is
explained by the fact that the signal transformation into ra in a homogenous medium is not
adequate for high-resistivity contrast medium.
Tight low permeable highly resistive formation penetrated by borehole (Fig. 3.6).
There is either a shallow invaded zone or no invaded zone. In this case, the borehole effect
manifests itself in signals of practically all probes, the conductive borehole lowering (up to
25 %) apparent resistivities as compared with the true resistivity. Lowering in apparent
resistivities of long probes is either due to dielectric permittivity effect in high resistive
formations or because of transformation for a homogenous medium is used in a high-
resistivity contrast section.
Theoretical Fundamentals of the Method. VIKIZ Tool Response in Heterogenous Media 19

Fig. 3.5. Sounding curves for shales without in- Fig. 3.6. Sounding curve for tight highly resistive
vasion (rf = 4 ohm × m, rb = 0.108 m), rb=2.0 (1 ), formation without invasion (rf = 200 ohm × m).
0.5 ohm × m (2).

Fig. 3.7. Sounding curves for water-saturated formation Fig. 3.8. Sounding curves for oil-saturated res-
with increasing invasion (riz= 20 ohm × m, riz = 0.6 m, ervoir with increasing invasion (riz= 30 ohm × m,
rf = 4 ohm × m). riz= 0.5 m, rf = 6 ohm × m).
See the rest designations for Fig. 3.5.

Water saturated formation with increasing invasion (Fig. 3.7). The sounding curve
reflects the radial resistivity distribution. Apparent resistivities for two short probes are
mainly defined by the resistivity of an invaded zone. Signals of four long probes are not
practically affected by the drilling mud resistivity. High conductive mud (up to 0.02 ohm × m)
is responsible for lowering the apparent resistivity for the shortest probe by about 7 %. As
for signals of long probes, those are close to the true formation resistivity. Such sounding
curves allow reliable qualitative evaluation of the formation saturation nature.
Oil saturated reservoir with increasing invasion (Fig. 3.8). Sounding curves, just as in
the previous case, reflect the true resistivity distribution. Apparent resistivities of two short
probes result mainly from the resistivities of an invaded zone. The high conductive mud
effect (up to 0.02 ohm × m) manifests itself in lowering in an apparent resistivity for two short
probes by about 12 %. Signals of two long probes are closely related as to each other so to
20

Fig. 3.9. Sounding curves for gas-saturated reser- Fig. 3.10. Sounding curve for oil-saturated reser-
voir with decreasing invasion (riz= 30 ohm × m, voir with increasing invasion and bordering zone
r iz = 0.7 m, r f = 60 ohm × m). r b = 2.0 (1 ), (r iz =30 ohm × m, r iz = 0.5 m, r bz =3 ohm × m,
0.5 ohm × m (2 ). rbz = 0.5 m, rf = 6 ohm × m).

Fig. 3.11. Sounding curves depending on border-
ing zone location (riz= 30 ohm × m, rbz= 3.1 m
rf = 6.2 ohm × m). Radius of invasion zone and bor-
dering zone, respectively, m: 1 – 0.42, 0.54; 2 –
0.52, 0.68; 3 – 0.62, 0.68.
Fig. 3.12. Sounding curves depending on bor-
dering zone location (riz=12 ohm × m, rbz= 3.7 m,
rf = 5.2 ohm × m).
See the rest designations for Fig. 3.11.

the resistivity of the undisturbed formation. In this situation, reliable qualitative evaluation
is possible as well.
Gas saturated reservoir with decreasing invasion (Fig. 3.9). Sounding curves exhibit
increase in the resistivity from a borehole to the undisturbed formation. Signals from two
short probes are close to the resistivity of an invaded zone, whereas apparent resistivities of
two long probes are near-completely defined by the formation resistivity.
As it has been noted, one of a possible feature of an oil-saturated reservoir is the
presence of a narrow high conductive bordering zone.
Oil-saturated reservoir with increasing invasion and bordering zone (Fig. 3.10). In
the presence of a bordering zone, the type of a sounding curve can be changed from a
monotype to a curve with the extremum. In this case, the apparent resistivities for short
probes are essentially lower than the resistivities of an invaded zone, but the former signif-
icantly exceed the resistivities of a bordering zone. Apparent resistivity of the long probe
coincides with the formation resistivity.
Changes in sounding curves at different locations of a bordering zone are shown in
Fig. 3.11. Farther from the bordering zone, the minimum of sounding curve is shifted to the
Theoretical Fundamentals of the Method. VIKIZ Tool Response in Heterogenous Media 21

range of successively longer probes. Simultaneously, gradual increase in apparent resistivities

is observed for short probes, which gradually approach the resistivities of an invaded zone.
A bordering zone is determined by the minimum on a sounding curve. Note that this
feature is observed only when there is the sharp contrast between resistivities of an invaded
zone and a bordering zone. That is, a bordering zone can be selected on sounding curves if
drilling mud and formation water differ greatly in resistivities. In Fig. 3.12 there are given
sounding curves when riz is not in marked contrast to rbz. In this case, the curves become
monotonically decreasing without the minimum caused by a bordering zone.

3.5. Typical Logs

One of the main problems solved through VIKIZ method is subdivision of a section.
Let us consider fragments of logs as reflecting typical geoelectrical situations so related to
distinguishing specific elements of the section. Synthetic records have been calculated for the
two-dimensional model (Fig. 2.11). Two cases when formation thickness H = 0.8 m and H = 2.4 m
are considered.
Tight low permeable formation in shaly deposits (Fig. 3.13, r VKE = 3.5 ohm × m,


r = 6 ohm × m, U  = 0.2 m, r =100.0 ohm × m, r =3.5 ohm × m, r  = 6.0 ohm × m,

 
L]
L] f VKE L]

U  = 0.2 m). The logs reflect the true resistivity distribution depending on depth. In the thin
L]

formation, apparent resistivities are lowered, so ra is less than the formation resistivity for
any probe. In the central part of the thick formation, short probe signals have the constant
value that exceeds the formation resistivity by about 20 %. The distinctions are observed
between logs for the thin and thick formations within the interval when passing through the

Fig. 3.13. Logs for a model: shale – tight formation – shale. Color codes for probe spacing (m) are: red
for 0.5 m, green for 0.7 m, brown for 1.0 m, blue for 1.4 m and black for 2.0 m, respectively.
22

Fig. 3.14. Logs for a model: oil saturated formation – tight layer – water saturated formation.
See designations for Fig. 3.13.

formation top. These distinctions are associated with the fact that the first model has log
points at which transmitter coils and receiving ones are located in overlying and underlying
rocks, respectively. The asymmetry of logs relative to the center of the formation is caused by
the asymmetry of three-coil probes. The asymmetry degree of logs increases for longer probes.
Note that if formation is thin, maximum signals are measured at nearly the same depth, so
the difference between depths of these signals in the thick formation is about 0.5 m. The
apparent resistivity for the long probe is significantly lowered mainly due to effect of well
conductive shoulder beds.
Tight low permeable formation overlain by shale and underlain by water satura-
ted formation (Fig. 3.14, r VKE = 3.5 ohm × m, r  = 6 ohm × m, U  = 0.2 m, rf =100.0 ohm × m,

L] L]

r VKE=4.5 ohm × m, r =30 ohm × m, U  = 0.6 m). As opposed to the previous model, shoul-

 
L] L]

der beds are distinguished by resistivities. The logs for long probes are similar to those shown
in Fig. 3.13, but the former have some peculiarities because their apparent resistivities under
the formation come close to the water saturated formation resistivity. As compared with the
previous model, increase of the shoulder bed effect leads to increasing ra for short probes.
Water saturated formation in shaly deposits (Fig. 3.15, r VKE= 3.5 ohm × m,


r = 6 ohm× m, U = 0.2 m, rf = 4.5 ohm× m, r =30 ohm×m, U = 0.6 m, r  =3.5 ohm × m,


L]

L]
  
L] L] VKE
r = 6 ohm × m, U  = 0.2 m). The logs reflect the true resistivity distribution over the sec-
L] L]

tion, but at the same time, these logs are asymmetric relative to the formation center.
Apparent resistivities of the long probe are close to the true resistivity even in a thin
formation. The values of ra closest to the formation resistivity are observed in the interval
above the formation bottom. It can be explained by the fact that in such situations, the
most part of formation or the entire formation under investigation turnes out to be inside
the probe. Note that when leaving the thin formation, the intermediate asymptote r VKE »3.6 ohm × m

Theoretical Fundamentals of the Method. VIKIZ Tool Response in Heterogenous Media 23

Fig. 3.15. Logs for a model: shale – water saturated formation – shale.
See designations for Fig. 3.13.

Fig. 3.16. Logs for a model: shale – water saturated formation – tight formation.
See designations for Fig. 3.13.
24

Fig. 3.17. Logs for a model: shale – oil saturated formation – shale.
See designations for Fig. 3.13.

Fig. 3.18. Logs for a model: shale – oil saturated formation – water saturated formation.
See designations for Fig. 3.13.
Theoretical Fundamentals of the Method. VIKIZ Tool Response in Heterogenous Media 25

Fig. 3.19. Logs for a model: gas saturated formation – oil saturated formation – water saturated
formation.
See designations for Fig. 3.13.

Fig. 3.20. Logs for a model: shale – gas saturated formation – shale.
See designations for Fig. 3.13.
26

is observed within the interval that is practically the same as the probe spacing. The effect of
formation in the overlying medium begins to be noticeable at the distance approximately
equal to the probe base. Logs of short probes reflect the resistivity distribution in the top
area. The position of formation tops is estimated well at the intersection of logs of all probes.
Water saturated formation overlain by shale and underlain by tight low permeable rocks
(Fig. 3.16, r VKE = 3.5 ohm × m, r VKE = 6 ohm × m, U = 0.2 m, rf = 4.5 ohm × m, r = 30 ohm × m,
   
L] L]

U    = 0.6 m, r VKE = 100.0 ohm × m). The logs reflect well the resistivity distribution over the

L]

section. Apparent resistivities for two long probes are close to the formation resistivities even
for the thin formation. The position of a formation top is coincident with the intersection of
profiling curves. The effect of the high conductive upper part is extended in an insulating
medium for the distance close to the probe spacing. Signals for the short probe in the
formation are close to the resistivities of the invaded zone
Oil-saturated reservoir in shaly deposits (Fig. 3.17, r VKE = 3.5 ohm × m, r = 6 ohm × m,
 
L]

U = 0.2 m, rf = 8 ohm × m, r = 20  ohm × m, U    = 0.5 m, r VKE = 3.5 ohm × m, r  = 6 ohm × m,


L]

L] L] L]

U  = 0.2 m). The logs are asymmetric relative to the formation center and, as a whole, these
L]

logs correctly reflect the resistivity distribution over the section. The interval where apparent
resistivities are coincident with formation resistivities is shifted to its bottom. In the thin
formation, signals of the long probe differ from rf value by about 25 %. The formation top
coincides with the intersection point of profiling curves for tree-coil probes. When going
under the bottom, the reservoir markedly affects a signal over the interval that is nearly equal
to the probe spacing. The explicit reservoir effect on probe signals in the top is observed
within approximately the same interval that the probe base is. Signals of the shortest probe
are close to the resistivity values of the invaded zone.
Floating oil-saturated reservoir overlain by shale (Fig. 3.18, r VKE = 3.5 ohm × m,


r = 6 ohm × m, U = 0.2 m, rf = 8 ohm × m, r  = 20 ohm × m, U = 0.5 m, r VK

L]
 
L] L]
   
E
L]
= 4.5 ohm × m,
r = 30 ohm × m, U = 0.6 m). The logs are strongly asymmetric relative to the formation
  

L] L]

center. As a whole, logs for long probes correctly reflect the true resistivity distribution over
the section. Logs for short probes reflect the resistivity distribution in the near a borehole
zone. The interval of coincidence of apparent resistivities with formation ones is adjacent to
the bottom. The apparent resistivity for the longest probe in the thin formation differs by no
more than 25 % from the rf value. Location of the formation top coincides with intersection
points of profiling curves for three-coil probes.
Floating oil-saturated reservoir overlain by gas-saturated deposits (Fig. 3.19,
r VK

E = 50 ohm × m, r = 20 ohm × m, U  = 0.4 m, rf = 8 ohm × m, r = 20 ohm × m, U    =

L] L]

L] L]

= 0.5 m, r VKE = 4.5 ohm × m, r =30 ohm × m, U = 0.6 m). Logs for long probes correctly
    
L] L]

reflect the true resistivity distribution throughout the section. Logs for two short probes
demonstrate the resistivity distribution in the invaded zone. The thin formation is not prac-
tically distinguished through the signals of three long probes that form “the transition
zone”, but this formation can be distinguished on logs for short probes only by distinctions
in the invaded zone. The effect of both well conducting reservoir rocks and bottom layer is
observed in gas-saturated formation at the distance that is approximately equal to one and
half probe spacing.
Gas-saturated reservoir in shaly deposits (Fig. 3.20, r VKE = 3.5 ohm × m, r = 6 ohm × m,
 
L]

U = 0.2 m, r f = 50 ohm × m, r   = 20 ohm × m, U   = 0.4 m, r VKE = 3.5 ohm × m,


L] L] L]

r  = 6 ohm × m, U  = 0.2 m). The logs are asymmetric relative to the formation center and
L] L]

those correctly reflect the true resistivity distribution in the vertical direction. Apparent resis-
Theoretical Fundamentals of the Method. VIKIZ Tool Response in Heterogenous Media 27

Fig. 3.21. Logs for a model: shale – gas saturated formation – oil saturated formation.
See designations for Fig. 3.13.

tivities of all probes in the thin formation differ greatly from the formation resistivity. At the
same time, signals of the 1.4 m long probe in the thick formation differ by no more than
10 % from the true formation value. Location of the formation top coincides with the inter-
section point of profiling curve for three-coil probes. When the measure point comes to the
bottom, apparent resistivities of all probes become practically close to the underlying rock
resistivity.
Gas-saturated reservoir overlain by shale and underlain by oil-saturated reservoir
(Fig. 3.21, r VKE = 3.5 ohm × m, r = 6 ohm × m, U = 0.2 m, rf = 50 ohm × m, r = 20 ohm × m,
    
L] L] L]

U   = 0.4 m, r VKE = 8 ohm × m, r  = 20 ohm × m, U  = 0.5 m). Logs for the section with the
L] L] L]

thin gas formation do not take the values close to the formation resistivity. Apparent resistiv-
ity for the short probe differs from true one by about 20 %. The profiling curve for the long
probe in the thin formation is the most complicated and that has two maxima within the
reservoir depth. In this case, the difference between the minimum and maximum values is
about 1.5 ohm × m.

3.6. General Limitations on Electromagnetic Sounding Methods

Application of inductive methods should be preceded by assessment of their possibil-

ities in particular geoelectrics situations. Discrepancy of models with the realistic structure
and physical characteristics of a geological medium along with the presence of errors when
measurements are performed is the basic reason for all limitations. When using induction
excitation of electromagnetic fields, the investigation of low conductive geological deposits
presents some difficulties. The presence of high resistive rocks leads to reducing a signal
being measured corresponding to an increase in both the signal-to-noise ratio and relative
28

measurement error. When inversion of such data is executed, relative errors of parameter
determination increases to an extent that the result becomes uncertain.
Let us consider a simple example. At the present time, the new technique provides
absolute determination accuracy of about 0.5° in phase difference measurements. A signal in
a homogenous medium at the resistivity equal to 300 ohm × m is 0.77° (i.e., the relative error
is about 0.65). In this case, the propagation coefficient of error when transforming into
apparent resistivity is 1.11. Thus, a homogenous medium resistivity is determined with the
relative error equal to 0.72 and confidence interval equal to 300 ± 216 ohm × m.
The combination of high conductive drilling mud (less than 10–3 ohm × m) and a deep
invaded zone of low resistivity with high resistive formation is disadvantageous for applying
VIKIZ method. For instance, let us asses a possibility for determination of the gas formation
resistivity (rf = 50 ohm × m) in the presence of decreasing invasion (riz = 0.2 ohm × m, riz = 0.7 m)
and when mud resistivity rb = 5 × 10–3 ohm × m. We assume the relative measurement errors to
be equal to 0.03. The mean propagation coefficient of error for inversion is 22.1. Thus, the
relative determination error of a formation resistivity will be about 0.66 that corresponds to
the confidence interval 17–83 ohm × m.
When invaded zones with lowered resistivity are deep (comparable with the probe
spacing), one faces with analogous problems on reliable determination of a formation resis-
tivity.
 4 . E Q U I P M E N T. CE R T I F I C AT I O N
A N D M E T R O LO G I C A L V E R I F I C AT I O N

The VIKIZ tool provides measurement of phase differences between e.m.f. induced
in receiver coils of five three-coil isoparametric probes and the spontaneous potential, SP.
The dimensions of the borehole tool are as follows: diameter is 0.073 m and length is
4.0 m. The tool consists of the probe array, unit of electronics, and surface panel.

4.1. Spatial Layout of the Probe Array Elements

The array of five three-coil probes is used in the VIKIZ tool. The probe array is
assembled on the same rod and all the coils are arranged in line. Geometrical characteristics
of probes are listed in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1
Geometrical characteristics of probes
3UREHVFKHPH 6SDFLQJP %DVHP 0HDVXUHSRLQWP
557   
557   
557   
557   
557   
63 

Fig. 4.1 shows the coil configuration of the probe array. The following designations
are taken: T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5 stand for transmitter coils; R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, and R6 stand
for receiver coils.
All transmitter and receiver coils of
probes with less spacing are arranged between
coils of 2 m long probe.

Fig. 4.1. Five probe array.

See explanations in the text.
30

4.2. Scheme of the Tool

The schematic representation of the borehole instrument is shown in Fig. 4.2. The

unit of electronics provides alternate work of probes. First, the T1 transmitter coil is switched
on and phase difference between e.m.f. induced in R1 and R2 receiver coils is measured.
Then, the T2 coil is switched on and e.m.f. induced in R2 and R3 receiver coils is measured.
Further, the transmitter coils of other probes are switched on alternatively.
The electronic circuit involves: output (power) amplifiers – 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; mixers – 6,
7, 8, 9, 10, 11 ; analog switchboard – 12 ; tunable heterodyne – 13 ; control panel of a
borehole tool – 14 ; intermediate frequency amplifiers – 15, 16; supporting quartz transmit-
ter – 17 ; wide-band phase meter – 18 ; telesystem transmitter – 19 ; output unit – 20 ; power
pack – 21.
Mixers are arranged in the probe array alongside with receiver coils. The analog
switchboard is arranged in the same place. The rest elements of the circuit are arranged in
the unit of electronics.
The borehole tool is linked up to a surface panel by three-core cable. When signals
are recorded by a logging unit, the specially designed software can execute functions of the
surface panel.
The surface panel is an autonomous microprocessor system that performs the follow-
ing basic functions:
· provides borehole tool with power supply;
· receives digital signals from a downhole tool;
· reads and states “zero level” (phase shifts in a non-conductive medium);
· transforms signals being received into values of the normalized phase difference;
· transforms processing data into analogue sig-
nals (if analog recorders are used);
· transmits processing data thorough the stand-
ard sequential RS-232 interface;
· displays status codes and measurement results.
The surface panel involves the following
blocks of (Fig. 4.3):
· microcontroller;
· input signal conditioner;
· 5 channel digital-to-analogue converter;
· RS-232 interface;
· RAM (random access memory);
· light-emitting diode indicator;
· control block;
· filter of SP signal;
· line-operated power supply;
Fig. 4.2. Scheme of the borehole tool.
See explanations in the text. · power supply for a borehole tool.
Equipment. Certification and Metrological Verification 31

Fig. 4.3. Block diagram of the surface panel.

Microcontroller provides general control of the panel.

A signal conditioner distinguishes an information signal from voltage of probe power
supply (they both are transmitted through the same cable conductor) as well as the condi-
tioner transforms a signal into the square pulse train.
For analog data recorder, the 5 channel digital-to-analogue converter produces volt-
ages of direct current proportional to measured values of a phase difference.
The RS-232 interface is intended for transmitting measured values as the digital code.
Random access memory provides storing “zero level” values of the downhole tool
which are allowed for in each measurement.
The light-emitting diode indicator displays measurement results as well as status codes.
The SP signal filter performs low frequency filtering.
The line-operated power supply transforms line voltage into a series of steady level
voltages +5 V, +24 V and –12 V which are used for supplying panel elements.
The power supply of the downhole tool transforms output voltage of a line-operated
power supply (+24 V) into direct current supply (+140 V).
32

4.3. Borehole Tool and Surface Panel Functioning

The borehole tool operates as follows (see Fig. 4.2). A signal stabilized in frequency
incomes to the control panel 14 of the borehole tool from the supporting transmitter 17 in
which signals controlling transmitter frequencies are generated. At the command, working
frequency is conveyed from the same panel 14 through the power amplifier 1 to the coil T1
of the first probe. At the command of the panel 14, a frequency of the heterodyne 20 is
tuned, this frequency being drifted out of a transmitter frequency by the value of the inter-
mediate frequency Df. Alternating current in a transmitter coil generates an electromagnetic
field in the adjacent medium. The field induces e.m.f. in receiver coils depending on electro-
physical properties of rocks. These e.m.f. are conveyed to inputs of mixers 6 –11 and the
secondary inputs of the mixers receive signals with heterodyne frequency. At the output of
mixers, signals of intermediate frequency occur with the same phases that are peculiar to
high-frequency signals.
Measurement is conducted in two stages. In the first stage, at the command of the
panel 14, the analog switchboard 12 transmits a signal from the mixer 6 to the intermediate
frequency amplifier 15 and the switchboard transmits à signal from the mixer 7 to the
intermediate frequency amplifier 16. Amplified and formed signals are transmitted to input
of the phase meter 18. At the command of the panel 14, upon finishing transient processes
in transmitter, heterodyne circuits, and amplifiers 15, 16, the phase meter 18 starts the first
measurement, the measuring data being stored.
Then the second stage starts. By command from the panel 14, the analog switchboard
12 transmits a signal from the mixer 6 to the intermediate frequency amplifier 16, and the
switchboard transmits a signal from the mixer 7 to the intermediate frequency amplifier 15.
Amplified and formed signals are transmitted to inputs of the phase meter 18. At the com-
mand of the panel 14 upon finishing transient processes, the phase meter 18 starts the second
measurement. The measured data are summed with the results of the first measurement. In
doing so, the efficient value of phase difference is doubled and spurious value of phase
difference is subtracted, the latter being due to influence of destabilizing factors on amplifi-
cation channels. Thus, the cross commutation allows the measurement accuracy to be im-
proved.
In the phase meter, there is taken measurement of phase difference Dj between input
signals and their period T averaged over two readings. By means of the transmitter, the
connection line transmits the values of Dj and T through the output unit 20 to be recorded.
The output unit separates the information being transmitted against the background of a
current supplying the power pack 21 over a cable. The power pack 21 transfers direct current
to apply power to some tool units.
Then, at the new command of the panel 14, the first transmitter coil T1 ceases to
operate and the second one T2 is brought into operating at another frequency. Simultaneous-
ly, at the output of the heterodyne 13, a signal with a new heterodyne frequency occurs, this
frequency is different from the new transmitter frequency by the same Df value. The analog
switchboard 12 adopts the new pair of receiver coils R2 and R3 and measurement process is
repeated. Further, all the rest transmitter coils T3, T4, T5 start to operate, each operating at
its own frequency. Appropriate hookups are accomplished in the heterodyne 13 and switch-
board 12. After the whole cycle is completed, the first transmitter coil starts to operate and
the whole cycle is repeated.
Equipment. Certification and Metrological Verification 33

The control block (the “test–work” tumbler and buttons “scrolling up” and “scroll-
ing down”) dictates working regimes for the panel. The “test–work” tumbler controls the
two main menus: the tests for the panel itself and those for the panel to operate with a
borehole tool. “Scrolling up” and “scrolling down” buttons choose the submenu in each
menu.

The “test” menu

In this menu, the following submenus can be chosen:
test 1 – at all analog outputs, the voltage is set at +2.50 V that corresponds to
zero phase shift;
test 2 – at all analog outputs, the voltage is set at +3.19 V that corresponds to
the phase shift of 25 degrees;
tests 3–7 – indication for each channel of “zero level” values stored when calibrat-
ing the tool;
tests 8–12 – testing separate channels by feeding the saw-tooth voltage of 0–5 V;
test 13 – the general test when saw-tooth voltage is applied to all channels.
Types of menus and corresponding indications are displayed on the indicator module.

The “operating” menu

In this regime, the panel receives signals from five probes of a borehole tool, the
signals being proportional to the phase shift and measurement period. Then the panel trans-
forms the signals into the phase shift normalized by the measurement period. Then the
values obtained are modified by the “zero level” value taken when calibrating. At the end of
operation, scaling the results in degrees is performed and data are output to the indicator
panel. In the course of operating, adjustment of the receiver to the level of a signal being
taken from a cable goes on automatically. The adjustment is carried out when the borehole
tool hooks up the panel. To regulate the adjustment level, one of the digital-to-analogue
converter channels is used.
The following submenus may be used in the “operate” menu using “scrolling up” and
“scrolling down” buttons:
1 – the main submenu with subsequent displaying numbers of signals being received
on the indicator panel. In the case of erroneous receiving when the relative
number of transmission errors exceeds 2–3 %, the pulsed ERROR inscription is
displayed on the panel;
2–6 – the current values of a phase shift of appropriate channel are displayed on indi-
cators;
7 – the calibration submenu. The values of gauge constants are loaded to the RAM
(random access memory) and then used to modify the received signals.
34

4.4. Metrological Verification

Measurement in a homogenous medium with given resistivities is a basic method for

monitoring metrological characteristics. A tank with mineralized water can substitute a ho-
mogenous medium. To attain admissible errors caused by finite basin dimensions, the depth,
length, and width of the tank should be more than 6 m. In addition, it is necessary to obtain
the same resistivity values over the entire solution volume with error less than 1 %. Because
of the dependence of the phase difference Dj on the resistivity value is nonlinear, it is
necessary to perform measurements at five points of working measurement range at least. It
may be realized by changing water mineralization.
Using a physical model imitating signals as if they were in a homogenous medium is
another way of metrological monitoring. Two basic requirements are imposed on such a
model: parameters have to be measurable with sufficient accuracy; the mathematical model
that describes physical one should ensure the required estimation accuracy. To aid this, the
wire ring that is coaxial with probe coils has been chosen. The ring constitutes a closed one-
ring contour that involves the inductance L, resistance R, and capacitance C. The ring
circuit scheme is given in Fig. 4.4.
Here L1 and L2 are distances from receiver coils R1 and R2 to the transmitter coil T,
respectively, b is the ring radius, and z is the distance from the ring plane to the receiver coil
w
R1. The change of a current J in a transmitter coil follows the law - = -  µ H . The working
L W

frequency of a probe f = w/2p. The impedance of the ring circuit is R + iX. The ohmic
resistance R is a combination of losses both in a high resistive wire and capacitor, the latter
being interposed into the circuit. The reactance X = 1/w іw L. In this case, e.m.f. induced
in j-receiver coil is equal to

Ç  - LN/ H L N 5 +5 
×
L w m E   - LN5   - LN5 H
LN/ M M

e = È + Ø L w m  Mj N, (4.1)
M M

M
ÈÉ p / M
5 5  5 + L; 
M ØÙ

here N = J × S × n is transmitter coil moment;

S and n are the area of the transmitter
coil and the number of rings, respectively;
k is the wave number; and m0 = 4p × 10–7
H/m is the magnetic permeability of a free
space. The rest geometrical designations
are given in Fig. 4.4. Calculation of e.m.f.
for multi-ring transmitter and receiver coils
is performed on the basis of the superpo-
sition principle.
The phase difference Dj between e1
and e2 induced in receiver coils R1 and R2 is
calculated according the expression (3.1).
The procedure of metrological cer-
tification is based on the dependence of
the Dj value on electrical parameters R
and X of a thin ring, its radius b, and the
Fig. 4.4. The ring circuit location.
position of z relative to coils. When chang-
See explanations in the text. ing z from 0 to L1, the value Dj has two
Equipment. Certification and Metrological Verification 35

maxima and one minimum. If the re-

quirement b < L1L2/(L1+L2) is satisfied,
the Dj value at the minimum point is
negative and, consequently, two points
with zero phase difference occur. If one
of these points (the nearest to the R1
coil) is chosen for the arbitrary origin,
the sequence of Dj values increasing
from zero to maximum can be obtained
by moving the ring toward the R1 coil.
The value of reactance X that
depends on the ring radius b is so cho-
sen that the Dj values would be maxi-
mal. To obtain the Dj value to be equal
to the upper limit of a measurement
range, the value of active resistance R is
fitted. Taking into account that the R Fig. 4.5. Scheme of the imitator.
value is mainly defined by losses in the See explanations in the text.
ring, the wire diameter is so chosen that
the wire resistance at working frequency would be somewhat less than the R value. Then the
ring inductance at the working frequency is estimated. By the values of both the ring induct-
ance and reactance X, the necessary capacitance is estimated.
On this basis, the rock resistivity imitator has been developed. The scheme of imitator
is shown in Fig. 4.5. The imitator proper involves the ring 7 made of manganine wire faste-
ned on the insulating disk 4. The capacitor 8 and coaxial connector 6 are interposed in the
ring circuit. Under operating conditions, the connector is short-circuited by the disk contac-
tor switch having negligible residual inductance (less than 10–10 H). The disk with the ring
can be grappled with the flange 3 by bolts 5, the flange being fixed on the sleeve 2 by mobile
fastening thread. The sleeve 2 is grappled by bolts 5 on the tool body 1. The disk 4 has to be
rotated for precision mounting the imitator along the probe axis. When rotating, the flange 3
and disk 4 with the fastened ring 7 will move on the thread along the sleeve 2 grappled on
the tool body.
To diminish distortion of an electromagnetic field, all imitator components, except
the ring wire and connector, are made of insulating materials.
To estimate e.m.f. of probe receiver coils in the presence of imitator, it is necessary to
know parameters of the imitator and its position with reasonable accuracy. The imitator
construction provides its positioning with uncertainty less than 0.05 mm. The initial position
z0 at which Dj = 0 is also fixed within the same limits. The determination error of the ring
radius is specified by technology of manufacturing the imitator and that is less than 0.1 mm.
Resistance values R and X are determined by the MCR-1372 calibration device (Sibe-
rian Scientific Investigation Institute of Metrology, Novosibisk) according to the following
procedure. The imitator is hooked up to the device by its connector from which the contac-
tor switch is first taken away. In addition, the fairly long coaxial line is interposed between
connectors of the imitator and those of the tool to eliminate interaction of an electromagnet-
ic field generated by the imitator ring with metal part of the tool. Prior to calibration, all
electrically conducting items would be locate far away from the imitator. The possible influ-
ence of these items should be estimated experimentally. The limits of admissible measure-
ment errors of resistances R and X is 0.7–0.8 % depending on the working frequency and
electrical parameters of the imitator.
 5 . SPATIAL R E S O L U T I O N C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S

The possibility of high resolution when estimating the spatial resistivity distribution in
the geological medium surrounding a borehole is the most important characteristic of any
probe array system. Since the complete analysis of spatial resolution is complicated due to
the great number of model parameters and time-consuming codes for modeling synthetic
logs for realistic models, the spatial resolution problem is usually divided into two parts:
studying as radial characteristics so vertical ones. That is, dependencies of measured signals
on the radial inhomogeneity of a medium (from the borehole to the undisturbed formation)
and those on the vertical one (along the borehole) are investigated separately.
Such an approach is possible if influence of both cylindrical boundaries around a
borehole and planar boundaries between formations on a signal can be separated. This prob-
lem can be solved most simply if a section involves fairly thick (more than probe spacing)
formations and this section does not contain very deep (comparable with the formation
thickness) invaded zones or the resistivity contrast between underlying or overlying layers is
not very sharp. In other cases, it is necessary to account completely for the spatial heteroge-
neity of a medium using 2D and 3D geometry.

5.1. Radial Characteristics

The conventional determination of radial characteristics is based on the analysis of

synthetic records and establishing the ranges of model parameters at which apparent resistiv-
ities are slightly differ from the true formation resistivities.
Thus, in low frequency induction logging, the geometric factor theory is used for
analysis of radial characteristics. The theory is based on the fact that a signal being measured
is the sum of responses with the same sign from different parts of a medium (for instance,
borehole – invaded zone – formation). It is considered that the closer to the unit is the value
of the formation geometrical factor, the better is the radial characteristic (that is, the contri-
bution of currents flowing in a borehole and invaded zone to the signal is insignificant).
In the high frequency band there is no analog to the geometric factor theory as far as
currents that flow in different parts of a medium interact. In this case, such a concept as
“contribution of the part of a medium” can not be introduced since signals of currents that
flow in separate areas of the medium can be mutually compensated in part. Because of this
fact, a signal that is caused by currents in the whole space can be less than a signal from
currents in the part of this space.
Spatial Resolution Characteristics 37

When sounding, radial characteristics are estimated through two criteria: possibility
for accurate determination as of the undisturbed formation resistivity so of the characteristic
of the resistivity distribution in an invaded zone.
Radial characteristics were analyzed previously with the understanding that apparent
resistivities for long probes would be coincident as well as possible with the true formation
resistivity. Further we will title such characteristics as radial characteristics of the first type.
These characteristics are estimated quantitatively by the relation of a signal Dj measured in
a radially non-homogenous medium to a signal Dj in a homogenous medium with the
formation resistivity r :
L

Dj
r = L
Dj , i = 1, … , 5 (i – the probe number).

Note that this characteristic describes properties of each individual probe and by no means
takes into consideration that the inversion is performed for the whole sounding curve.
With availability of the computer codes for solving the inverse problem, it is not
necessarily that apparent resistivities for long probes and the formation resistivity are to be
close to each other to execute the successful inversion. In many cases apparent resistivities
differ by many times from the true resistivity, nevertheless, the latter can be estimated with
relatively fair accuracy. In these cases, radial characteristics of the second type have to be
used, these characteristics being described by the dependence of the relative error of resistiv-
ity determination on the outer radius of the invaded zone.
Further, when calculating radial characteristics, calibration data on relative measure-
ment errors averaged for the great number of manufactured tools will be used:
‰
d Dj = {0.03, 0.04, 0.02, 0.02, 0.02}.

This implies that the relative measurement error for the shortest probe is 3 %, that for the
0.7 m probe is 4 %, and that for the rest probes is 2 %.
Let us consider radial characteristics of the VIKIZ probes for different models.

Two-layer medium model “borehole – formation”

The two-layer model describes situations when a borehole penetrates tight low-per-
meable rocks with high resistivity or some relative high-conductive shaly deposits. The radial
characteristics of the first type for standard drilling conditions of West Siberia are shown in
Fig. 5.1. The relative borehole effect on signals of the short probe is less than 10 % when
formation resistivities are up to 100 ohm × m. The borehole effect on signals of the rest probes
is less than measurement errors. The presence of a borehole increases a signal being meas-
ured and, consequently, decreases an apparent resistivity as compared with the true forma-
tion resistivity
The different situation is observed when mineralized low resistive drilling mud (rb = 0.15
ohm × m) is used. In Fig. 5.2 the radial characteristics of the first type are shown. Note that
the borehole effect is exhibited by diminishing signals measured by long probes. Thus, the
presence of a conducting borehole increases apparent resistivities as compared with the true
formation resistivity. The behavior of a signal of the short probe is more complicated. At
relatively low formation resistivities (rf £ 15–20 ohm × m), the conducting borehole decreases
an apparent resistivity. In high conductive formations (rf > 20 ohm × m), an apparent resistiv-
38

Fig. 5.1. Radial characteristics of the first type (rb = 2 ohm × m, rb = 0.108 m).
See designations for Fig. 3.13.

Fig. 5.2. Radial characteristics of the first type (rb = 0.15 ohm × m, rb = 0.108 m).
See designations for Fig. 3.13.

ity increases due to the conducting borehole. Moreover, as it is seen from the given radial
characteristic, the formation resistivity up to 200 ohm × m can be estimated with the relative
error of 5–7 % from signals of the long probe.
In Fig. 5.3 there are given the radial characteristics of the second type for different
resistivity values of drilling mud. Note that determination errors rf are practically unchanged
at rb ³ 0.5 ohm × m. Their values increase significantly with subsequent decreasing rb values.
Moreover, the greatest determination errors rf (about 3–5 ohm × m) are observed when
the high resistive formation is under investigation and a borehole is filled with well conduc-
tive mud.
Spatial Resolution Characteristics 39

As a whole, the given information testi-

fies that the formation resistivity can be deter-
mined with good accuracy within the wide re-
sistivity range (from 0.5 to 200 ohm × m).

Three-layer medium model “borehole –

invaded zone – formation”
Analysis of sounding curves in a medi-
um with two cylindrical boundaries (“borehole–
invaded zone”, “invaded zone–formation”)
leads to the conclusions:
· apparent resistivities for short probes
are close to resistivities of an invaded zone if its
radius is about twice as long as the probe spac-
ing;
· apparent resistivities for long probes Fig. 5.3. Radial characteristics of the second type
differ slightly from formation resistivities even for a two-layer medium. Drilling mud resistivity,
at riz /rb ~ 10 if the invasion zone resistivity is ohm × m: 0.05 (1 ), 0.5 (2 ), 1.0 (3 ), 2.0 (4 ), and
twice as high as the formation resistivity; 4.0 (5 ), respectively.

· responses of the short probes have a low sensitivity to the presence of an invaded
zone if the zone is shallow (riz /rb <2); at decreasing invasion, apparent resistivities for short
probes are close to the invasion zone resistivities.
Moreover, in many cases (deep invaded zones, high formation resistivities), apparent
resistivities even for long probes can differ greatly (by hundreds per cents) from true ones. To
judge the possibility for reliable estimation of formation resistivities, radial characteristics of
the second type can be used.
The dependencies of the absolute determination errors of formation resistivities upon
both resistivities of an invaded zone and its radius are given in Figs. 5.4–5.6. The greatest
determination errors rf are observed when invaded zones with decreasing invasion are deep
and the formation is high resistive (Fig. 5.4). Thus, for riz = 2.0 m and rf = 200 ohm × m, the
absolute error Drf » 95 ohm × m (that is, the relative determination error drf »50 %). At the
same time, for shallower invaded zones (riz = 0.6 m), Drf £ 9.5 ohm × m and drf £ 5 %. When
an increase in resistivities of an invaded zone is observed, the determination accuracy of the
formation resistivity increases. Thus, in the most unfavorable situations at riz = 2.0 m, riz = 30
ohm × m, rf = 200 ohm × m, Drf » 52 ohm × m and drf » 25 %.
For the typical water saturated formation (rf = 4–6 ohm × m) at any type of invasion
(up to 2 m in the radial depth), the relative determination error drf £ 10 %. In oil saturated
formations with increasing invasion (rf = 6–20 ohm × m, invasion depth is up to 1.4 m), the
relative error drf £ 15 %. And only in gas saturated formations (rf » 80–140 ohm × m) at de-
creasing invasion up to 1 m in depth, drf £ 20 %.
Thus, analysis of radial characteristics of the second type shows that the fairly accu-
rate estimation of formation resistivity is possible with the help of computer inversion in the
wide class of realistic situations.
As it was repeatedly shown, one of distinguished features of the VIKIZ method is the
possibility to reveal a bordering zone in oil saturated formations. In Figs. 5.7 and 5.8, there
40

Fig. 5.4. Radial characteristics of the second Fig. 5.5. Radial characteristics of the second
type (riz=10 ohm × m). Here and in Figs. 5.5 type (riz= 30).
and 5.6 codes for radius of invaded zone are:
0.6 (1 ), 0.8 (2 ), 1.0 (3 ), 1.45 (4 ), and 2.0 (5 ),
respectively.

Fig. 5.6. Radial characteristics of the second type

(riz= 60).

are given dependencies of both relative errors of resistivity determination and the bordering
zone thickness on the invaded zone radius in the typical geoelectrical model of oil-saturated
formation (riz = 30 ohm × m, rbz = 2.5 ohm × m, rbz= riz + 0.15 m and rf = 8.0 ohm × m). The rel-
ative determination error for rbz evaluation increases monotonically as a bordering zone is far
away from a borehole and this error is as large as 50 % when the radial depth of the zone is
1.1 m. The relative determination error of the bordering zone depth is minimal (about 25 %)
when the invaded zone radius is about 0.7 m. The relative error quickly increases up to 50 %
Spatial Resolution Characteristics 41

Fig. 5.7. Relative determination error of a border- Fig. 5.8. Relative determination error of a bor-
ing zone resistivity. dering zone thickness.

(riz » 0.4 and 1.05 m) when measurement is performed near a borehole or essentially far away
from that. Note that the column conductance of a bordering zone Sbz = (rbz–riz)/rbz can be
determined essentially better.

5.2. Radial Investigation Depth of Sounding

The problem on estimation of radial investigation depth of sounding is close to anal-

ysis of radial characteristics. For determining this value in thick formations, let us turn to
Figs. 5.9–5.11 in which the dependencies of absolute error of the formation resistivity on the
invaded zone radius at different rf are given. For the radial investigation depth Rid , we take
the maximum radius of an invaded zone at which rf is determined with the error less than
10 % (or 20 %).

Fig. 5.9. Radial characteristics of the second type Fig. 5.10. Radial characteristics of the second
(riz= 10 ohm × m). Here and in Figs. 5.10 and 5.11, type (riz = 30 ohm × m).
codes for formation resistivity, ohm × m, are 20 (1 ),
50 (2 ), 100 (3 ), and 200 (4 ).
42

‰ ‰ ‰
5 = U PD[  D j  d D j  S 
LG L]
LI dr —     ,
I

‰ ‰ r
here D j  d D j are vectors of measurements and their relative errors, respectively, and S  is
the vector of model parameters.
The comparison of radial characteristics of the second type for different riz values
demonstrates that radial investigation depths increase as an invaded zone resistivity increases.
The least radial investigation depth of 1.0–1.3 m is observed in gas saturated low conductive
(rf ³ 80 ohm × m) formations with decreasing invasion (riz /rf < 0.2). In water saturated forma-
tions with increasing invasion, radial depth of investigation exceeds 2.0 m at riz =30 ohm × m
and that is as long as 3.0 m at riz= 60 ohm × m. In oil-saturated reservoirs with increasing
invasion, the radial investigation depth decreases by about 10–15 % as compared with water
saturated formations. Note that when the determination error rf increases up to 20 %, the
radial investigation depth increases by 30–40 % on average. Another way for increase in
radial investigation depth is an increase in measurement precision.
As pointed out above, estimates of the spatial resolution through radial characteristics
are most reliable for formations with significant thickness. If layers are relatively thin or
those are in low conductive shoulder beds, as well as these layers include a deep invaded
zone, two-layer models have to be used for estimation of radial depths of investigation. It is
obvious that the Rid value has to decrease with diminishing the formation thickness because
of the increase of the shoulder bed effect.
In Figs. 5.12–5.14 the dependencies of radial investigation depth on formation resis-
tivity are shown for different formation thickness (0.6, 1.2, and 2.4 m). In all cases it is
assumed that riz= 30 ohm × m, and shoulder beds are characterized by the following resistivity
values: r 
]
L
=3.5 ohm × m, r VK

E
=4.5 ohm × m. Each Figure shows two curves of radial investi-
gation depth corresponding to different relative determination errors drf (10 and 20 %, re-
spectively).
For all formations of relative insignifi-
cant thickness (that is less or much the same
as the probe spacing), monotonic decrease in
radial investigation depth is observed as the

Fig. 5.12. Dependence of radial investigation depth

on formation resistivity at the thickness of 0.6 m.
Here and in Figs. 5.13 and 5.14, codes for relative
Fig. 5.11. Radial characteristics of the second type determination error of formation resistivity, %, are
(riz = 60 ohm × m). 10.1 (1 ) and 20 (2 ), respectively.
Spatial Resolution Characteristics 43

formation resistivity increases. On the other

hand, increase in radial investigation depth
is observed as a formation thickness increas-
es due to reduced shoulder bed effect on a
signal. It can be seen from Fig. 5.12 that
the lowest radial investigation depth (~0.4–
0.6 m) is observed in thin low conductive
formations, moreover, the depth increases
if requirements on a relative determination Fig. 5.13. Dependence of radial investigation depth
error of resistivities are loosen on formation resistivity at the thickness of 1.2 m.

5 G : dr I
L
.

That is, radial investigation depth increases

nearly proportional to the square root of
the relative error drf. The same regularities
can be revealed in Figs. 5.13 and 5.14. In
the range of relative high resistivities (rf >20
ohm × m), the radial investigation depth de-
creases practically linearly as resistivities
grow. In more conducive formations, the
Rid value increases with the high rate. It Fig. 5.14. Dependence of radial investigation depth
becomes especially more prominent when on formation resistivity at the thickness of 2.4 m.
rf approaches shoulder bed resistivities and
the shoulder bed effect sharply decreases. In this case, radial investigation depth becomes
close to the limiting one that is estimated by thick formations (for example, Figs. 5.5 and
5.10). In this respect, it can be generally stated that increase in the vertical resolution leads
to decrease in the radial depth. It should be always kept in mind especially when comparing
radial depths of different probes (for example, VIKIZ probes and induction ones).

5.3. Vertical Characteristics

One of the main geophysical problems solved with VIKIZ method is a detail subdivi-
sion of the section penetrated by a borehole. In this connection there exist some questions
which are to be answered for reliable estimation of the vertical resolution.

Selection of Measure Point

The basis for log visualizing is the correct selection of the measure point position that
is especially important for asymmetric VIKIZ probes. Determination of the measure point
for asymmetric probes would usually not be difficult. The midpoint just as for Laterolog tools
so for Symmetric Induction Logging probes coincides with the measure point. For asymmet-
ric probes this problem can be solved by different ways. Thus, the midpoint between poten-
tial-measuring electrodes is taken for the measure point of lateral tools. Selection of a meas-
ure point for the VIKIZ probes is based on analysis of logs when crossing thin beds as
insulating so conducting (Figs. 5.15 and 5.16). As it can be seen from the Figures, the
extreme probe signals are best coincident with the center of a thin layer if the coordinate of
the most distant R1 coil is chosen as a measure point. If invaded zones of neighboring
formations differ greatly in thickness, measure points for short probes will not be coincident
44

Fig. 5.15. Logs for a model: water saturated for- Fig. 5.16. Logs for a model: oil saturated forma-
mation – tight formation – water saturated for- tion – shale – oil saturated formation.
mation. See designations for Fig. 3.13.
See designations for Fig. 3.13.

Fig. 5.17. Logs for a model: water saturated for-

mation – shale – water saturated formation.
See designations for Fig. 3.13.
Spatial Resolution Characteristics 45

with extreme values corresponding to the center of a thin layer (Fig. 5.17). When computer
inversion is performed, a point at which the sensitivity of signals to formation resistivities is
highest should be chosen for the measure point.

Types of Vertical Characteristics

The problems on detail subdivision of a section can be solved in several levels that are
conditioned by the possibility of determination of both formation thickness and formation
resistivity.
At the first (lowest) level it is possible to determine formation thickness without quan-
titative estimation of formation resistivity. In these cases, as a rule, the contrast between
formation resistivity and shoulder bed one can be determined correctly (“the formation is
more conductive than shoulder beds”, “the formation is less conductive than shoulder beds”).
Such situations are typical when qualitative interpretation is performed and as thin, weakly
permeable, compacted beds so shaly ones can be resolved inside fluid-saturated formations.
The effective thickness of formations can be estimated more accurately if such beds are taken
into account reliably. Note that in so doing, logs for short high-frequency probes having the
highest vertical resolution (comparable with the step of measurement along a borehole) are
used first of all.
At the second (intermediate) level it is possible to determine the thickness of formation
whereas its resistivity is estimated through the computer inversion after correction is made
for the effect of a borehole, an invaded zone, and shoulder beds. In these cases, apparent
resistivities for all probes differ greatly from the true formation resistivity. Such situations are
most typical when estimating parameters of relatively thin (less than 1.5 m) oil-gas-saturated
reservoir rocks in well conductive shoulder beds (shales, water-saturated sands). Another
situation is associated with the presence of deep invasion when the invasion radius is compa-
rable with the thickness of formation being investigated.
At the third (highest) level it is possible to determine not only the formation thickness,
but also formation resistivity from apparent resistivity logs. This is most typical for thick
formations (thicker than 2.5 m) with shallow invaded zones and when the contrast between
resistivities of formation and shoulder beds is insignificant.
For analyzing possibilities of VIKIZ method with respect to subdivision of a section,
vertical characteristics of three types are used, each characteristic corresponding to one of
the three levels described above.
The vertical characteristic of the third type coincides with traditionally considered
“vertical characteristics of probes”. That represents the dependence of relative discrepancy
between both the apparent resistivity and true formation resistivity on its thickness. Through
this characteristic it is easy to determine the minimum formation thickness Hmin of the
formation v3 at which extreme values of apparent resistivities rD are close to the true forma-
tion resistivity at least for one probe (as example, the values differ by no more than tripled
relative error of determination of apparent resistivity dra; usually dra »3.5 %):

‰ ‰ ‰ rD - r I
Y = +PLQ Dj  d Dj  S D]  LI < drD ,
rI
‰ ‰
here Dj is the vector of measured phase difference values, d Dj is the vector of relative
r
errors of phase difference measurements, S is the vector of model parameters, and Dz is the
step of measurements along a borehole. In permeable formations (an invaded zone is present),
46

extreme rD values are chosen from signals of two long probes which are the least affected by
the near borehole inhomogeneity.
The vertical characteristic of the second type is represented by the dependence of the
relative error of formation resistivity determination on the formation thickness. Through this
characteristic it is easy to determine the minimum formation thickness v2 at which formation
resistivity can be estimated with the specified relative error d (usually d = 5–10 %)
‰ ‰ ‰
Y = +PLQ  D j  d Dj  S D]  LI dr < d .
I

The dependence of the relative error of formation thickness determination on the

formation thickness itself is called a vertical characteristic of the first type. Through this
characteristic it easy to determine minimum formation thickness v1 with prescribed accuracy
d (usually d » 5–7 %). In doing so, the formation resistivity is not estimated or the relative
determination error is too serious:
‰ ‰ ‰
Y = +PLQ  Dj  d D j  S D]  LI d + — d  dr >  -  d .
I

The minimum thickness of singled out formation should be more than the doubled
measurement step:

v1 > 2Dz.
Note that the following relation between values of vertical characteristics is most
common:

v1 £ v2 £ v3.
This relation can fail for low-contrast media when shoulder bed resistivities differ from
formation resistivities by less than 20–30 %.
And lastly, layer-by-layer setting boundaries through VIKIZ logs is of exceptional
importance. As analysis shows, boundaries are mainly located at points where the relative
change in signals of three medium-length probes becomes maximal with depth. Fig. 5.18
exemplifies determination of boundaries through synthetic logs for three long probes for
which the vertical resolution function is estimated


 OQ _ Dj _
h] = Ã L
.
L=
]

Locations of boundaries correspond to maximum values of hz.

Estimation and Analysis of Vertical Characteristics

Let us estimate and analyze the vertical characteristics under typical geoelectrical
conditions. Here and next, all the synthetic logs are calculated with the step of Dz = 0.1 m
along a borehole.
In Fig. 5.19 there are given the relative determination errors rf depending on thick-
ness of water saturated reservoir rocks in shaly deposits. The drf values decrease monotoni-
cally as the formation is thickened and these values are practically unchanged from H = 1.8 m.
Hence, if the formation thickness is somewhat less than the total probe spacing, the shoulder
Spatial Resolution Characteristics 47

Fig. 5.18. Determination of layers from logs.

Fig. 5.19. Vertical characteristic of the second type

for water saturated reservoir rocks in shales.
48
Fig. 5.20. Vertical characteristic of the first type for
water saturated reservoir rocks in shales.
Fig. 5.21. Vertical characteristic of the first type for
floating oil saturated reservoir overlain by shales.
Fig. 5.22. Vertical characteristic of the second type
for floating oil saturated reservoir overlain by shales.
bed effect becomes insignificant. If the for-
mation thickness is less than 0.5 m, drf is
more than 10 %, so that the vertical char-
acteristic v2 » 0.4 m. Thus, from the VIKIZ
data, resistivities can be determined with
strict accuracy even for very thin (~0.4 m)
water saturated reservoir rocks. In this sit-
uation, such a high vertical resolution is
caused, to a large extent, by the low con-
trast between formation resistivities and
those of shoulder beds (rf /riz » 1.4). At the
same time, this circumstance causes an in-
crease in relative errors when determining
the reservoir rock thickness.
Fig. 5.20 shows the estimates of dH
depending on the formation thickness. Thus
the relative error of 20 % will be observed
at H = 0.3 m, hence, v1 » 0.3 m. Thus, wa-
ter saturated beds from 0.3 to 0.4 m in
thickness can be singled out on logs, how-
ever, their resistivities can not be deter-
mined with a reliable accuracy. Note that
the least error of thickness determination
is observed in the case if transmitter and
receiver coils are placed close to the top of
formation and to the its bottom (H = 2 m),
respectively. When further thickening the
formation, dH value increases and at
H » 3.2 m becomes very great.
In Figs. 5.21–5.23 there are given
the vertical characteristics of all the types
for the model of floating oil-saturated for-
mation overlain by shales. As it can be seen
from Fig. 5.22, the minimum thickness of
oil-saturated formation can be determined
with the relative error of 10 % if the mini-
mum thickness of the formation is 0.4 m,
i.e., v2 = 0.4 m. The plot in Fig. 5.23 shows
that ra for the long probe differs by 20 %
from the true formation resistivity if the
formation thickness exceeds 1.8 m, i.e.,
v3 = 1.8 m. It is seen from Fig. 5.21 that
thin beds 0.2–0.4 m in thickness can be
singled out without faithful determination
of their resistivities.
Let us evaluate vertical characteris-
tics for one of the most unfavorable mod-
els as water-saturated formation overlain by
shales and underlain by water saturated de-
Spatial Resolution Characteristics 49

posits. In this case, relative determination

errors rf range up to the level of 10 per
cents at H = 1.8 m (Fig. 5.24), hence,
v2 = 2.8 m. As it is seen from Fig. 5.25, the
formation resistivity can be determined
through the apparent resistivity with the
error of 20 % if the formation thickness
H = 4.2 m, i.e., v3 = 4.2 m. Thus, when in-
version of logs is executed for ranges of high
resistive gas-saturated formations which
thickness is less than 1.8 m, it is necessary
to take special steps to determine the true
Fig. 5.23. Vertical characteristic of the third type
resistivity of the formations.
for floating oil saturated reservoir overlain by shales.
The basic way to improve the verti-
cal resolution for correct determining resis-
tivities of low conductive formations is us-
ing a priory information about shoulder
beds. Fig. 5.26 demonstrates the drf (H)
dependence when shoulder bed resistivities
are known. In this case, it is possible to
determine the formation resistivity with the
relative errors of 20 % and 10 % at H =1.4 m
and H =1.7 m, respectively. In this manner
it is possible to improve significantly (by
about the factor of 1.5) the vertical charac-
teristic of the second type v2 »1.4–1.7 m as
compared to the situation when shoulder
bed resistivities are unknown (v2=2.4 m). It
follows from the above estimations that Fig. 5.24. Vertical characteristic of the second type
when inversion of logs is executed within for floating gas saturated reservoir overlain by shales.
intervals of highly resistive reservoir rocks,
it is advantageous to operate in two steps.
Firstly, through the logs obtained within
intervals of both overlying and underlying
rocks, it is necessary to determine resistivi-

Fig. 5.25. Vertical characteristic of the third type Fig. 5.26. Vertical characteristic of the second type
for floating gas saturated reservoir overlain by shales. for gas saturated reservoir overlain by shales when
shoulder bed parameters are known.
50

Fig. 5.27. The eccentricity effect (rb= 2 ohm × m, rb = 0.108 m).

See designations for Fig. 3.13.

ties of these rocks as accurate as possible. Secondly, after fixing the values of shoulder bed
resistivities, those of formation should be determined.

5.4. Effect of Probe Shift from the Borehole Axis

on Measured Signals

When logging is run, a borehole tool without centric guides is located at the borehole
wall. The most common nominal borehole radius is 0.108 m and the diameter of the tool
case is 0.073 m. Hence, the tool axis can be shifted from the borehole axis by about 0.07 m.
The eccentricity effect is estimated by the relation

d H = DjH Dj ,

here Dje and Dj0 are phase differences for probes located at the borehole wall and at the
borehole axis, respectively.
In Fig. 5.27 there are given dependencies of the de value on formation resistivities for
all probes. It is seen from the data above that eccentricity effect makes itself evident most
clearly in signals of two short probes and the effect increases with decrease in formation
conductivity. In this case, measured signals are overread and, hence, the eccentricity effect
for short probes is manifested itself in decrease of the apparent resistivity.
Note, that eccentricity effect is less than the determination error within the practical-
ly important range rf = 2–20 ohm × m. The eccentricity effect on probe readings becomes
noticeable (more than 10 %) at rf >50 ohm × m and at rf >65 ohm × m for the shortest probe
and the 0.7 m long probe, respectively.
The eccentricity affects most strongly the probe signals in boreholes filled with miner-
alized drilling fluid (rb » 0.2 ohm × m). In this case, when estimating the eccentricity effect, it
is necessary to allow for the borehole case that displaces the part of well conducting drilling
Spatial Resolution Characteristics 51

Fig. 5.28. The eccentricity effect of a borehole tool with (a) / without regard (b) for the tool case effect.
1–4 – probe position (1 – at the axis, 2–4 at out of axis position: 2 – 0.03 m, 3 – 0.05 m, and 4 – 0.06 m, respec-
tively).

fluid. In Fig. 5.28 there are given apparent resistivity curves for the formation with resistivity
of 20 ohm × m as at the coaxial position of a tool so if the tool is shifted to the borehole wall.
As it can be seen, the eccentricity affects signals of three short probes: the apparent resistivity
decreases significantly (up two times for the short probe).
Note that in the system of computer inversion, correction of signals corrupted due to
the probe eccentricity is executed automatically.
 6 . LOG QUALITY CONTROL

The performance of logging company is based on its ability to minimize failures and
reduce the time period when the rig is involved in logging operations. Besides the service
efficiency, the total quality includes data quality (intrinsic quality of data) and relevant data
(ability of data to describe the formation).

6.1. The General Requirements

General and additional requirements conditioned by the specific features of the VIKIZ
method are given below.
The list of the required information:
· the name of logging company;
· the name of drilling facility;
· the name of field and the borehole number;
· data on a borehole (the bottomhole depth and the diameter and depth of a casing
shoe);
· the number of the VIKIZ borehole tool;
· the date of measurements;
· repeated control records that are to be more than 50 m in the range of depths under
investigations;
· when signals are received by the recorder with analog inputs, it is necessary to
record values of “zero-signal” corresponding to Dj = 0° and “standard-signal” cor-
responding to Dj = 25° in the basic file.
Conditions for logging:
· the rate of recording is less than 2000 m/h;
· the quantization step in depth is less than 0.2 m.
Requirements on data quality:
· deviation of both “zero-signal“ and “standard-signal” from nominal values should
be less than 0.2 °;
· deviation of both primary and repeated records from their arithmetic means Dj
should be less than ± (0.2° + 0.03 × Dj ).
Log Quality Control 53

To evaluate quality and perform data interpretation, the following elements are to be
present on a logging diagram:
· calibrating levels for 0 and 25 degrees;
· repeated measurement within the interval overlapping a primary record.

6.2. Calibrating Levels

For recorders with an analog interface, the presence of calibrating levels in a primary
record is dictated by the record technology, but as a rule, these levels are not retained after
primary processing. For this purpose, when logging (in the beginning or end of recording) it
is necessary to set up the calibration mode on a surface panel. In the result of this operation,
the appropriate levels would be present in the basic record.
For recorders with the digital interface, the program should provide appropriate levels
of records.
The deviation of ± 0.2° from nominal values is acceptable.
Fig. 6.1 shows the log fragment with calibrating levels of 0° è 25°.

6.3. Repeated Measurements

Repeated measurements within overlapping intervals are widely used in logging for log
quality control. In this case, the quality of borehole tool operating is controlled rather than
that of recording device.
The VIKIZ tools provide the high precision of measurement. Therefore, logs of cor-
responding probes at repeated measurements are to have insignificant relative deviations less
than 3 % for two long probes and less than 5 % for three short probes. Differences between
signals at repeated records exceeding these values may be due to either a tool defect or
imperfect record.
It should be noted that for evaluation of data quality, the data recorded during the
same logging can be taken into account, i.e., the time interval should be minimal. It is
stipulated by both the high resolution of VIKIZ tools in the radial direction and sensibility of
the tools to insignificant changes in geoelectrical parameters of an invaded zone.
In Fig. 6.2 repeated records of logs (dotted line) within 40-m interval are given. It can
be seen that differences between records are less than measurement errors.

6.4. Initial Phase Shifts of Probes

All the modifications of VIKIZ tools have non-zero initial phase shifts except for the
last model that uses a microprocessor. That is, when measurements are performed on the air,
the VIKIZ probes give non-zero values that depend on peculiarities of each tool. The values
are permanent for the entire range of signals being measured and these values can be changed
only with changing either constructive probe parameters or the electronic circuit.
To compensate initial phase shifts, the surface panel (calibration) provides the mode
for accounting these shifts. In doing so, tool signals measured on the air are stored in a
54

Fig. 6.1. Calibrating levels of 0° and 25° on the log.

Log Quality Control 55

Fig. 6.2. Repeated log record.

56

random access memory (RAM) and then those are compensated automatically while logging.
In order to operate properly in this mode, it is necessary to comply rigorously with the
following measurement conditions: “zero” values are placed into memory at positive temper-
ature if the tool mounted upon a support is far away from massive metallic items. In this
case, borehole investigations can be performed only with the particular surface panel that has
been used for calibration of the tools.
For the recorder with a digital interface, i.e., when recording without using a surface
panel, such a function is performed by the recording program.
Recording VIKIZ logs without compensation of initial phase shifts is acceptable. In this
case, the necessary corrections are introduced either manually or automatically when using
the MFS VIKIZ inversion program (version 1.3 and next).
Upon correction of initial phase shifts, it is necessary to check diagrams against ranges
of admissible values of phase differences. The highest value of phase difference being meas-
ured, as a rule, should be less than 90° (that corresponds to an apparent resistivity of
ra = 0.22 ohm × m):

Djmax » 90°.

The measured phase difference should be a positive value exceeding tool noises:

Djmin » 0.2°.
 7 . Q UA L I TAT I V E E VA L UAT I O N
OF A GEOLOGICAL SECTION

There are restrictions on both qualitative and quantitative interpretations of log data.
Possibilities of one or another interpretation approach become more certain and unambigu-
ous in the presence of reliable information on the section. In many instances, the proper
conclusions concerning geological targets are based on the reliable data obtained. The previ-
ous chapter is devoted to the problems on both assessment of the reliability of initial data and
control of these data. This allows one to consider with confidence the quality of data given
below.
Some problems on qualitative interpretation can be solved using the visual analysis of
data obtained by VIKIZ, SP, and other methods. As a result of this analysis, it is possible to
distinguish reservoirs and evaluate their vertical heterogeneity. Favorable conditions make it
possible the qualitative evaluation of the of fluid saturation nature. In this case, data on
boundary values of productive formation resistivities minimize the uncertainty of a qualita-
tive conclusion.
Reservoirs in a terrigenous section are most often singled out by the radial resistivity
gradient. It is common if an invasion zone occurs and its resistivity differs from that of the
undisturbed part of formation. Changes in apparent resistivities from probe to probe may be
a direct indicator of thick formation permeability.
The efficiency of qualitative interpretation and reliability of conclusion are based on:
· weak dependence of measurements on parameters of both a borehole and the area
immediately adjacent to the borehole;
· high resolution as in the radial direction so along a borehole;
· good precision and consistence of measurements.
Estimation of resistivity values of reservoir rocks and invaded zones is performed
using the MFS VIKIZ software tool. At the same time, field logs can give fairly vast amount
of information without quantitative estimation. Thus, when invasion is relatively shallow, the
correlation between apparent resistivities and true resistivity values can be obtained very easy.
Analysis of data obtained by the complex of methods increases the reliability of geological
conclusions. The subsequent data are discussed in details just in this context.
As has already been noted, some problems on geological data interpretation can be
solved on the base of visual analysis of both VIKIZ and SP logs. The reliability of conclu-
sions increases when these data are used in combination with those of nuclear methods. If a
small amount of information on drilling technology is available, reservoir can be revealed
58

with high certainty. Thus, the presence of a bordering zone is reflected by appearance of the
maximum on sounding curves.
It should be noted that the relation between the phase difference and resistivity is
nonlinear. From different considerations, the scale of data can be represented either in phase
difference values (linear scale) or in apparent resistivity values (logarithmic or linear scale).
Given below is the description of distinguished features of VIKIZ logs depending on scale type.
Phase differences (linear scale). In this case, the logs reflect measured responses. The
higher is the conductivity of a medium, the more pronounced are changes in logs. Thus, low
resistive deposits (clays, reservoir rocks saturated with saline water and etc.) are easily recog-
nized at the expense of high values of phase differences corresponding to intervals of these
deposits.
Apparent resistivity (logarithmic scale). The logarithmic scale “shrinks” apparent resis-
tivity logs in the range of low values (up to 10 ohm × m) and “stretches out” these logs in the
range of high resistivities. It allows the good visual distinction of high resistive formations.
Apparent resistivities (linear scale). Such a transformation leads to great changes in
logs: the curves are shrunk in the low resistive range that is the most informative for induc-
tion logging methods. Such a way for data presentation decreases the visual resolution of
rocks with low resistivities (sandy clays, siltstones, and etc.). At the same time, high resistive
rocks are differentiated well with respect to resistivity.

7.1. Lithological Subdivision of a Section. Selection of Tight Beds

Taking into account geoelectrical characteristics of Mesozoic-Cenozoic deposits in

West Siberia as well as the high spatial resolution of investigation by VIKIZ tools, it is
possible to obtain rather convincing and reliable information on a geological section even at
a qualitative level. Let us consider some problems with respect to both qualitative analysis
and quantitative interpretation.
Fig. 7.1 exemplifies fragments of logs obtained in one of the boreholes of Surgut Arch
by different methods of electrical and electromagnetic logging at measured depths from 1955
to 2000 m.
Data for tools of the high vertical resolution, i.e., for Microlaterolog, VIKIZ-0.5 m,
and Normal (0.5 m) are given in Fig. 7.1, a. It should be noted that VIKIZ logs in the ranges
of low resistivities (less than 4–5 ohm × m) are well differentiated. Thin beds are resolved in
sufficient details by the short probe that is second only to the Microlaterolog. In this case,
apparent resistivities of these probes are different since the short probe eliminates a borehole
effect more markedly than the Microlaterolog does.
Fig. 7.1, b shows obvious correlation between logs of the all three tool types, namely,
the VIKIZ-0.7 m, Laterolog, and Normal when subdividing the section. The good vertical
resolution within ranges with relatively low resistivities is a distinctive property of the 0.7 m
long probe. Note the higher resolution of electromagnetic probes as compared with that of
the Normal when distinguishing formations with both low and mean resistivity values. Forma-
tion boundaries singled out through VIKIZ logs are in complete agreement with Laterolog data.
A comparison between data of the conventional induction log and those of the long
VIKIZ probe is shown in Fig. 7.1, c. The more detailed subdivision of a section is peculiar
for the VIKIZ probe. Apparent resistivity values for these probes are different, but ra values
 Qualitative Evaluation of a Geological Section

Fig. 7.1. Comparison of electrical and electromagnetic logging methods:

à – 1 – VIKIZ (0.5 m), upper scale; 2 – Microlaterolog; 3 – Normal Device (ÀÌ = 0.5 m), lower scale. b – 1 – VIKIZ (0.7 m), upper scale; 2 –
Microlaterolog; 3 – Normal Device (ÀÌ = 0.5 m), lower scale. c – 1 – VIKIZ (2.0 m), upper scale; 2 – Induction Logging Tool, lower scale. d – 1, 2,
3, 4, 5 – VIKIZ probes (0.5, 0.7, 1.0, 1.4, 2.0 m); 6 – SP.
59
60

for the VIKIZ probe are closer to the true formation resistivities. Inversion results confirm
this fact. As the VIKIZ so SP logs are given in Fig. 7.1, d. Depth intervals where inversion
of sounding curves takes place are also singled out that points to the presence of a bordering
zone. Within the intervals, oil-saturated reservoirs are revealed.
Lithological subdivision of terrigenous sections on a qualitative level becomes more
certain if as VIKIZ so SP logs are supplemented by such nuclear methods as Thermal
Neutron Log and Gamma-Ray Log. The procedure of using these methods in combination
is a matter of common knowledge. When subsequent discussing inversion results of both
VIKIZ and SP logs, the data of Gamma-Ray logs will be invoked.
In the series of Alym shales, tight impermeable beds are selected that are likely to be
composed of sandstones characterized by high resistivity values, the low hydrogen content
(from Thermal Neutron Log data), and low values of natural radioactivity (from Gamma-
Ray Log), as well as by the negative SP anomaly. Such beds can be seen on logs in Fig. 7.2.
Taking into account the low hydrogen content in these beds through Thermal Neutron data,
it may be established that the sandstones are cemented up. The similar synthetic logs are
shown in Fig. 3.13.
In a similar manner, tight beds within productive and water-bearing sandstones are
selected. Thus, in the borehole 48, the cemented bed (Fig. 7.2, the 2115 m mark) separating
the productive part of ÀÑ7–8 formation is singled out. This bed is characterized by high
apparent resistivity values, exceedingly low porosity values (from Thermal Neutron), and the
low level of pelite content of the mineral composition (from Gamma-Ray Logging and SP).
The similar bed is found in water-saturated sandstone in the borehole 98 (Fig. 7.7, at 2134 m).
The reliability of the lithological subdivision through the VIKIZ logs is verified by the
high degree of correlation between data of different methods.

7.2. Selection of Reservoir Rocks and Evaluation of Saturation Type

VIKIZ logs give in combination (Fig. 7.4) an illustrative example of possibility to

distinguish reservoir rocks by the radial change in resistivities. In doing so, SP log is thought
to be a source of supplement information for qualitative interpretation of a section. Essential
consecutive decrease in ra values from the short probe to long one is a peculiar feature of
water-saturated reservoir rocks (salinity of formation water exceeds that of filtrate). Water-
bearing formation (the upper part of logs, above 1960 m) is distinguished by significant
discrepancy between apparent resistivities for probes from 15 to 30 ohm × m. In this case,
resistivities of shaly inhomogeneous deposits at its bottom vary from 2.2 to 4.4 ohm × m.
Oil-bearing reservoirs (the middle part of logs) are characterized as by less discrepan-
cy between curves so by enhanced ra values. In the top part of the upper oil formation
(1968–1973 m), the bordering zone is selected which position in depth is determined by
inverting sounding curves. Below the depth 1970.8 m, the extremum value of ra = 4.8 ohm × m
points to the increased water amount in the formation. This formation with great amount of
water is characterized by the vertical lithological heterogeneity through the data of both the
short probe and SP curve.
In Table 7.1 there are listed apparent resistivities of reservoirs through the sounding
data for the logs presented in Fig. 7.1. Resistivity of drilling mud is 2 ohm × m and the
borehole radius is 0.108 m.
Qualitative Evaluation of a Geological Section 61

Fig. 7.2. Logs of VIKIZ, SP, Gamma-Ray, and Thermal Neutron in Cretaceous
deposits with productive formations (a and b – boreholes 48 and 98, respectively).
62

Continuation of Fig. 7.2.

Qualitative Evaluation of a Geological Section 63

Continuation of Fig. 7.2.

64

Table 7.1
Apparent resistivities in reservoirs
)OXLGW\SH PSUREH PSUREH PSUREH PSUREH PSUREH
:DWHU     
2LO     
2LO     

The results of qualitative interpretation are given below. For the water-bearing forma-
tion: resistivities of the formation and invaded zone are 3.1 ohm × m and 29.0 ohm × m, re-
spectively. The invaded zone thickness is 0.56 m, i.e. that is about four borehole radii. For
the oil bearing ÀÑ7 formation: resistivities of the formation, bordering zone, and invaded
zone are 15.0 ohm × m, 1.9 ohm × m, and 24.0 ohm × m, respectively. The invaded zone thick-
ness is 0.48 m. For the oil-bearing ÀÑ8 formation: resistivities of the formation and invaded
zone are 6.3 ohm × m and 22.0 ohm × m, respectively. The invaded zone thickness is 0.54 m.
The presence of a gradient of the radial resistivity on VIKIZ logs is one of the basic
reservoir features. The gradient is most reliable for permeable formations containing either
only formation water, or movable hydrocarbons and formation water, the last being more
saline than drilling filtrate. Different radial gradients can be obtained if time-lapse technique
is used: each VIKIZ log is compared with that run earlier. Sometimes these measurements
are carried out when a radial heterogeneity is already dissipated. Consequently, single meas-
urements of electrical properties in invaded zones of productive formations can not reflect
the variety of interaction between filtrate and formation fluids.
The visual analysis of all VIKIZ curves obtained soon after fresh rocks were drilled
allows permeable rocks saturated with saline formation water (if drilling filtrate is weakly
acid) to be indicated with certainty. In this case, discrepancy in probe signals depends on the
radial depth of filtrate invasion and the extent of formation water displacement from a
porous space.
For qualitative evaluation of nature of reservoir saturation, information about critical
values of resistivities is of basic importance. These values obtained, as a rule, on the base of
multiple statistical information that include as log data so petrophysical measurements together
with results of field tests and development of reservoirs permit their reliable evaluation.
In Fig. 7.2 there are given logs of VIKIZ, SP, Gamma-Ray, and Thermal Neutron.
The logging was run in the vertical part of the borehole penetrating Cretaceous sandstones
and siltstone-shaly deposits. Productive sandstones of ÀÑ4–8 formations are differentiated
from other reservoir rocks by enhanced resistivity values that can easily be recognized by
correlation of apparent resistivities with SP logs within appropriate ranges of apparent resis-
tivities. Series of Alym shales overlaying the productive sandstones are singled out on VIKIZ
logs with respect to as traces of decreasing invasion so true resistivity values that are less than
4 ohm × m. If oil-saturated ÀÑ4 and ÀÑ5–6 formations are characterized by decreasing inva-
sion according to VIKIZ data, the more complicated picture of invasion is observed for oil-
containing ÀÑ7–8 formations. The bottom part of ÀÑ7–8 formations contains formation wa-
ter. It can be determined uniquely by great gradients of sounding curves and low values of
apparent resistivities (less than critical ones) for long probes. Thus, significant change in
apparent resistivity with decreasing invaded zone is observed in the borehole 48 (Fig. 7.2, a)
over the 2142–2148 m interval. All the intervals of sandstones are differentiated by negative
SP anomalies. In doing so, the formation resistivity from signals of the long probe is less than
Qualitative Evaluation of a Geological Section 65

2.5 ohm × m. The similar picture is observed as in borehole 49 from 2152 m to 2166 m
(Fig. 7.2, b, excepting the tight bed from 2155 m to 2157 m), so in the borehole 98 from
2124 m to 2130 m (Fig. 7.2, c). Decreasing invasion is peculiar for both gas saturated ÀÑ4
and ÀÑ5–6 formations with higher electrical resistivity values according to the VIKIZ data.
In Fig. 7.3, a, data on the borehole 49 is shown. Both ÀÑ5–6 (2118–2132 m) and
ÀÑ7–8 (2140–2166 m) reservoirs are prominent as having nearly equal negative SP anoma-
lies. According the VIKIZ data, decreasing invasion with the same signals of two long probes
is observed that allows the correct determination of the true resistivity of this formation
(about 30 ohm × m). Enhanced values of the parameter are obtained by Thermal Neutron
Logging for entire interval of this formation that can characterize in total the reservoir as
being gas-saturated. The second reservoir that lies below is selected by enhanced apparent
resistivity values within oil-saturated intervals as compared with gas-saturated ones. In this
case, insignificant changes in resistivities are observed because of lithological heterogeneity.
Within the oil-saturated interval from 2140 m to 2148 m, signals of long probes are nearly
consistent that makes possible estimating values of true resistivities as being 7–8 ohm × m.
Note that these values exceed the critical level markedly. Resistivities decrease simultaneous-
ly in the depth interval from 2148 m to 2152 m as it can be seen from signals of both 1.4 m
and 2 m long probes. This interval is interpreted as containing increased amount of forma-
tion water as compared with the interval above the 2148 m. The near-bottom formation part
below 2152 m is interpreted as water-saturated. This interval is characterized by the obvious
discrepancy between apparent resistivities: from 5.5 ohm × m for the 0.5 m long probe to 2.5
ohm × m and less for the 2 m long probe.
The problem on resistivity estimation of relative thin productive formations, especially
on the qualitative level, should be based on both experience and comparison of field logs,
which often are fairly complicated, with data of two-dimensional mathematical modeling.
Logs of VIKIZ SP, Gamma-Ray, and Thermal Neutron are given in Fig. 7.3, b. The
presence of a bordering zone in the productive ÀÑ7–8 reservoir is a peculiarity of this section.
Evidence of the bordering zone is observed from 2086 m where apparent resistivities for the
0.5 m probe become higher than those for other probes. This can be explained by an increase
in the volume of displaced formation water as depth increases. If within the interval from
2086 m to 2090 m signals of the 0.7 m long probe only are less than those of the 0.5 m long
probe, then, beginning with 2094 m, apparent resistivity values of both 1.0 m and 1.4 m
probes become relatively less than those of the 0.7 m probe. In this case, traces of decreasing
invasion are observed in signals of three long probes.
Thus, one can see consecutive shift of probe signals relative to each other: from
monotonically decreasing sounding curves in the upper part of a reservoir to those with the
minimum in the bottom part of the formation. Below the closely packed, cemented sand-
stone, in which sharp increase in ra is observed at 2099 m, there is also the interval with
inverting of 2.0 m long probe signals. Thus, this part of the reservoir can be considered as
productive as well but with the higher content of formation water. Below 2102 m where
increased content of both shale and formation water is observed, the apparent resistivity of
three long probes is 3.7 ohm × m. Deeper formations are represented by interbedded siltstones
and shales that change to water-saturated sandstone with resistivity less than 2 ohm × m (2124
to 2130 m). A tight bed with the high resistivity is singled out in the central part of this
reservoir. The bed is characterized as by the low level of Gamma-Ray signal so by the rather
low water content.
Caution should be required in the interpretation of curves with evidence of a conduc-
tive bordering zone (when sounding curve for one of the medium-length probes has the
 66

Fig. 7.3. Logs of VIKIZ, SP, Gamma-Ray, and Thermal Neutron in terrigenous section with gas-, oil-water, and water saturated formations.
Inversion of sounding curves for the transition zone of ÀÑ7–8 formations (a) and the same logs in Cretaceous deposits with productive ÀÑ7–8
formations (b).
Qualitative Evaluation of a Geological Section 67

Continuation of Fig. 7.3.

68

maximum). Since in this case, the number of measurements coincides with that of model
parameters being estimated, geophysically justified restrictions on characteristics of a border-
ing zone should be introduced. Calculation shows that a bordering zone can be represented
by the additional cylindrical layer in an invaded zone. It is difficult to estimate uniquely the
range in which the layer thickness varies. From theoretical assumptions, a layer with the
thickness that is 15–20 percent of the invaded zone thickness is considered to be ample for
constructing the reliable model. In this case, the resistivity of a bordering zone may be some
higher than that of water-saturated formations at the same porosity and salinity of formation
water. Such an additional information allows the correct estimation of all parameters of an
invaded zone by minimizing the equivalence principle effect. Experience shows that the true
resistivity of oil-bearing formation is determined with strict accuracy regardless of informa-
tion on a bordering zone.

7.3. Evolution of Invaded Zone

Results of time-lapse measurements carried out within the same section confirm not
only the presence of a bordering zone in the productive part of formation but allow dynamics
of processes building up this zone to be studied.
As an example, measurements made at different times within the productive reservoir
are given in Fig. 7.4. These measurements were obtained from four logs that were run for
eight days at one to four day time intervals. It is seen that the reservoir (from 2224 m to
2255 m in depth) was within tight and low permeable shaly deposits in which an invaded
zone was nearly absent. Over the total depth of the reservoir, values of the negative SP
anomaly were as high as 60 mV that corresponded to the relative parameter a sp = 0.9.
The visual analysis shows that time-lapse logs for the long probe were slightly changed.
This allows one to conclude that an invaded zone could only be detected by short probes.
Changes in apparent resistivities for the short probe on sounding curves (Fig. 7.5) within the
reservoir were less than 10–15 %. Therewith, the most changes (up to 4 ohm × m) were
observed in the upper, more resistive part of the productive reservoir. In the lower part,
signals for the short probe changed drastically and those for the long probe changed essen-
tially less (up to 2 ohm × m) mainly due to general increase in resistivity (at 2250 m). Sound-
ing curves in Fig. 7.5 gave an insight about dynamics of resistivity change in the invaded
zone.
Earlier measurements that were performed immediately after the reservoir was pene-
trated by a borehole showed the decreasing invaded zone. At that time, the flushed formation
part with the enhanced resistivity that was adjoined to borehole walls was slightly distin-
guished even by short probe signals.
On subsequent measurements when fresh filtrate displaced formation water away from
the borehole, the zone resistivity increased as oil and saline water both were displaced far
away from the borehole. Following the displacement of oil, saline formation water was
displaced and its part was accumulated in a bordering zone.
It is important to know that as formation water was displaced, fragments of the
sounding curves with minimum resistivity values caused by the bordering zone “were
smoothed” and progressive increase in resistivity was observed in this zone as well (Fig. 7.5,
a, b). In the lower reservoir part with the high water content, a bordering zone with pure
formation water occurred. In this case, apparent resistivities for the both 1.0 m and 1.4 m
long probe decreased (Fig. 7.5, c).
 Qualitative Evaluation of a Geological Section

Fig. 7.4. Time-lapse VIKIZ logs. Evolution of formation fluid displacement by drilling mud filtrate in oil saturated reservoir.
69
70

Fig. 7.5. Time-lapse sounding curves for oil satu-

rated reservoir.
Logging date: August, 9 (blue), August, 10 (green), Au-
gust, 12 (brown), and August, 16 (red); a – at 2235 m,
b – at 2245 m, c – at 2250 m.

The picture obtained from log data on gas-saturated reservoirs seems to be somewhat
different. In Fig 7.6 there are given the VIKIZ logs as well as SP and Gamma-Ray ones that
were run at different times in the gas-saturated part of sandy reservoir (from 2180 m to
2215 m). The logging was run immediately after the borehole was drilled and flushed. When
comparing the sounding curves, it can be noted that signals for the longest probe were
changed insignificantly, i.e., the invasion was shallow. It could be due to the rather high
formation pressure that compensated the pressure of drilling mud. From signals of short
probes, different radial depths of decreasing drilling mud invasion were caused by lithological
and mineralogical peculiarities of individual intervals. It could be seen from time-lapse meas-
urements that signals for short probes progressively changed relative consistent signals for two
long probes. In this case, decrease in apparent resistivities for the 1.4 m long probe was
observed to a greater extent in the upper part of the reservoir, for instance, within 2180–
2202 m.
Sounding curves obtained for gas formation after the first logging was run pointed to
the evidence of decreasing invasion over the entire interval except the thin impermeable bed
(from 2210 to 2212 m). At one-day interval (August, 10) when the second logging was run,
a decrease in apparent resistivities occurred due to as gas displacement so enhanced effect of
saline formation water that was observed through the signals of both 1.0 m and 1.4 m long
probes. Therewith, the signals for the long probe were unaffected. These signals remained to
be nearly unaffected at the all subsequent measurements (just as after two days so after four
 Qualitative Evaluation of a Geological Section

Fig. 7.6. Time-lapse VIKIZ logs. Evolution of formation fluid displacement by drilling mud filtrate
in gas saturated reservoir.
71
72

Fig. 7.7. Time-lapse sounding curves for gas satu-

rated reservoir.
a – at 2186 m, b – at 2190 m, c – at 2205 m.
See designations for Fig. 7.5.

days). At the same time, apparent resistivities for short probes progressively increased at the
expense of fresh filtrate invasion into the formation. It is notably from signals of the shortest
probe. The recent measurement (after 7 days) within the depth interval from 2190 m to
2115 m showed that signals for all short probes were close to those for two long probes. An
increase in apparent resistivity for the short probe was still observed only in the near top zone.
In Fig. 7.7 there are given sounding curves obtained at 2186 m, 2190 m, and 2205 m
for different logging time. Time-lapse measurements showed dynamics of a bordering zone
against the background of weakly changed reservoir resistivities. The curves obtained at the
all three depths showed how the formation water accumulation was displaced from the
borehole outwards into formation, then this water was gradually mixed with fresh drilling
filtrate followed by an increase in resistivities.
Three successive VIKIZ logs as well as the SP and Gamma-Ray ones are shown in
Fig. 7.8 (July, 8, the second; July, 11, the third; July, 14, the fourth). A granular reservoir
from 2393 m to 2413 m was composed of sandstone. From the Gamma-Ray Log data, the
sandstone was characterized by the high shale content, which gradually decreased from the
top downward. The reservoir was saturated with oil and water. This was confirmed by the
apparent resistivity values resulting from sounding curves. Certain peculiarities of a bordering
zone were also observed on these curves. Let us analyze the logs obtained over interval of
water-saturated reservoir rocks (from 2406 m to 2413 m). We consider the logs obtained on
July, 8. In the bottom part of the formation, resistivities for two long probes showed the good
 Qualitative Evaluation of a Geological Section

Fig. 7.8. Time-lapse VIKIZ logs. Evolution of formation fluid displacement by drilling mud filtrate in
gas saturated reservoir.
73
74

Fig. 7.9. Time-lapse sounding curves for oil saturated

reservoir.
Logging date: July, 3 (blue), July, 11 (green), and July, 14
(red); a – at 2394 m, b – at 2407 m, c – at 2410 m.

fit (4.2 ohm × m) and, hence, these were close to the true formation resistivity. With allow-
ance of the critical value for this accumulation type (4.7 ohm × m), the interval could be
considered as water bearing. However, the presence of residual oil was not ruled out in this
formation. Above 2407 m, the minimum corresponding to signals for the 1.0 m long probe
appeared on the sounding curves. Above 2402 m, ra values for two long probes increased
significantly indicating that the transition to reservoir area with the higher oil content was
completed. In this upper reservoir part, resistivities for two long probes exceeded the critical
resistivity values for oil-saturated formations. At more recent logs, the progressive increase in
apparent resistivities for short probes could be observed that corresponded to an increase in
the invaded zone. Therewith, as it can be seen from the log obtained on July, 14, signals for
two short probes were nearly the same. Hence, the volumes of porous space, which contrib-
ute to the measured probe signal were the same. These volumes were filled with mud filtrate
 Qualitative Evaluation of a Geological Section

Fig. 7.10. Time-lapse VIKIZ logs. Dynamics of formation fluid displacement in water saturated formation.
75
76

and then formation fluid was no longer

displaced from pores. In the nearest zone,
the relations between filtrate and forma-
tion water were unchanged because for-
mation water was no longer displaced from
pores at steady-state pressure balance. At
the same time, apparent resistivities for the
long probe increased insignificantly indi-
cating that formation water was displaced
from a borehole outward into the forma-
tion.
The curve at 2394.6 m (Fig. 7.9) was
obtained soon afterwards the reservoir had
been drilled (July, 8). Apparent resistivi-
ties for short probes changed from 13
ohm × m (the 0.5 m probe) to 6 ohm × m (the
1.0 m long probe). For 1.4 m and 2.0 m
long probes, an increase in apparent resis-
tivities up to 8.3 ohm × m was observed. It
Fig. 7.11. Time-lapse sounding curves for water satu- was associated with an increase in resistiv-
rated formation at 2426 m. ity outside the zone of formation water
See designations for Fig. 7.9. accumulation. Thus, minimum apparent
resistivity values corresponding to the bor-
dering zone effect was observed for the 1.0 m long probe. When repeated measurements were
made, the minimum on sounding curves shifted to the area of longer probes. It can be
attributed to the fact that the bordering zone was away from the borehole. Thus, if the
resistivity minimum on sounding curves obtained on July, 11 was between the 1.0 m and
1.4 m long probes, the minimum on sounding curves obtained on July, 14 shifted to the
1.4 m probe. As the front of formation water was displaced into the area part sensitive for the
long probe, the probe signals decreased due to the bordering zone effect. The last measure-
ment that was made in six days after the first one showed that the resistivity decreased from
8.3 to 7.6 ohm × m. It can be emphasized that apparent resistivities in the bordering zone
gradually increased in time. This might be associated with extension of the invaded zone and
spreading displaced water.
Analysis of sounding curves obtained at other depths (Fig. 7.9, b, c) showed gradual
increase in apparent resistivities as in the bordering zone so in formations. At the 2407 m,
near the maximum water-saturated reservoir part, a bordering zone was yet to be revealed at
the first logging and that was not detected at successive measurements. At 2410 m (three m
deeper), sounding curves had no traces of a bordering zone.
As it can be seen from the presented logs, signals of the longest probe in all repeated
measurements remained to be unchanged for entire range of the formation being investigat-
ed. This was because the process of filtrate invasion into reservoir was limited, on the one
hand, by clayey caking, and on the other hand, by significant expansion of a porous space as
the radius of an invaded zone was increased. Thus, the depth of invasion that is estimated by
the invasion radius as well as changes in resistivities due to the invasion can become func-
tions of the water volume inflowing into formation from the borehole. Therefore, under
these conditions, development of an invaded zone is slowed down that can be observed on
right branches of time-lapse curves.
Qualitative Evaluation of a Geological Section 77

Thus, increased content of formation water in productive formation leads to more

active displacement not only of oil, but of water itself. Appearance of a circular bordering
zone is the diagnostic feature of oil-saturation. Measurements in transition zones give more
accurate information on vertical changes in the nature of reservoir saturation.
Let us consider an example of occurrence of an invaded zone in water-saturated
formation through the data on measurements made at different times. In Fig. 7.10 there are
given just as the time-lapse VIKIZ logs so the common SP log in water-saturated formation
from 2422 m to 2430 m, and in Fig. 7.11 there are given sounding curves obtained at
2426 m. Apparent resistivities for the all probes increase in time. Therewith, the most re-
markable growth of apparent resistivities is observed for the 1.0 m and 1.4 m long probes.
The rate of resistivity increase for the 0.7 m long probe is less than that for the 1.0 m long
probe but significantly more than the rate for the shortest probe. As it is seen from the
sounding curves in Fig. 7.11, the range of enhanced apparent resistivity values shifts in time
from the zone which affects the short probe into the region that is more distant from the
borehole. This effect is seen on sounding curves that have been made in more recent dates.
Such a behavior of sounding curves cannot be attributed to displacement of fluids, filtrate
and formation water above all, in the zone adjacent to the borehole being investigated by
short probes.
Summing up the above discussion, it can be concluded that the realistic form of
sounding curves obtained in reservoirs with movable oil and formation water both signifi-
cantly differ from that of sounding curves for water-saturated formations due to occurrence
of a bordering zone in the reservoirs. This allows qualitative interpretation of the formation
saturation nature to be made.
 8 . FUNDAMENTALS OF QUANTITATIVE
I N T E R P R E TAT I O N

Quantitative interpretation of VIKIZ logs is based on the concept of a medium as

horizontally layered earth. As a result of quantitative interpretation (inversion) is a geoelec-
trical section involving sequential layers penetrated by a borehole. The depths of both the top
and bottom of a layer define the position of each layer along the borehole. An individual
layer is characterized by resistivities as in the near borehole invaded zone (with a possible
bordering zone) so in the undisturbed part of the layer. The layer is characterized also by the
location of cylindrical boundaries between these zones that are coaxial with the borehole.
The quantitative interpretation comprises the steps of:
· layer-by-layer selection (location of layer boundaries);
· averaging logs within the layer (choosing layer values);
· correction that reduces the shoulder bed effect, eccentricity of both a probe and its
case, deviation of borehole from vertical, and etc.;
· building up a sounding curve for each layer;
· construction of a starting model (express-inversion);
· inversion of sounding curves using different methods of optimization of model
parameters to obtain the best fit to observed data;
· building up confidence intervals for each parameter being estimated;
· evaluation of interpretation quality by calculation of synthetic logs for the whole
section and by comparison of the logs with field data.
Inversion results are considered to be satisfactory if the discrepancy between synthetic
experimental logs within one or another layer is less than the measurement error.
The entire scheme given above provides the basis for the MFS VIKIZ computer
inversion system (see Appendix). The most of its functions is performed automatically; how-
ever, there is a capability to correct intermediate results.
The principle of the radial (from a borehole to an undisturbed formation) sounding is
known to form the VIKIZ theoretical basis. Because of the probes are isoparametric, their
signals in a homogenous medium are consistent (with allowance of the measurement error).
Discrepancy in signals for different probes in fairly thick formations penetrated by boreholes
that are filled with common drilling mud (resistivity is more than 0.5 ohm × m) points to the
presence of a near borehole heterogeneity due to invasion of drilling mud into formation. In
Fundamentals of Quantitative Interpretation 79

thin layers (thinner than 1.5 m), discrepancy between signals of different probes can be
caused not only by the invaded zone effect (radial heterogeneity), but by the shoulder bed
effect as well (vertical heterogeneity of a section). It should be noted that the signals of two
short VIKIZ probes can be affected by drilling mud with very low resistivity (rb < 0.05 ohm × m).

8.1. Typical Examples of Inversion

Hereafter except of special cases, we shall take the drilling mud resistivity to be
rb = 2.0 ohm × m and the borehole radius to be rb = 0.108 m.
The simplest for inversion are two-layer sounding curves for individual low permeable
shales and tight beds.
Shaly beds. The shaly bed (Fig. 8.1) with the resistivity of 3.85 ± 0.32 ohm × m is
observed from 2588.7 to 2591.2 m. The sounding curves show no changes in apparent resis-
tivities that exceed measurement errors. This suggests either the shallow invaded zone or no
invaded zone, drilling mud effect being insignificant. The synthetic sounding curve agrees
with experimental data within the limits of measurement errors.
It should be noted that not any particular shaly layer could be described by the two-
layer model. In many cases, distinctions between signals of different probes are certain. The
model with the near borehole heterogeneity is used to interpret curves of such types (i.e., the
model “borehole – invaded zone – formation”, Fig. 8.2). In some cases, occurrence of the
near borehole zone can be, actually, at the expense of drilling mud filtrate invasion into the
most sandy beds. The same effect is observed in the presence of large cavities. The short
probe sounding curve shows that the inhomogeneous shaly formation involves highly resistive
beds. Just this fact provides an explanation for both occurrence of drilling mud filtrate
invasion and enhanced formation resistivities as compared with those of common shales.
Note that in this case decreasing invasion is observed that is not peculiar for water saturated
formations.
Tight shaly beds composed of mudstones and siltstones are usually characterized by
monotonically increasing sounding curves (Figs. 8.3–8.4). In this case, the shallow decreas-
ing invasion is observed as opposed to reservoir rocks. The presence of the invaded zone is
likely to be due to artificial fractures created by drilling. Although examples are taken from
different regions, the curves are closely similar. To differentiate these beds from oil-saturated
reservoir more accurately, data of both SP and Gamma-Ray logs should be invoked.
Tight low permeable formations. The tight bed without invasion is from 1143.6 to
1145.8 m in depth, its resistivity is equal to (90.7 ± 38.2) ohm × m (Fig. 8.5). The sounding
curve for the short probe shows decreasing apparent resistivity caused by the borehole effect.
Decrease in apparent resistivity for the long probe from the bed top downward (from 110 to
80 ohm × m) is due to effect of conductive underlying deposits.
Water-saturated formation with increasing invasion. Fig. 8.6 demonstrates data for the
thick water saturated formation from 2678.6 to 2692.4 m. As it can be seen from the sound-
ing result, the curve of apparent resistivity monotonically decreases as the probe spacing
increases. Signals even for long probes are different from each other indicating the existence
of the contrasted and rather deep invaded zone. The inversion results are as follows:
riz = (15.51 ± 0.56) ohm × m, riz = (0.62 ± 0.03) m, and rf = (2.77 ± 0.07) ohm × m. This is an
example of typical water-saturated formations with increasing invasion.
80

Fig. 8.1. Log fragment, sounding curve, and inversion result for shaly formation (Ob region).

Fig. 8.2. Log fragment, sounding curve, and inversion result for shaly inhomogeneous formation (West
Siberia).
Fundamentals of Quantitative Interpretation 81

Fig. 8.3. Log fragment, sounding curve, and inver-

sion result for siltstone formation (China).

Fig. 8.4. Log fragment, sounding curve, and inver-

sion result for siltstone formation (North of West
Siberia).
82

Fig. 8.5. Log fragment, sounding curve, and inversion

result for tight carbonate formation (Tatarstan).

Fig. 8.6. Log fragment, sounding curve, and inversion

result for water saturated formation (Ob region).
Fundamentals of Quantitative Interpretation 83

Fig. 8.7. Log fragment, sounding curve, and inversion

result for water saturated formation (Tatarstan).

Fig. 8.8. Log fragment, sounding curve, and inver-

sion result for oil saturated reservoir (Ob region).
84

Fig. 8.9. Log fragment, sounding curve, and inver-

sion result for oil saturated reservoir in the presence
of a bordering zone (Ob region).

Fig. 8.10. Log fragment, sounding curve, and inver-

sion result for oil saturated reservoir in the presence
of a bordering zone (Ob region).
Fundamentals of Quantitative Interpretation 85

Fig. 8.11. Log fragment, sounding curve, and

inversion result for gas saturated reservoir
(North of West Siberia).

The sounding curve for the thin (from 1771.8 to 1773.8 m; Fig 8.7) saline water
saturated formation is typical for formations with increasing invasion. The signals for two
long probes that are nearly the same provide an indication of relative shallow invasion. The
sounding curve approaches that for the formation resistivity. The inversion results are as
follows: riz = (13.04 ± 0.39) ohm × m, riz = (0.33 ± 0.03) m, and rf = (1.04 ± 0.07) ohm × m.
Oil-saturated reservoir with increasing invasion. The data obtained for the oil-saturat-
ed reservoir from 2411.6 to 2614.2 m (Fig. 8.8) confirm that any oil-saturated formation is
far from to be characterized by the existence of a bordering zone. The sounding curve is
representative for formations with increasing invasion. Signals for short probes are close to
invaded zone resistivities, and apparent resistivity values for the long probe are overstated as
compared to formation resistivities. The inversion results are as follows: riz = (29.4 ±
± 1.47) ohm × m, riz = (1.09 ± 0.13) m, rf = (8.43 ± 0.51) ohm × m.
Oil-saturated reservoir with increasing invasion and a bordering zone. In the presence
of a bordering zone, sounding curve can change in type: from monotone curve to that with
the minimum.
The sounding curve for the thick oil-saturated reservoir that is from 2731.6 to 2737.6 m
(Fig. 8.9) has the pronounced minimum which locates between signals for 1.0 m and 1.4 m
long probes.
The inversion results are as follows: riz = (42.1 ± 1.81) ohm × m, riz = (0.68 ± 0.08) m,
rbz = 4.5 ohm × m, rbz=0.81 m, rf = (22.5 ± 1.03) ohm × m. Note that a bordering zone provides
the most consistent determinations of longitudinal conductance S = (rbz–riz)/rbz = 0.278. Sep-
86

Fig. 8.12. Log fragment, sounding curve, and in-

version result for thin gas saturated reservoir (North
of West Siberia).

arate determination of both resistivity of a bordering zone and its thickness is not entirely
correct operation owing to S principle of equivalence. Assuming a bordering zone to be an
accumulation of formation water which resistivity is known, the bordering zone thickness
may be estimated more accurately.
Fig. 8.10 demonstrates a sounding curve for oil-saturated formation from 2467.6 to
2475.8 m underlain by shales. The formation has pronounced traces of a bordering zone. The
sounding curve has the minimum that corresponds to a signal of the 1 m long probe.
The inversion results are as follows: riz=(18.2 ± 0.60) ohm × m, riz=(0.59 ± 0.04) m,
rbz = 3.70 ohm × m, rbz = 0.72 m, rf = (17.35 ± 1.24) ohm × m.
Gas-saturated reservoir with decreasing invasion. Logs for short probes for the thick
gas-saturated reservoir from 2732.6 to 2736.2 m (Fig. 8.11) represent invaded zone resistivity
and these logs are practically unchanged within the entire reservoir interval. Whereas, logs of
long probes demonstrate an increase in apparent resistivity caused by more conductive (the
resistivity is approximately more than 20 ohm × m) overlying series. The sounding curve re-
flects an increase in resistivity from the borehole outwards. The inversion results are as
follows: riz = (18.4 ± 0.64) ohm × m, riz=(0.62 ± 0.04) m, rf = (77.5 ± 1.7) ohm × m.
The peculiarity of the sounding curve for the thin gas-saturated reservoir from 2752.2 m
to 2753.8 m (Fig. 8.12) is an increase in apparent resistivity for the long probe. As it has
repeatedly been mentioned in analyzing vertical characteristics, shoulder bed effect on the
short probe signals in high resistive thin beds (less than 2 m) is very strong and cannot be
corrected. Therefore, the short probe signals should not be taken into account for interpre-
tation or the relative measurement error has to be essentially increased. The inversion results
for four probes are as follows: riz = (28.5 ± 3.1) ohm × m, riz = (0.57 ± 0.08) m, rf = (117.3 ±
± 18.4) ohm × m.
Fundamentals of Quantitative Interpretation 87

8.2. Log Interpretation in the Case of Highly Conductive Drilling Mud

Last years, high conductive drilling mud (up to parts per hundred of ohm × m) with
high salt content (up to 270 g/l) or specific biopolymer additives have found expanding
application when drilling boreholes, especially lateral holes. The same situation is observed if
a borehole penetrates through overlying salt-bearing series.
As it can be seen from analysis of synthetic logs and field tests, in this case the
following effects are observed: borehole effect and probe eccentricity increase, an increasing
invaded zone occurs, and measurement errors increase because of electromagnetic response
amplitude is markedly attenuated. When difference between resistivity of drilling mud and
that of formation being investigated is the most distinctive (more than 500 times), effects
caused by insignificant reasons can be observed on field logs. It may be effect of irregularity
of the borehole wall or interference from change in the tool position when moving along the
borehole. Deviation of a borehole from the vertical can essentially change the field logs.
By these reasons, inversion of logs obtained in boreholes with high conductive drilling
mud has peculiarities. To obtain the reasonable accuracy of formation resistivity determina-
tion, inclinometry data are certain to be invoked in parallel with caliper logs if the latter are
available and the instrument diameter has to be pointed as well (at present it is 0.073 m and
0.102 m).
Fig. 8.13 gives the data for the relative thin (1925.7–1929.1 m) shaly bed (rb = 0.2
ohm × m, rb = 0.119 m). Underestimated for the expense of drilling mud effect is the apparent
resistivity for the short probe only. According to the inversion results, rf =(2.93 ± 0.32) ohm × m.
The similar picture is observed also in boreholes filled with much more conductive
drilling mud (rb » 0.05 ohm × m). Fig. 8.14 represents the data of inversion in the following
conditions (from 2257.4 to 2260.8 m in depth). The sounding curve pattern is “two-layer”
curve with lowered values of apparent resistivities for two short probes at the expense of high
conductive mud effect. Three long probes show nearly the same ra values that are close to
the resistivity of shales rf = (3.19 ± 0.14) ohm × m.

Fig. 8.13. Log fragment, sounding curve, and inversion result for shaly formation (Baltic region).
88

Fig. 8.14. Log fragment, sounding curve, and

inversion result for shaly formation drilled with
highly conductive drilling mud (Ob region).

Fig. 8.15. Log fragment, sounding curve, and

inversion result for tight formation drilled with
low resistive drilling mud (Ob region).
Fundamentals of Quantitative Interpretation 89

Fig. 8.16. Log fragment, sounding curve, and inversion

result for water saturated reservoir rocks (Baltic region).

Fig. 8.17. Log fragment, sounding curve, and inversion result for water saturated reservoir rocks drilled
with highly conductive drilling mud (Ob region).
90

Fig. 8.18. Log fragment, sounding curve, and inver-

sion result for oil saturated reservoir (Baltic region).

Fig. 8.19. Log fragment, sounding curve, and

inversion result for oil saturated reservoir (Ob
region).
Fundamentals of Quantitative Interpretation 91

The most complicated problem on resistivity determination of tight, low permeable

bed can be solved if the bed thickness is more than the probe spacing by the factor of 1.5.
However, high resistive beds have in common a less thickness. It is obvious that in these
cases, signals of probes which spacing is comparable with the bed thickness will be very
strongly affected by shoulder beds. The shoulder bed effect cannot be corrected accurately.
The bed resistivity can be estimated by the result of inversion for readings of three short
probes. An appropriate example is given in Fig. 8.15 (from 2316.0 to 2317.6 m in depth).
Fig. 8.16 demonstrates the data for the thin formation (from 1925.7 to 1929.1 m)
saturated with saline water and drilled with moderately conductive drilling mud
(rb = 0.2 ohm × m). The sounding curve monotonically decreases. This provides evidence for
the formation with increasing permeability caused by drilling mud filtrate, which is fresher
than formation water in spite of the filtrate is high conductive.
When water-saturated formations are drilled with high conductive drilling mud
(r b £ 0.05 ohm × m), an invaded zone with lowered resistivity occurs. Fig. 8.17 exemplifies
such a situation (from 2307.0 m to 2315.2 m in depth). The zone resistivity is less than one
ohm × m at the expense of invasion of highly mineralized filtrate. Nevertheless, the formation
resistivity has the common value rf = (4.38 ± 0.19) ohm × m.
Decreasing invaded zone occurs when high resistive oil-saturated reservoirs are pene-
trated by boreholes even with moderately conductive (rb » 0.2 ohm × m) drilling mud. Fig. 8.18
demonstrates the data for one of such situations (from 2053.8 m to 2055.8 m in depth). The
sounding curve increases monotonically from 7.7 to 30.2 ohm × m. The inversion results are
as follows: riz = (8.15 ± 0.98) ohm × m, riz = (0.66 ± 0.08) m, rf = (50.6 ± 6.8) ohm × m. Increase
in measurement errors when determining formation resistivities can be related to the drilling
mud effect.
When highly mineralized mud is used (rb » 0.07 ohm × m), it is possible to estimate
exactly resistivities of oil-saturated formations. The data for the interval from 2243.0 m to
2250.4 m are given in Fig. 8.19. The relative error of formation resistivity determination is
less than 4.1 %.
92

APPENDIX

MFS VIKIZ SOFTWARE TOOL FOR PROCESSING

A N D I N V E R S I O N O F V I K I Z LOGS

Processing, visualization, and inversion of VIKIZ logs are performed on the basis of
the multifunctional MFS VIKIZ system. That is the software in which the high speed of inversion
processing is achieved by using fast and effective algorithms of neural network modeling. The software
allows passing from individual processing of single intervals to automatic inversion of data on group
intervals obtained over the total depth under investigation. The achieved resource characteristics ap-
proach the MFS VIKIS inversion system to real-time processing. Software tool features relive an op-
erator of having to fit the model parameters manually and the primary attention can be given to assess-
ment of the reliability and quality of interpretation being executed.
For this purpose, the special options for evaluation of results are realized in the system. Mean
square root deviations that reflect fitting quality of inversion are calculated alongside with confidence
intervals of determination of both the formation resistivity and invaded zone resistivity as well as the
radius of the invaded zone.
The VIKIZ method aimed to determination of resistivities of both the formation and invaded
zone becomes more informative when used in integration with other methods. The system provides
options to visualize any log contained in the initial LAS file.

1. The General Description

The MFS VIKIZ system for processing, visualization, and inversion of VIKIZ data is
an advanced software tool. In comparison with earlier versions, MFS VIKIZ can operate under Win-
dows-95 and Windows NT, its modulus run faster and the capability of data analysis has been in-
creased. The package is real-time operating system. Raw data are contained in LAS files. The MFS
VIKIZ supports LAS 2.0 data standard.
In the system, the approach based on layer-by-layer processing and inversion has
been kept. Layers are selected on the log. Then weighed averaging of measurements made
with each particular probe within the selected layer takes place. This average value will be
referred to an average layer value. The necessary corrections and compensations are intro-
duced, starting model (initial guess for the model) is constructed, and inversion is executed. The in-
version results are attended with estimation of confidence intervals. Their range depends as on a
geoelectrical model so on measurement errors.
Appendix 93

To specify the position of layer boundaries, the algorithm for automatic layer-by-layer
selection is used. The provision is made for manual correction, deleting and addition of
boundaries.
After defining boundaries, it is necessary to select layers for which inversion will be
executed. When a layer is selected, average layer values are chosen automatically. The system
provides the manual correction of these values. Further, inversion is processed under one of the
following conditions:
· express-inversion;
· automatic fitting;
· fitting within a selected interval of depths.
When inversion is completed, estimation of the accuracy of parameter determination is
executed automatically. When manual fitting, there is a possibility to operate separately with a
sounding curve and estimate the inversion quality for each layer in details.

2. Hardware and Software

To operate with the MFS VIKIZ system, the Pentium processor is required. Pentium-166 or
later computer generation is recommended.
The operating systems as Windows 95, 98, or Windows NT4 are needed. Windows NT is
best. The minimum memory capacity to operate in the Windows 95 is 16 Ìb, the recommended
one is 32 Ìb; the minimum memory capacity for Windows NT and Windows 98 is 32 Ìb, the
recommended one is 64 Ìb. The system requires 30 Ìb of hard disk. Fast graphic adapter
(2 Ìb memory) and SVGA monitor are also needed. When using print options, the availability of
a printer supported by the operating system is needed. For the optimal realization of the functions,
it is recommended to work with the display resolution more than 800´600 pixels using the 16 bit color
palette.

3. The Main Program Window Description

The program has the standard graphic interface. At the top of the main program window,
the menu bar and control icons on a tool bar for basic operation functions are located. The scale
of log values is immediately below the tool bar. At the right side of the main window, the scroll
bar appears, and at the bottom of the window, the status bar is placed. The latter displays
current coordinates of a cursor, the status of execution of long-term operations, and other data
(Fig. A.1).
The main window is divided into four basic areas. The left area displays the panel of additional
methods and initial logs, the middle area displays inversion results (a geoelectrical section), and the
right one contains estimations of the inversion results. The sizes of each area can be changed using a
mouse. Any panel can be closed.
The provision is made for simultaneous operation with logs for two depth intervals. For this
goal, it is necessary to fix required dimensions of the viewport with a mouse by dragging the horizontal
boundary at the top of the main program window.
94

Fig. A.1. The main window of the system.

Every probe in the system has the definite name, the log of corresponding probe in the initial
file being identified by this name.
The names of VIKIZ probes are: IK1, IK2, IK3, IK4, and IK5 are probes with spacing of 0.5,
0.7, 1.0, 1.4, and 2.0, respectively.
The upper ruler for every area of the main window is individual. The ruler for the log area
displays phase differences in degrees and apparent resistivities in ohm × m. The scale of distances of
cylindrical boundaries from the borehole axis in meters is drawn on the ruler in the middle window
area in which a geoelectrical section is displayed. The ruler on the panel of estimations contains the
percentage scale if mean square root deviations are displayed. This ruler contains the scale of
resistivities (ohm× m) if confidence intervals are displayed for the resistivity of formation and that of
an invaded zone. The ruler also contains the scale of radii (m) if confidence intervals for invaded
zone radii are displayed. The readings from logs of additional methods can be obtained with the mouse
pointer by clicking the status bar. The scale ruler of additional methods is displayed for the log un-
der processing.
The content of the “Value” box on status bar depends on the area in which the mouse
pointer is positioned. For the area of logs, values of apparent resistivities (ohm × m) or the phase
differences (degrees) are displayed. For the area of a geoelectrical section, resistivity values (ohm ×m)
are displayed. For the area of estimations, the same values that are on the upper ruler are displayed.
Appendix 95

Apart from displaying resistivities in the area of inversion results, the system permits constructing
and displaying a lithological column. This made be done by clicking on the appropriate area with the
right mouse button. From the context menu that appears, the following lithological types can be se-
lected: Sand, Shale, and Tight. The function is used only for a single layer. The lithological types are
displayed on a screen and recorded into the exported files.

4. The Basic Service Functions of the System

The menu bar contains the following menus (Fig. A.2):

· File
· View
· Layers
· Inversion
· Estimations
· ?
File menu has the following commands:
· Import. This command is used for data input. The system operates with data files in
the LAS, VKZ, SII, NBK, DAN, and LST formats.
· Export. When executing this option, downhole data and inversion results are saved. The
system provides export of inversion results into the text file in the RES format and other file
types: LAS, VKZ, SII, NBK, DAN, LST, ROK, and XLS.
· Print. The system provides printout of VIKIZ logs, logs of additional methods, and results
of inversion by means of standard print devices.
· Preview. The command is used for viewing log copy before output.
· Settings. The command is used for changing parameters of the system operating and allows
one to modify parameters of copy output as well as parameters of processing and graphic
representation of logs.
· Exit. Completion of operating the program.

Fig. A.2. The File menu.

96

View menu includes the following commands (Fig. A.3):

· Scale. The command allows changing the vertical scale of all the windows.
· Layer boundaries. The command shows layer boundaries in the main window.
· Legend. The command represents color codes for VIKIZ probes.
· Apparent resistivity. The command represents logs as the apparent resistivity values
(ohm × m).
· Phase difference. The command represents logs as the phase difference values (degrees).
· Filtering. The command is used for removing pulse noises.
· Trajectory. Displaying the borehole trajectory and position of a current interval of depth.

Layers menu contains the following commands:

· Add or delete boundaries. Definition of layer boundary locations with provision for manual
correction.
· Add/delete boundaries. The command permits boundaries to be added or deleted within
the selected interval.
· Select layers. The command permits selecting layers with given resistivity range. The read-
ing of layer values is executed automatically. The provision is made for manual correction of
values.
· Select all layers. When inversion is executed for the whole log, the function permits select-
ing all intervals between fixed boundaries.
· Delete all layers. Deleting data on selected layers and chosen readings.
· Activate all layers. Activating all layers, for example, for repeated inversion of the log.
· Inactivate layers. Inactivating layers without deleting data on layers, taken readings, and
lithological features.
· Take all readings again. Recovery of taken readings.

Fig. A.3. The View menu.

Appendix 97

Fig. A.4. The Inversion menu.

Inversion menu contains the following commands (Fig. A.4):

· Express. It is the fast approximate solution of the inverse problem within intervals of se-
lected layers with constructing a geoelectrical section. The command is used for groups
of layers for the fast estimation of parameters of the space immediately adjacent to a
borehole. The inversion results are considered as a starting model for automatic and manual
fitting.
· Fitting. The command is used to start inversion for groups of layers. It is the basic function
of the system that is peculiar for constructing a geoelectrical section. The following param-
eters are determined: resistivities of formations, invaded zones, and bordering zones, as
well as the radii of cylindrical boundaries.
· Interval. It is the function for layer-by-layer inversion for an individual interval. The func-
tion is used as for groups of layers so for individual layers. It is accompanied by estimating
the accuracy of determination of geoelectrical parameters and calculation of confidence
intervals for the resistivity of formation and that of an invaded zone, as well as the invaded
zone radius. The fitting quality is characterized by the relative deviation of the experimen-
tal values of phase differences for all probes from the theoretical ones in mean square root
sense.
· Stop. The command interrupts group operations (Express and Fitting).

Estimations menu contains the following commands (Fig. A.5):

· Mean deviation. Determining the relative mean square root deviation for evaluation of fit-
ting quality.
· Confidence intervals. Estimating the confidence intervals for three model parameters: the
formation resistivity, resistivity and radius of an invaded zone.
· Radial depth. Estimating the radial depth of investigation.

Import of Files
The command is used for data input. To execute this command, Import command from File
menu or the appropriate icon on a tool bar is used. The standard window for selecting data appears on
the screen.
98

Fig. A.5. The Estimations menu.

The further steps are:

· Open the directory with data files, select the data file and click Open button.
· To cancel the data input, click Cancel button.
The system can distinguish the following types of files.
LAS — file contains all logs.
VKZ — file of the system that contains the whole information about
current state of the system.
DAN and LST — files contain inclinometry data.

Export of Data
When executing this command, the initial data and inversion results are saved. The
function is executed by Export command from File menu or by clicking appropriate button on a
tool bar. The standard window for saving Export of files file appears on the screen queering the
filename.
The further steps are:
· Open the directory in which data should be saved, input the new filename, and click Save
button.
· To cancel the function, click Cancel button.
The system permits the following types of files to be saved:
VKZ — inner format of VIKIZ and additional methods.
LAS — inversion results are added to the file during export.
ROK — file is created according to the rules of LAS file standard. Apart from initial
logs of phase differences, the file contains their transformations into appar-
ent resistivities.
XLS — file in the Excel 97 format. The file is used for passing data into the Excel.
Appendix 99

RES — file of inversion results containing depths, reading values, and model param-
eters obtained (resistivities of cylindrical zones and radii of their boundaries),
mean square-root deviation values of the model curves from experimental
curves.

Printing Log Copies

For printout of logs and results of formation resistivity determination, the following steps
should be done:
· Perform print settings (see Settings command, Print bookmark).
· Choose Print command from File menu or click the appropriate button on a toolbar. Point
the range of page output to a printer and the number of copies.
· Set up the printer, if necessary.
· To execute the command, click OK button.
· To cancel the command, click Cancel button.
The provision is made for the control of hard copy output and preview of logs by Preview
command from File menu.

Settings System Parameters

The system allows one to setup and change parameters that control the work of some system
functions:
· Print out of hard copies (Print bookmark).
· Processing (Parameters bookmark).
· Additional methods (Reference book bookmark).
· Visualization of VIKIZ logs (VIKIZ probes bookmark).
For changing parameters, the following actions are required:
· Choose Settings command from File menu or click the appropriate button on a toolbar.
· Select the necessary bookmark.
For changing printout parameters, the following actions are required:
· Choose Settings command from File menu, select Print bookmark or click the appropriate
button on a toolbar.
· Point the print type: color or black-white.
· In Upper boundary or Lower boundary fields, point the upper and lower boundaries of the
log fragment to be printed. The right and left boundaries are fixed.
· In Output box, point the paper type: pages or long paper depending on either a printer or
plotter is used.
· In Range box, in fields From and To, point the range of the log fragment to be printed. For
printing the whole log, tick off All range.
· To execute the function, click OK button.
· To cancel the function, click Cancel button.
100

Fig. A.6. Processing parameters.

To change processing parameters (Fig. A.6), the following actions should be performed:
· Choose Settings command from File menu, select Parameters bookmark and point the
corresponding data in fields: Borehole radius, Measurement error, Minimum layer thick-
ness, Mud resistivity, and Resistivity range.
· To execute the function, click OK button.
· To cancel the function, click Cancel button.

Reference book contains the list of logs with their indexes and visualization parameters needed
for their correct displaying (Fig. A.7).
For changing parameters of additional methods, it is necessary to select Reference book book-
mark from Settings command of File menu. Along with the log index (Name) of an additional method,
Reference book provides Aliases by which identification is also executed. Reference book contains also
Measure units, i.e., information about measurement units for each log and Description, i.e., the brief
description of this method.
Two parameters are used when visualizing: the visualization coefficient Visual Coeff. and the
value on zero line X0.
Notice: the list of additional methods can be corrected and extended. To execute this op-
eration, click either Apply or Cancel buttons and perform the appropriate settings.
To change display parameters of VIKIZ logs, choose Settings command from File menu, se-
lect VIKIZ probes bookmark, point the appropriate probe and perform the following settings:
· Point the VIKIZ probe which log is set up.
· Put the flag in the non-active field if the probe data will not be used in the inversion.
· The provision is made for masking one or two probes, but in this case, the inversion accu-
racy may be significantly decreased.
Appendix 101

Fig. A.7. The reference book.

· In Color field, display color codes for logs can be chosen. By default, the following codes
are settled: red, green, brown, blue and black for the probes with the spacing of 0.5 m,
0.7 m, 1.0 m, 1.4 m, and 2.0 m, respectively.
· Visualization parameters for each probe are set individually by introducing the parameters
in X0 and Visual coeff. fields: the initial value and visualization coefficient, respectively. By
clicking Apply to all, visualization parameters of the current probe are set for all probes.
· In Measurement error field, it is necessary to define the relative measurement error of the
selected probe readings.

Scale
The independent change in horizontal and vertical scales is a peculiarity of visualization in the
main window. The horizontal scale is set up by the visualization parameters of logs (Settings command
from File menu, VIKIZ probes and Reference book bookmarks).
To change the vertical scale, Scale command from View menu should be executed and then the
required scale values should be indicated. The scale used by default is 1:200. The acceptable values of
the vertical scale are 1:100; 1:200; 1:500; 1:1000.

Boundaries
The function is used for visualization of layer boundaries in the main window. The visualiza-
tion mode is chosen by Layer boundaries command from View menu.
102

Legend
This function displays the probe color codes and color palette for the apparent resistivity.
The legend visualization mode is chosen by Legend command from View menu by clicking the
appropriate button on a toolbar.

Transformation of Logs
The system provides displaying logs in two forms:
· phase difference units (degrees);
· apparent resistivity units (ohm × m).
An interpreter can use both forms depending on the problems being solved. For viewing data
in the values being measured (phase differences) or their transformations (apparent resistivities), choose
Phase difference command or Apparent resistivity one from View menu or click the appropriate button
on a toolbar.
The system provides the linear scale for phase differences and logarithmic one for apparent
resistivities. By default, logs are displayed in phase difference form.

Filtering
Filtering is intended for elimination of pulse (short period) noises and smoothing out logs.
Filtering is based on algorithms of median smoothing and filtering.
For applying the filter, choose Filtering command from View menu or click the appropriate
button on a toolbar.
Filtering command is executed during the whole session of the system operating until the
command is cancelled.

Locate Boundaries

The key to the analysis and inversion of log data is defining the location of layer boundaries.
The correctness of performing this procedure stipulates in considerable measure the quality of results
obtained.
In the system there is realized procedure of defining layer boundaries based on vertical resolu-
tion that takes into account behavior of three probes of medium length when passing the horizontal
boundary. In the case if the layer thickness is less than value that has been set in parameters, it is
impossible to execute inversion for this interval.
To define coordinates of boundaries, it is necessary to choose Add boundaries command from
Boundaries menu or to click the appropriate button on a toolbar
The provision is made for manual correction of the boundary position that supports the auto-
matic procedure of layer definition. In this case, it is possible to add, delete, or drag a boundary. To
accomplish this procedure, it is necessary to click the log area by pressing the right mouse button.
Then the context menu that appears permits the following functions to de chosen: Add boundary and
Delete boundary. To change the boundary depth, it is necessary to drag the boundary using a mouse.
Appendix 103

Add/Delete Boundaries
When operating with the log fragment, there is possible to add or delete boundaries
within the indicated interval:
· Chose Add/Delete Boundaries command (Add/Delete Boundaries window ap-
pears).
· In fields From and To, point the starting and final depths of the interval.
· Click Add button to add boundaries in the indicated interval.
· To delete boundaries within the indicated interval, click Delete button.
· To cancel the function, click Cancel button.
Select Layers
Inversion procedures can be applied as to a single interval so to the group of inter-
vals. The system allows selection of layers within the resistivity range of interest, as an
example, water-saturated, oil-saturated, and gas-saturated formations. Criterion for selec-
tion of layers in this case is based on mean values of apparent resistivities for the long
probe within the interval under consideration.
To select layers with the defined resistivity, Select layers command from Layers
menu should be chosen. Select layers window appears.
The following actions are:
· In Minimum and Maximum fields, point the minimum and maximum resistivity
values (the possible resistivity values are in the range from 1 to 200 ohm × m).
· To select layer boundaries of the indicated interval, press Enter key.
· To cancel the function, click Cancel button.
Layers can be selected by another way. When clicking with a mouse on the left area
of a log, the current layer becomes selected. Using Shift and Ctrl keys, a group of layers
can be selected.
When a layer or group of layers is selected, average layer values of probe readings are
taken automatically (Fig. A.8). The special algorithm that is used in the most cases allows the

Fig. A.8. Taking average layer values.

104

shoulder bed effect, probe eccentricity, and other factors to be taken into account. The
chosen values are displayed on logs in the form of vertical lines which color is the same as
that of corresponding probe log.
Provision is made for manual correction of taken values. To do it, drag with a mouse
the needed value to the left or right. It should be noted that manual correction of chosen
values is impossible if logs are displayed in the apparent resistivities.
The system provides Select layer and Unselect layer functions. To do it, click on
the log area by pressing the right mouse button, then the context menu that appears allows
Unselect layer function to be chosen.
Inversion is executed only for selected layers. To unselect a layer, click the selected
layer part by pressing the right mouse button. In doing so, color of the layer part becomes
darker. The layer is selected through the reverse sequence of actions. To select or unselect all
layers, Select all layers function or Unselect all layers function from Layers menu is used.

Add and Delete Layers

For inversion of the whole log, all intervals should be selected. To do it, choose All
layers command from Layers menu. In this case, all intervals between extreme boundaries
are selected. The layers which thickness is less than the value preset in settings parameters
can not be resolved.
To delete data on selected layers and taken values, execute Delete all layers com-
mand from Layers menu.

Inversion
The concept of interactive processing is realized in the system. Inversion can be
executed automatically, semi-automatically, or manually. In automatic mode, the fast ap-
proximate solution of the inverse problem with construction of a geological section is envis-
aged. The results are considered as an initial guess for automatic inversion. If an interpreter
executes automatic fitting without a starting model, the system itself performs this opera-
tion without visualizing intermediate results. For operating with individual layers, the sys-
tem provides the special graph containing elements of both automatic and manual inversion
The functions listed above are realized by the following commands from Inversion
menu: Express, Auto, Interval (Fig. A.4).
The choice of conditions is determined by the problem being solved. The standard
processing graph turns on the automatic mode either all intervals are processed with subse-
quent correction for complex fragments of logs or in the case of significant deviations of
experimental data from theoretical ones.
Inversion is always accompanied by estimation of fitting quality and values of confi-
dence intervals. With this aim, the system provides the special functions. The residual
function is a proximity criterion of experimental and theoretical data


r Ä Dj - Dj
 W H
Ô
)  S = Ã ÅÅ Dj dDj ÕÕ ,
L L

H
= Æ
L L L Ö

here D j , D jLH are model and measured phase difference values, respectively, d D j is the
W
L L

relative measurement error which value is determined from the metrological characteristics
Appendix 105

of a tool (the mean d D j values for commercially available tools are as follows; d D j = 0.03,
L

d D j  = 0.04, d D j  = 0.02, d D j  = r0.02, d D j  = 0.02). Data inversion is a procedure of

r
minimization of the functional )  S  by fitting model parameters S . In the system, the
minimization method (Nelder-Mead) is applied for minimization along with the method of
singular decomposition of sensitivity matrix.

Express
To obtain the fast approximate solution of the inverse problem for selected intervals
with constructing a geoelectrical section, it is necessary to choose Express command from
Inversion menu in the window of results or to click the appropriate button on a toolbar. The
procedure is used when inversion is executed for groups of layers for fast estimating the
near borehole space structure. The results of express-inversion are used as a starting model
for subsequent manual or automatic fitting.
The express-inversion is based on the heuristic algorithms. Thus, investigation of
field data and mathematical modeling of tool responses in cylindrically layered one-dimen-
sional media show that the class of models often can be uniquely predicted by behavior of
sounding curves. Taking into account weak borehole effect on signals, it is also possible to
fit approximately the model parameters using the set of two-layer charts. Such an approxi-
mate approach operates very fast and that is sometimes sufficient to obtain required inversion
quality.
As a result of fast solution is an approximate geoelectrical section, which is displayed
in the right part of the main window (Fig. A.9). The interval shown in the Figure includes
the shaly layer with the resistivity about 3 ohm × m.

Fig. A.9. Express-inversion.

106

Fig. A.10. Automatic fitting.

Automatic fitting
The automatic fitting procedure is applied for inversion of logs corresponding to groups of
layers. It is the basic function of the system that is used for construction of a geoelectrical section The
parameters being determined are resistivity of formations and those of both an invaded zone and a
bordering zone, as well as the radii of cylindrical boundaries.
To execute automatic layer-by-layer inversion within interval of selected layers, choose Auto
command from Inversion menu or click the appropriate icon on a toolbar. On finishing the automatic
fitting, a geoelectrical section is displayed in the right of the main window and the values of mean
deviations of field logs from synthetic ones are displayed in the window of estimations of results.
An example of inversion of the oil-saturated interval with the shallow zone of increasing inva-
sion (riz =27–40 ohm×m, the invaded zone thickness is 0.45–0.65 m) is shown in Fig. A.10. The resis-
tivity of formation without invasion varies from 5 up to 11 ohm ×m.
After automatic fitting is completed, it is recommended to repeat inversion for intervals where
the mean square root deviation exceeds the preset limit. The value of the permissible error is deter-
mined from specifications of the tools and the geological problem being solved. As a rule, the mean
square root deviation less than 2 % is considered as satisfactory.
The fitting quality is conditioned by the value of relative mean square root deviation of experi-
mental sounding curves from theoretical ones, and the inversion accuracy is conditioned by the range
Appendix 107

of confidence intervals. The procedures provided for visualization and analysis of these characteristics
are combined in Estimations menu.

Interval
The system allows layer-by-layer inversion within every separate interval. To do it, choose In-
terval command from Inversion menu or click the appropriate icon on a toolbar.
The window of inversion for a single interval appears. Fig. A.11 shows an example of inversion
for water-saturated formation. The formation is characterized by the developed zone of increasing
invasion. The zone radius is 0.58 m and its resistivity is 33.9 ohm × m, the formation resistivity is 4.0
ohm × m.
Further we shall describe in details the working inversion window.
On the left of the window there are the following elements.
Sounding curve. A sounding curve represents results of five measurements, which are disposed
in the order of successively greater probe spacing. Measured phase differences have been transformed
into apparent resistivities. That reflects the resistivity distribution from a borehole to the formation
part without invasion. There are vertical bars on an experimental curve, the length of the bars reflect-
ing measurement errors.
Below the sounding curve, Mean deviation (mean square root deviation) is displayed by which
the proximity degree between field and synthetic sounding curves is characterized.
At the bottom of the window there are program control buttons.

Fig. A.11. Inversion for a single interval.

108

Start: executes Fitting command.

Stop: stops Fitting command.
Close: returns into the main program window.
On the right of the window there are additional functions for the control of inversion
parameters.
Window of model parameters. Values of thickness of cylindrical zones and their
resistivities are displayed.
Fields: Invaded zone and Bordering zone. With a help of these fields, a model class
(two-layer, three-layer, or four-layer) can be determined.
Fixed/varied. This command permits the part of model parameters to be fixed. In
this case, when fitting, non-fixed parameters only are changed.
Geoelectrical model. In the right window, a geoelectrical model characterizing the
spatial resistivity distribution is displayed.
An example of operating within the interval of the productive formation is shown in
Fig. A.12. The sounding curve corresponds to the model with increasing invasion and the
formation resistivity of 22.2 ohm × m. The mean square root deviation that is 0.0 % shows
the best fitting quality. Here the possibility to fit model parameters is shown by an example
of the productive formation with a bordering zone. Borehole parameters and the bordering
zone resistivity do not change when fitting. The bordering zone resistivity is 8.0 ohm × m (the
shaded cell in the table) is fixed.

Fig. A.12. An example of inversion for a single interval.

Appendix 109

Fig. A.13. Estimation of confidence intervals.

Estimations of Results
The system realizes the functions for estimating the fitting quality (by the value of
the relative mean square root deviation) and confidence intervals for three model param-
eters: the formation resistivity, the resistivity and radius of an invaded zone. For displaying
the mean square deviation and confidence intervals, Estimations menu should be selected.
· For displaying the relative mean square root deviation, choose Mean deviation
(mean square root deviation) command from Estimations menu.
· For displaying the confidence intervals for one or another parameters, choose
Confidence interval command from Estimations menu.
Both the mean deviation and confidence interval commands can be executed by
another way. To do so, click the window of estimations by pressing the right mouse button,
then a context menu appears. The menu allows the following functions to be chosen: Mean
deviation, Confidence intervals, Layer resistivity, and Zone radius.
Estimation of confidence intervals permits the data on correctness of inversion re-
sults to be obtained based on the statistical representations of experimental data. The proce-
dure calculates the allowable range of model parameters (Fig. A.13).
The parameter values are shown by solid lines and the confidence intervals are
shown by dotted lines. The confidence interval value is determined as by measurement
errors so by model properties.
110

R E C O M M E N D E D L I T E R AT U R E

1. Antonov Yu.N. High-frequency induction log isoparametric sounding // Soviet Geology and Geo-
physics, 1980, vol. 21, no. 6, p. 71–78.
2. Antonov Yu.N. Vertical characteristics of isoparametric well logging // Soviet Geology and Geo-
physics, 1981, vol. 22, no. 5, p. 106–111.
3. Antonov Yu.N. and Zhmaev S.S. Geophysical study of oil wells by electromagnetic sounding //
Soviet Geology and Geophysics, 1986, vol. 27, no. 1, p. 111–119.
4. Antonov Yu.N. and Zhmaev S.S. First results if induction logging by isoparametric sounding //
Soviet Geology and Geophysics, 1982, vol. 23, no. 5, p. 43–49.
5. Antonov Yu.N., Zhmaev S.S., and Rastorguev V.N. The first appempt at electromagnetic core sound-
ing in Western Siberia // Soviet Geology and Geophysics, 1983, vol. 24, no. 9, p. 55–59.
6. Antonov Yu.N. and Krivoputsky V.S. Modeling of probes of isoparametric sounding // Soviet Geol-
ogy and Geophysics, 1981, vol.22, no.10, p.114–117.
7. High-Frequency Unduction Logging Isoparametric Sounding (methodical recommendation) [in
Russian], Novosibirsk, IGG SB AS USSR, 1979.
8. Yeltsov I.N., Sobolev A.Yu., and Nedel’ko V.M. Development of LAS-Standard and the LAS-
MAKER Program [in Russian] // Karotazhnik, 1999, no. 54, p. 75–83.
9. Patent of Russian Federation No. 20663053 of 22 Sept. 1994. The equipment for Electromagnetic
Induction Sounding [in Russian]. The Patentee is Institute of Geophysics, SB RAS (by
Yu.N. Antonov).
10. The State and Ways for Development of Electromagnetic Logging. Materials of Conference [in
Russian]. Novosibirsk, SPC of the UIGGM SB RAS, 1998, 98 p.
11. Taborovsky L.A., Epov M.I., and Sosunov O.G. Estimation of Resolution of Electromagnetic Meth-
ods and Suppression of Noise in Systems of Repeated Observations (Theory, Algorithms, and
Programs) [in Russian]. Novosibirsk, IGG SB AS USSR, 1985, no. 27, 48 p.
12. Electrical and Electromagnetic Methods of Investigation in Oil and Gas Boreholes. Proceedings of
Conference: Development and Efficiency Improvement of Electrical and Electromagnetic Meth-
ods of Investigation in Oil and Gas boreholes [in Russian]. Novosibirsk, UIGGM SB RAS, 1999,
334 p.
13. Epov M.I., Yeltsov I.N., and Sobolev A.Yu. Location of Formations in Terrigenous Section by VIKIZ
Data [in Russian] // Karotazhnik, 1999, no. 57, p. 58–69.
14. Epov M.I. and Martakov S.V. Forward two-dimensional Problems of Electromagnetic Logging //
Russian Geology and Geophysics, 1999, vol. 40, no. 2, p. 250–255.
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Geology and Geophysics, 1993, vol. 34, no. 2, p. 119–125.
 CONTENTS

1. KEY GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL PROBLEMS SOLVED

BY THE VIKIZ METHOD .......................................................................................................... 3
2. PETROPHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE TARGETS UNDER INVESTIGATION
GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL MODELS .......................................................................... 4
2.1. Geological Models of Terrigenous Reservoirs ........................................................................... –
2.2. Petrophysical Features of Oil and Gas Reservoirs of West Siberia ............................................... 5
2.3. Basic Geoelectrical Models and Their Typical Characteristics ................................................... 7
3. THEORETICAL FUNDAMENTALS OF THE METHOD. VIKIZ RESPONSES
IN HETEROGENEOUS MEDIA ................................................................................................. 13
3.1. Focusing Systems in Electromagnetic Logging ......................................................................... –
3.2. Phase Difference and Its Relation to the Resistivity of an Uniform Space.
Apparent Resistivities ........................................................................................................... 14
3.3. The Uncertainty of Model Parameter Prediction as a Function of Measurement Errors 17
3.4. Typical Sounding Curves ....................................................................................................... 18
3.5. Typical Logs ......................................................................................................................... 21
3.6. General Limitations on Electromagnetic Sounding Methods .................................................... 27
4. EQUIPMENT. CERTIFICATION AND METROLOGICAL VERIFICATION .................................. 29
4.1. Spatial Layout of the Probe Array Elements ............................................................................. –
4.2. Scheme of the Tool ............................................................................................................... 30
4.3. Borehole Tool and Surface Panel Functioning ........................................................................ 32
4.4. Metrological Verification ....................................................................................................... 34
5. SPATIAL RESOLUTION CHARACTERISTICS ............................................................................ 36
5.1. Radial Characteristics ............................................................................................................ –
5.2. Radial Investigation Depth of Sounding .................................................................................. 41
5.3. Vertical Characteristics .......................................................................................................... 43
5.4. Effect of Probe Shift from the Borehole Axis on Measured Signals ............................................ 50
6. LOG QUALITY CONTROL .......................................................................................................... 52
6.1. The General Requirements .................................................................................................... –
6.2. Calibrating Levels ................................................................................................................. 53
6.3. Repeated Measurements ........................................................................................................ 53
6.4. Initial Phase Shifts of Probes .................................................................................................. –
7. QUALITATIVE EVALUATION OF A GEOLOGICAL SECTION ..................................................... 57
7.1. Lithological Subdivision of a Section. Selection of Tight Beds ................................................... 58
7.2. Selection of Reservoir Rocks and Evaluation of Saturation Type ................................................ 60
7.3. Dynamics of Invaded Zone Occurrence .................................................................................. 68
8. FUNDAMENTALS OF QUANTITATIVE INTERPRETATION ....................................................... 78
8.1. Typical Examples of Interpretation ......................................................................................... 79
8.2. Log Interpretation in the Case of Highly Conductive Drilling Mud ........................................... 87

APPENDIX
MFS VIKIZ SOFTWARE TOOL FOR PROCESSING AND INTERPRETATION
OF VIKIZ LOGS ............................................................................................................................ 92
1. The General Description .......................................................................................................... –
2. Hardware and Software ............................................................................................................ 93
3. The Main Program Window Description ................................................................................... –
4. The Basic Service Function of the System .................................................................................. 95
RECOMMENDED LITERATURE .................................................................................................. 110