Chapt

erI
I
NTRODUCTI
ON

LegalMedi
cine

Legalmedicineistheprofessionalandacademicdi sci
pline,whichconcerns
i
tselfwithlegalaspect
sofmedi cinescience,medi
calpr
actice,andot herhealt
hcare
del
ivery probl
em [Amer i
ca Col
lege ofLegalmedi ci
ne.In some j urisdi
cti
on,legal
medicineissynonymouswi t
hforensicmedi ci
neandmedicaljur
isdict
ion.

For
ensi
cMedi
cine

For
ensi
cMedici
neisaspeci
ali
zedareaofmedi ci
nepract
iceconcer
nedwi
ththe
rel
ati
onshipbet
weenmedicineandthelaw.Forensicmedici
neencompassesseveral
speci
alti
essuchasf
orensi
cpathol
ogy,odont
ology,andpsychi
atry.

Medi
calJur
ispr
udence

MedicalJur
isprudenceist
heappli
cati
onofthepri
ncipl
esoflawast heyrel
ate
t
othepract
iceofmedi ci
ne,t
otheobl
igat
ionsoft
hepracti
ti
onertohispat
ient,andto
t
herel
ati
onsofphysici
anstoeachot
herandtosoci
etyi
ngeneral.

For
ensi
cMedi
cineandMedi
calj
uri
spr
udenceDi
sti
ngui
shed

For
ensicMedicineisthatbranchofmedi cinedeali
ngwi tht heappl i
cat i
onof
medicineknowledgetot hepurposesoft hel aw.St r
ict
ly,f
orensicmedi ciner efersto
medicineasi trel
atestot hepracti
ceofl aw (suchast heappl icati
onofmedi cal
knowledgeinident
ifi
cati
onorcriminalinvest i
gati
ons),whereasmedi caljuri
spr udence
coverslegi
slat
ionandci vi
lsuit
s( malpractice,consentandot hers),thelatteri sthe
appli
cati
onoflegalpri
ncipl
esinmedicalpr actice.

For
ensi
cPat
hol
ogy

1
 For
ensicpat
hologyist
hesubspecial
tyofpat
hol
ogyt
hatf
ocusesont
hemedi
co
l
egali
nvest
igati
onofsuddenorunexpect
eddeath.

Br
anchesofPat
hol
ogy

Apathologi
stisaspecial
izedtypeofphysi
cianwhost udi
esavastvar
iet
y
ofnatur
aldiseasesandwor ksi nahospital
,alaborator
yorapr ivat
esetti
ng
ther
earetwomai ntypeofpat
hol ogyanat
omicandclini
cal.
Anat
omi
c pat
hol
ogy encompasses sur
gical pat
hol
ogy, aut
opsy
pat
hol
ogy,
anddi
agnost
iccyt
ology.
Cl
ini
calpat
hol
ogy i
ncl
udes var
ious l
abor
ator
y depar
tment
s such as
cl
ini
calmicroscopy,hemat
ology,micr
obi
ology,immunol
ogy,ser
ology,cl
ini
cal
chemist
ry,
toxicol
ogyandtr
ansfusi
onmedicine.

For
ensi
cSci
enceorCr
imi
nal
ist
ics

For
ensi
csci encemaygener al
lybedefined astheappli
cati
on ofscienti
fi
c,
t
echni
calorotherspeci
ali
zedknowl
edgetoassi
stcourt
sinresol
vingquest
ionoffacts
i
ncivi
landcri
mi nal
tri
als.
Ont heotherhand,cri
mi nal
ist
icsi
st hescienceandprofessi
ondealingwi
tht
he
recognit
ion,coll
ecti
on,identi
fi
cati
on,indivi
dual
izati
on,andinterpr
etat
ionofphysi
cal
evidence,andtheappli
cationofthenaturalsci
encestolawsciencemat t
ers.

Hi
stor
yandDevel
opmentofFor
ensi
cSci
ence

Many believe SirArthurConan Doyl

e had a consi
derableI nf
luence on
popul
ari
zingscienti
fi
ccrime-
det
ect
ionmethodst
hroughhisfict
ionalcharact
er,
Sherl
ockHol mes.
A. Mat hi
euOrf
il
a:I
sconsi
deredthefat
heroffor
ensi
ctoxi
col
ogy.Hewr
ote
fi
rstt
reat
iseonpoi
sonsandt
heiref
fect
sin1814.
B. Aphonse Ber t
il
lon:devi
sed t
he fi
rstsci
ent
ifi
c syst
em ofper
sonal
i
dent
if
icat
ion,
usi
ngbodymeasurement
sknownasanthropomet
ry.
C. Fr
anci
sGal
ton:under
tookt
hef
ir
stdef
ini
ti
vest
udyoff
inger
pri
ntsand

2
 devel
opedamet
hodofcl
assi
fyi
ngf
inger
pri
nts.
D. Leonel at
tes:devi
sedasimplepr
ocedur
efordet
ermi
ningt
hebl
oodt
ype
(
A.B.
O,andAB)ofadriedbl
oodst
ain.
E. Cal vi
n Goddard:was t
he f
ir
stto use a compari
son mi
croscope t
o
det
ermi
neifabul
letwasf
ir
edwasfi
redf
rom aspecif
icgun.
F. Al ber
t S.Osborn:devel
oped fundamentalpri
ncipl
es of document
anal
ysi
s was responsi
blef
orthe acceptance ofdocuments as sci
ent
if
ic
evi
dencebythecourt
s.
G. HansGr oss:descr
ibedt
heappl
icat
ionofsci
ent
if
icdi
sci
pli
nest
othef
iel
d
ofcr
imi
nali
nvesti
gati
on.
H. EdmondLocar d:demonstrat
edhow thepri
ncipl
esdevelopedbyHans
gr
osscoul d bei ncor
porat
ed i
nto aworkablecri
mel ad.Locard’
sexchange
pr
inci
plesstatethatoncecontactismadebetweentwosurfacesat r
ansf
erof
mater
ialswi
lloccur.
For
ensi
cPsychi
atr
y

Forensicpsychi
atr
ist
saremedi caldoctor
swhoser veasresearchesandcli
nical
pract
it
ionersi nthemanyar easinwhi chpsychiatr
yasappl i
edtol egali
ssues.They
conduct psychi at
ri
c evaluat
ions to det er
mine civi
l and criminal competence,
psychologicaltr
auma,cri
minalresponsibi
li
ty,
etc.

For
ensi
cPsychol
ogy

Forensi
c psychol
ogyappl
ies t
he sci
ence and prof
essi
on ofpsychol
ogyt
o
quest
ionandissuesrel
ati
ngt
othelawandthelegalsyst
em.

For
ensi
cNur
sing

For
ensicnursesperform awiderangeoffuncti
onsi
ncludi
ngser
vingassexual
assaultnurse examiners( SANEs)and case r evi
ewersformedicalmalpr
actice
att
orneys.Forensicnursesaret ypi
calr
egist
erednurseandsomehaveBachelorof
Sciencedegreesinnursi
ngorgr aduat
edegrees.

For
ensi
cEnt
omol
ogy

For
ensic ent
omol
ogi
sts ar
e of
ten uni
versi
ty based on consul
tformedical
exami
ners cor
oners,l
aw enf
orcementagencies and att
orneys.They use i
nsect

3
evi
dencet
ohel
preconst
ructt
heci
rcumst
ancessur
roundi
nghumandeat
h.

For
ensi
cOdont
ology

For
ensi
codont ol
ogi
stsaredent
istandoralpathol
ogist
swhoi
dent
if
ypeopl
e
f
rom dent
alst
ruct
uresandanal
ysis/
compari
sonsofbi
temarks.

For
ensi
cToxi
col
ogy

Forensi
ct oxi
cologist
saresci
enti
stswhoprovi
deserviceinpostmort
em cases
(supportdeathinvesti
gati
ons),
humanper f
ormancecases(dr
ivingundert
heinfl
uence
ofalcoholand/ordr ugs),andworkpl
acetesti
ng(mandator
yj ob-
rel
atedal
cohol
/drug
test
ing).

For
ensi
cAnt
hropol
ogy

Forensi
cAnthol
ogyisthest
udyofhumanbonestodet
ermi
nef
act
orst
hatwi
ll
hel
punder
standwhothevi
cti
misandhowthedeat
hoccur
red.

For
ensi
cBot
any
For
ensi
cBot
anyi
sst
udyofpl
antmat
eri
alsi
ncl
udi
ngpol
len,
atcr
imescenes.

For
ensi
cEngi
neer
ing

For
ensi
cengineeri
ng worksar erel
atedtocivi
lli
ti
gat
ion andothercri
mi nal
caseworksuchasacci dentreconstr
ucti
on,productf
ail
urei
nvesti
gat
ion,st
ructural
fai
lur
eanalysi
s,andot
herrel
atedinvest
igat
ions.

For
ensi
cComput
erSci
ence/
Digi
talEvi
dence

Forensi
c comput er speci al
ists ar e comput er and i nfor
mati
on
scient
ist
s/ t
echni
cians who may be involved i
nthe r
ecover
y and examinati
on of
probati
veinformati
onfrom di
git
alevi
dence.

4
ThePr
act
iceofCr
imi
nal
ist
ics

Cr
imi
nal
ist
sar
eanof
fshootoff
orensi
cmedi
cineandf
orensi
cpat
hol
ogy.

Or
gani
zat
ionalandSer
viceofaCr
imi
nalLabor
ator
y

ThePhil
ippi
nesNationalPol
iceCri
meLabor
atoryislocat
edinCampCr ame,
QuezonCit
ywhi l
et heCri
meLabor at
oryoft
heNationalBureauofI
nvest
igat
ioni
s
l
ocatedi
nTaftAvenue,Manil
a.

Ser
viceoft
heCr
imeLabor
ator
y
1.Basi
cSer
vicespr
ovi
dedbyf
ullSer
viceCr
imeLabor
ator
ies
 Physi
calSci
ence
 Bi
ologyuni
t
 Fi
rear
msUni
t
 Document
sExami
nat
ionuni
t
 Phot
ogr
aphyUni
t
2.Opt
ionalSer
vicePr
ovi
dedbyFul
l-Ser
viceCr
imeLabs
 Toxi
col
ogyUni
t
 Lat
entFi
nger
pri
ntUni
t
 Pol
ygr
aphUni
t
 Voi
cepr
intAnal
ysi
s
 Evi
dence-
Col
lect
ionUni
t
Funct
ionsoft
heFor
ensi
cSci
ent
ist

1.Analysisofphysicalevi
dence.Applyi
ngt hepr inci
plesandt
echni
quesofthe
physicalandnaturalsci
encesinordertoi denti
fythemanytypesofevi
dence
thatmayber ecoveredduri
ngcri
mei nvest
igations.

2.Exper
tWi
tness.Possessesapar
ti
cul
arski
llorhasknowl
edgei
nat
radeor

5
 pr
ofessi
ont
hatwi
llai
dthecour
tindet
ermi
ningt
het
rut
h.

3.Speci
all
yTr
ainedEvi
denceCol
lect
iont
echni
cians

4.Ot
herFor
ensi
cSci
enceSer
vice

5.For
ensi
cPat
hol
ogy

6.For
ensi
cAnt
hropol
ogy

7.For
ensi
cEnt
omol
ogy

8.For
ensi
cPsychi
atr
y

9.For
ensi
cOdont
ology

10.
For
ensi
cEngi
neer
ing

11.
For
ensi
cAnal
ysi
sal
soi
ncl
ude

Organic analysi
s of unknown subst
ance includes anal
yti
cal
techni
ques such as chr omat ogr
aphy, UV- vi
sible and i nf
rar
ed
Spectr
ophotometryandMassSpect r
ometr
y.

Inor
gani
c analysi
si ncl
udes techniques such as t
he emissi
on
spect
rum ofelements,atomicabsorpt i
onSpect r
ophotomet
ry,Neutr
on
Acti
vati
onAnal
ysis,
andX-RayDi ff
ractionAnalysi
s.

6
 Chapt
erI
I
CRI
MESCENEI
NVESTI
GATI
ON

TheCr
imeScene

Uponini
tial
lydiscover
yofacr i
me, acallgoesoutt oauthorit
iesespecial
lytothe
Phi li
ppi neNationalPol i
ce(PNP). A di spatchernotifi
espat r
oluni tsort hepol i
ce
det achment sorout postcl
oseby.Uni formedpol icearriveanddeci dewhet herthey
needot herpersonnell i
kemember soft hehomi ci
deorar son,orSceneofCr i
me
Oper ati
ons( SOCO)uni t
.I ftheof f
enderi spr esent,theofficermakesan ar rest.
Other wise,theofficersecuresand cont rol
st hecr i
mescene. Wi tnesseswi l
lbe
i
nt er vi
ewed. Some ar einvi
ted t
o precinctheadquar tersto make f ormalwr it
ten
stat ement s.

Pr
imar
yvs.Secondar
yCr
imeScene-ThePr
imar
ycr
imescenei
sthepl
ace
wher
ethecrimeini
ti
all
ytookpl
ace,whi
let
hesecondar
ycr
imescenei
sthepl
ace
wher
ethebodyi
sdumped.

Mul
ti
pleScenes -I
tref
erst
otwo ormor
e physi
call
ocat
ions ofevi
dence
associ
atedwi
thacr
ime.

LegalI
ssues-I
fthecr
imei
scommi
tt
edi
npubl
icpl
aces,
thecr
imescenecanbe

7
 sear
chedl
egal
ly.

Cr
imeSceneI
nvest
igat
ion

Cri
meSceneI nvestigat
ion i
nvol
vestheuseofsci ent
if
icmethods,physical
evi
dence,deduct
ivereasoning,andthei
rint
err
elat
ionshi
pst
ogainexpl
ici
tknowledge
oft
heseriesofevent
st hatsurr
oundthecommi ssi
onofacri
me.

Thepur
poseofinvest
igat
inganinci
denti
stodet
erminei
facri
mehasbeen
commi
tt
edandtobr
ingt
ojusti
cetheper
sonorper
sonswhocommitt
edt
hecr
ime.

a.Evi
dencecol
lect
edatt
hescenemayser
vesever
alpur
poses;

b.Pr
ovet
hatacr
imehasbeencommi
tt
ed.

c.I
ndi
cat
ekeyaspect
soft
hecr
ime.

d.Establ
ishthei denti
ti
esofthevi
ctimsorsuspect
sor det er
minewhat
kindofinvestigati
onmustbeconduct edandseehow t
heycorr
obor
ate
(ornot
)anyt esti
monygivenbywitnesses.

e.Hel
ptoexoner
ateasuspectwhoi
sinnocent

f
. Pr
ovi
del
eadsf
orf
urt
heri
nvest
igat
ion

g.Pr
essur
esuspect
sint
ogi
vingconf
essi
ons

Cr
imeSceneTeam

Acri
mesceneteam isagr
oupofpr
ofessi
onali
nvest
igat
ors,eacht
rai
nedi
na
var
iet
yofspeci
aldi
sci
pli
nes.

Per
sonnel
,Dut
iesandResponsi
bil
it
ies

1.Team l
eader

a.Assumecont r
ol–i nsur
esafetyofpersonneland securi
tyatscene.
Obtai
nallprel
iminar
yinfor
mationf
rom theini
ti
alrespondi
ngoff
icer
(s)
i
fnecessarywiththecomplai
nanttoveri
fyinf
ormation.

b.Conducti ni
ti
alwalk-
thr
oughforpurposesofmakingapreliminary
survey,evaluat
ing pot
ent
ialevi
dence and pr
epari
ng a narr
ative
descript
ion.

8
 c.Bri
efal
lteam member
srel
ati
vet
othescopeandpur
posesoft
he
sear
ch.

d.Det
ermi
nesear
chpat
ter
nsandmakeappr
opr
iat
eassi
gnment
s.

e.Desi
gnat
ecommandpostl
ocat
ion.

f
.I nsurethatsuf
fi
cientsuppl
ies and equi
pmentar
e avai
labl
efor
personnel
.

g.Contr
olaccess t
ot he scene and desi
gnat
e an i
ndi
vidualt
olog
ever
yonei
ntothescene.

h.Rel
easet
hesceneaf
teraf
inalsur
veyandi
nvent
oryoft
heevi
dence.

2.Phot
ogr
apherandPhot
ogr
aphi
cLogRecor
der

a.Phot
ogr
aphenti
rescenewit
hoveral
l,
medium andcl
ose-
upcover
age,
usi
ngmeasur
ementscalewhenappr
opri
ate.

b.Phot
ogr
apheachi
tem ofevi
dencebef
orei
tismoved.

c.Phot
ogr
aph al
llat
entfinger
pri
nts,and ot
heri
mpr
essi
on evi
dence,
bef
orel
if
ti
ngandcast
ingisaccompli
shed.

d.Pr
epar
ephot
ogr
aphi
clogandphot
ogr
aphi
csket
ch.

e.Phot
ogr
apht
hesceneasonel
efti
t.

f
. Sket
chPr
epar
er.

g.Di
agr
am ar
oughsket
choft
hei
mmedi
atear
eaofscene.

h.Setforthont hesketch(s)al
lfi
xedpointst
hatarebeingusedas
ref
erence, alli t
ems of evi dence and coor
dinat
e evidence
nomenclat
ure wi t
h Evidence Recor
der/
Cust
odi
an and Evidence
RecoveryPersonnel
.

i
.Indi
cat
eadj
acentbui
ldi
ngs,
rooms,
fur
nit
ure,
andsof
ort
hasneeded.

j
. Desi
gnateandl abelar
east
obesearchedandadviseTeam Leader
andallot
hersearchmember
sofnomenclat
uref
ordesi
gnat
edareas.

k.Obtai
n appropr
iat
e assi
stance f
ort
aki
ng measur
ement
s and l
ist
assi
stant
(s)onsket
ch.

9
 3.Evi
denceRecor
der
/Cust
odi
an

a.Pr
epar
eevi
dencer
ecover
ylog

b.Coor
dinat
eevi
dencepackagi
ngandpr
eser
vat
ion

c.Coordi
nat
e evidence nomencl
atur
e wi
th Sket
ch Pr
epar
er and
Evi
denceRecoveryPer
sonnel
.

d.Recei
veandr
ecor
dal
levi
dence

e.Mai
ntai
nchai
nofcust
odyandcont
rolofevi
dence.

4.Evi
denceRecover
yPer
sonnel
.

a.Haveal
levi
dencephot
ogr
aphedandvi
deot
apedbef
orei
tiscol
lect
ed

b.KeepTeam Leaderappr
isedofsi
gni
fi
cantevi
dencel
ocat
ed.

c.I
nit
ialanddateallevi
denceandtur
nitovert
ot heEvidenceRecor
der
/
Custodi
an,af
ternothi
ngwherethei
tem waslocated.

d.I
nsurethatappr
opriat
esaf et
ymeasuresareadher
edt o,especi
all
y
wit
hrespectt
oproperprot
ecti
vecl
othi
ng,i
ncl
udi
nggloves.

5.Speci
ali
sts

Exampl
esofspeci
alt
yassi
stancet
obeconsi
der
ed:

 Medi
calExami
ner
/Cor
ner

 Odont
ologi
st

 Ant
hropol
ogi
st

 Ent
omol
ogi
st

 Bl
oodPat
ter
nAnal
yst

 Comput
erI
nvest
igat
iveSpeci
ali
st

 Geol
ogi
st

10
 Sur
veyor

 Engi
neer

 BombTechni
cian

 Cr
imeLabor
ator
yExami
ner

Physi
calEvi
dence

Concer
ned wi
th peopl
e and thi
ngs,because when people commi
tcr
imes
t
hroughthemedi
um oft
hings,sucht
hingsbecomephysicalevi
dence.

Physicalevi
denceisanyobj ect,smell
,markingorimpressi
on,nomatt
erhow
smal
l,whichmayassi stt
heinvest
igatorinthereconst
ruct
ionofthecri
me,l
eadtothe
i
dent
if
icati
onoft hecrimi
nal
,provi
deal i
nkbetweenacr i
meandi tsvi
cti
m,oracri
me
andi
tsperpetrat
or.

Ki
ndsofPhysi
calEvi
dence

a.TheReal/
objectEvidence–Evi dencei
nthef
orm ofmat
eri
alobj
ect
s(e.
g.
weapons,t
ools,f
ingerpri
nts,
etc.)

b.TheDocument
aryEvi
dence

Evi
denceTr
iangl
e-Thr
oughphysi
calevi
dence,est
abl
ishi
ngal
inkbet
weent
he
var
iousf
acet
sof
:

o t
hecr
imescene

o t
hevi
cti
m

o t
hesuspect

Allofthesecomponent
smustbeconnect
edf
orasuccessf
ulr
esol
uti
on
oft
hecase.

Pr
inci
pleofI
nter
change–BasedonLocar
d’sExchangePr
inci
plewhi
chst
ates
that“Ever
ycontactl
eavesatr
ace”
,sincephysi
calcont
acti
sinvolvedin
almosteverycri
meandnoonecanent eranenvir
onmentwithoutleavi
ngsome
traceofhisorherpr
esenceandwit
houtcarryi
ngawaysomet raceof that

11
 envi
ronment
.

Cr
imeSceneSear
ch

Sear
chPat
ter
ns

a) St r
ipofLaneSear
chMet hod-Usedf orcoveri
nglargeoropenar
eas.Personnel
wi
lll
ineupshouldert
oshoulder;usuall
yanarm’sdi st
anceawayf r
om eachot
herand
moveslowlyal
ongexamini
ngpar al
lelst
ri
psofterr
ain.

b) Gr i
dSearchMethod-Var
iat
ionofthestr
ipsear
chmethodbestusedout
door
s.
Personnelwil
lsear
chast r
ipal
ongoneaxi seasttowestandthencomebackand
coverthesameareaonanortht
osouthaxis.

c) ZoneorSect orSear
chMethod-Areat
obesearchedisdivi
dedi
ntozonesor
sect
ors.Eachper
sonisassi
gnedasect
ort
odoat
horoughsearch.

d) Poi nttoPoi
nt-Event
hought
hisi
snotver
ysyst
emat
ic,i
tcanbeusedi
nsmal
l
conf
inedar
eas.

e) Spi ralorCircul
arSearch-Typical
lyusedforoutdoorscenes. Thi
ssearch
pat
terni
susuall
yconductedbyasinglesear
cherwhowal ksinasli
ghtl
ydecreasi
ng,
l
ess-t
han-
concent
ri
ccircl
efr
om theout
ermostboundar
ytowardsthecent
er.

f
) Clockwi
se– CounterClockwi
seI nsi
de-Thi si nvol
vestwo agentsworki
ng
t
ogether.Oneagentwoul
dsearchinaclockwi
sedirect
ionsearchi
ngtheareaf
rom t
he
wai
stupt othecei
li
ng.Thesecondagentwouldsearchcountercl
ockwi
sewaistdown
t
ofloor.

g) WheelSear ch-Thiscover
salltheangl
esst
art
ingfr
om thecent
erj
ustl
iket
he
huboft
hewheelandthesear
chisconduct
edinawheelf
ashion.

12
13
 Chapt
erI
II
COLLECTI
ONANDPRESERVATI
ONOFEVI
DENCEFOREXAMI
NATI
ON

Avoi
dCont
ami
nat
ionofPhysi
calEvi
dence

Contaminat
edphysi calevidencecangreat
lyaffecttheoutcomeoft hecriminal
case.Itmaybequest i
onedi ncour tandmaybei nadmi ssi
bleasevidence.Potenti
al
contaminati
onofphysicalevidencecanoccuratthecrimesceneduringthepackaging,
coll
ecti
on and tr
ansportati
on oft heevidenceto securefacil
it
yorl aborat
ory,and
duri
ngevidenceanalysisandst orage.

Cont i
nuingeducati
onandt r
aini
ngf orl
aw enforcementandfor
ensi
cspeciali
sts
i
sr equi r
edt oi nsur
ethepr operhandl i
ngofevi dencefrom scenetostorageand
ul
ti
mat el
y,reducingtheri
skf orcontaminati
onaswel lastheimpactoftheseissues
upont heout comeofacriminalinvest
igat
ion.

Bagi
tandTagi
t

Thi
srefer
st othepropercol
lect
ionandpr
eser
vati
onofevi
dence.Oncecrime
scenehasbeenthoroughl
ydocumentedandthel
ocat
ionsoft
heevi
dencenoted,t
hen

14
t
hecol
lect
ionandpr
eser
vat
ionpr
ocessescanbegi
n.

Fact
orsAf
fect
ingt
hePhysi
calEvi
dence

Accordi
ngtoLocar d’
sRule,whentwoobj
ect
scomei ncont
actwit
heachot her
theyexchangetr
aceevidence.Eacht i
meapersonent
eracrimescene,henotonl y
potent
ial
lyl
eavet
raceevidencebehind,
butal
sot
akeevi
denceawayfr
om thescene.

TypeofCr
imeSceneandI
ndi
vidual
sAccessi
ngt
heCr
imeScene

Thelevelofcontaminat
ionri
skt obeexpect edisr el
atedt
othetypeofcr i
me
sceneandcor respondi
ngnumberofi ndividualswhohaveaccesst othescene.Ata
burglar
yscene, t
hevict
im andtheoff
icertakingthereportmaybetheonlyi
ndivi
duals
present.Duet ot hehighernumberofi ndivi
dualsin contactwi
ththescene,t he
potenti
alf
orcontaminati
onwoul dsi
gnif
icantlybehigher.

Envi
ronment
alCondi
ti
ons

Envi
ronmentalcondit
ionsmayalsoplayamajorrol
einthecontaminat
ionof
cri
mesceneevi dence.Wind,sun,
rai
n,snowandtemper
atur
ecanplaykeyrol
esinthe
destr
uctionoftheevi
denceatacrimescene.

Pr
act
icalPoi
ntsont
heCol
lect
ionofEvi
dence

Mostitemsofevidencecanbecoll
ectedinpapercontai
ner ssuchaspackets,
envelopesandbags.Li quiditemscanbet ranspor
tedinnon- breakable,l
eakproof
container
s.Arsonevidencei susual
lycol
lectedinair
-ti
ght,cl
eanmet alcans.Only
l
argequant i
ti
esofdrypowdershouldbecol
lectedandstoredinplasti
cbags.

Any i
tems whi
ch may cr
oss cont
ami
nat
e each ot
hermustbe packed

15
separately.Thecontai
nersshouldbecl osedandsecuredt opreventthemi xt
ureof
evi
dencedur i
ngtranspor
tat
ion.Eachcont ai
nershouldhave:thecollect
ingperson’
s
i
niti
als;thedateandt i
meitwascollected;acomplet
edescri
pti
onoft heevidenceand
whereitwasf ound;andthei
nvesti
gatingagency’
snameandt heirf
il
enumber .

Eacht ypeofevidencehasaspeci f
icvalueinani nvest
igati
on.Thevalueof
evi
denceshoul dbekeptinmymi ndbyt heinvest
igat
orwhendoi ngacr i
mescene
i
nvesti
gation.Itisal
sowisetocoll
ectmoreevidenceatcri
mescenet hannott
ocoll
ect
enoughevi dence.Aninvesti
gat
orusual
lyonlyhasoneshotatacr imescene,sothe
mostshoul dbemadeofi t.

Packagi
ngandShi
ppi
ngofEvi
dence

Packagi
ngEvi
dence

Evidenceispackagedt opr eventdestructionandcont ami

nation.New ster
il
e
containers,fr
eeofcont aminantsmustbeusedt opackageal levidence.Evi
dence
containers mustbe sealed att he cri
me scene.Thi sr educes the contami
nati
on
potentialandkeepstheint
egrit
yoft heevidencei ntact
.Whencont ainersarelef
topen
andr emovedf rom t
hescene,t hepotenti
alforcont aminationincr
easesdr amati
cal
ly.
Containersmustbepr oper
lysealedandmar kedf oridenti
fi
cationatthecrimescene.

The f
oll
owi
ng ar
e pr
act
icalt
ips i
nthe packagi
ng and shi
ppi
ng of
evi
dence:

- Takepr
ecaut
ionst
opr
eser
vet
heevi
dence.

- Wrap and seal each i

tem of evi
dence separ
atel
y t
o avoi
d
cont
aminat
ion.

- Place t
he evi
dence i
n a cl
ean,dr
y,and pr
evi
ousl
y unused i
nner
contai
ner.

- Sealt
hei
nnercont
ainerwi
tht
amper
-evi
dentorf
il
amentt
ape.

- Aff
ixEVIDENCEandBIOHAZARDlabel
s,i
fappr
opr
iat
e,onthei
nner
cont
ainer
.Ifanyoft
heevidenceneedstobeexaminedf
orlat
ent

16
 pr
int
s,af
fi
xaLATENTl
abelont
hei
nnercont
ainer
.

- Aff
ixthe evi
dence examinat
ion requestand al
lcase i
nfor
mat
ion
bet
weentheinnerandoutercont
ainers.

- Placethesealedi
nnercontai
neri
naclean,
dry,andprevi
ousl
yunused
outercontai
nerwithcleanpackagi
ngmateri
als.Doesnotuseloose
Styrof
oam.

- Completel
y sealthe out
ercont
ainerso t
hatt
amper
ing wi
tht
he
cont
ainerwouldbeevi
dent.

Shi
ppi
ngorTr
anspor
ti
ngEvi
dence

Transportat
ionoftheevi
dencefr
om thescenerequiresspeci
alconsiderati
onto
prevent destructi
on and contaminat
ion. Some evidence,par t
icul
arl
y biological
evidence,maybesensi t
ivetoabsol
utet
emper at
ureorf
luctuati
onsintemperature.

Speci
alprecauti
onsmustbet akenwhentransport
ingtheevidencefr
om
the scene t
oat emporaryf aci
li
ty,such as t
he cri
me scene personnel’
s off
ice.
Provi
sionsmustbemadet oproperlyst
oretheevi
dencetopreventcont
ami nat
ionand
maintai
nevidencesecuri
ty.

Nati
onalInst
it
uteofJusti
ceProtocol
son theColl
ect
ion,Pr
eser
vat
ion,I
nvent
ory,
Packagi
ng,Tr
anspor
t,andSubmi
ssionofEvi
dence

1.Mai
ntain Scene Secur
it
ythr
oughoutPr
ocessi
ng and unt
ilt
he Scene i
s
Rel
eased

a.I
dent
if
yessent
ialandnon-
essent
ialper
sonnel
.

b.Removenonessent
ialper
sonnelf
rom t
hescene.

c.Cont
inuet
odocumentent
ry/
exi
tofper
sonsatt
hescene.

2.Documentt
heLocat
ion,
Dat
eandwhoCol
lect
edt
heEvi
dence

a.Ensur
ethatt
hel
ocat
ionofevi
denceatt
hescenei
sdocument
ed.

b.Ensur
ethatt
hedat
eofcol
lect
ionsdocument
ed.

17
 c.Ensur
ethatt
hei
dent
it
yoft
hei
ndi
vidualmaki
ngt
hecol
lect
ioni
s
document
ed.

d.Ensur
ethatt
hedescr
ipt
ionofi
temst
obecol
lect
edi
sdocument
ed.

3.Col
lectI
temsI
dent
if
iedasEvi
dence

4.Est
abl
ishChai
nofCust
ody

5.Obt
ainSt
andar
d/Ref
erenceSampl
esf
rom t
heScene

6.Obt
ainCont
rolSampl
esf
rom t
heScene

7.Obt
ainEl
imi
nat
ionSampl
es

8.Secur
eElectr
oni
cal
lyRecor
dedEvi
dencef
rom t
hevi
cini
tyoft
heScene
(I
mmediat
ely)

9.I
dent
if
yandSecur
eEvi
dencei
nPr
operCont
ainer
s

10.
DocumenttheDescri
pti
onandCondi
ti
onofFi
rear
ms/
WeaponsPr
iort
o
Render
ingt
hem Saf
e

11.
Avoi
dExcessi
veHandl
ingofEvi
denceaf
teri
tisCol
lect
ed

12.
Maintai
n Evi
dence att
he Scene i
n a Mannerdesi
gned t
o Di
mini
sh
Degradati
on/
Loss

13.
Transpor
tandSubmi
tEvi
dencef
orSecur
eSt
orage

Speci
fi
cEvi
denceCol
lect
ion

I
mpr
essi
onEvi
denceCol
lect
ion

Considerthe dif
fer
enttypes ofi
mpr
essi
on evi
dence such as macr
oscopi
c
(
thosethatar evisi
blewitht
henakedeye)andmicroscopi
c( t
hosethatmayneed
magnif
icat
ion).

1.Lat
entPr
intEvi
denceCol
lect
ion(
fi
nger
pri
nts,
pal
m pr
int
s,f
oot
pri
nts)

2.Biol
ogical Evidence Coll
ect
ion (bl
ood,semen,sal
iva(
bit
e mar
ks)
,ur
ine,
perspi
rati
on,sexualassaul
tevi
dence,t
issue,
bone)
]

18
 3.Ar
son/
Expl
osi
ve/
0BombEvi
denceCol
lect
ion

4.Foll
owing an explosi
ve,invest
igat
orsshoul
d beawar
eoft
hepossi
bil
it
yof
secondar
yexplosivedevice.

5.TraceEvi
denceColl
ecti
on(hai
rs,f
ibers,gl
ass,pai
nt,gunshotresi
due(
GSR)
,
entomol
ogi
calevi
dence,
bot
any,soi
l,cosmet
ics,
andoils/
plast
ics)
.

6.Quest
ionedDocument
s/El
ect
roni
cEvi
denceCol
lect
ion

7.Reconst
ruct
ionEvi
denceCol
lect
ion

8.Cont
rol
ledSubst
ances/
Chemi
cal
sEvi
denceCol
lect
ion

9.Speci
ali
zed per
sonnelwi
th pr
otect
iveequi
pmentand t
rani
ng shoul
d col
lect
them.

10.
OtherTypesofEvi
dence

Allot
herevi
dencer
elat
edt
othecr
imet
hatmaynotf
iti
ntooneoft
heabove
cat
egori
es.

Chai
nofCust
ody

Achai nofcustodyr ecordst

hemovementoft heevidence.I
tist he“l
if
estory”of
thetimet hatitwasdi scovereduntili
tisnol ongerneeded.Compl eteconti
nuityi
nt he
chainofcust odyi sessent i
alt ot
headmi ssibi
li
tyofani tem ofevi denceinjudicial
proceedings.Ani t
em ofevi dence,whosecust odycannotbef ir
ml yestabli
shedfrom
thetimeofdi scoveryt ocour tpresentat
ion,maynotbeadmi t
tednomat t
erhope
potenti
all
yi nf
ormativeitcouldbe.

Concl
usi
on

19
 Al
litemst hathavebeenr ecoveredasevi denceatt hecrimesceneshoul dbe
consi
deredsignifi
cantandhandledpr operl
y.Casesar eneverlostbecausetoomuch
evi
dencehadbeengat heredandpreserved.Casesareoftenlostbecausetheoff
iceror
i
nvesti
gatorconductingthecrimescenesear chdecidedthatsomepi ecesofevi
dence
werenotimportantandf ail
edt
ocollectandpreservethem.

Al
waysr ecognizethatphysi calevidencemustbei nitsor
igi
nalst atewhen
recei
vedbyt helaboratoryi
nor dert oobtainagoodscienti
fi
canal
ysis.Allevidence
foundmustbecar efull
ycollected.Handlet heevi
dencei
namannert hatwi l
lavoid
contaminat
ingit.Thenmar k,log,andpackaget heevi
dencesothati twi l
lnotbe
contaminat
edordamageddur i
ngt r
ansport
ation.

Thefindermustident
if
yal
levidence.Thisisnecessaryf oruseasevidencein
court
,usual
lybymarkingontheevi
denceitsel
f.Keepaccur at
eandcompl etenotes.I
t
i
simpossibl
et oremembertheci
rcumstancesurroundi
ngt hefindingofsever
alitems
ofevi
dence.

Maintai
nthechainofcust
odyf ort
heevidence.Inorderf
orphysicalevi
dencet o
beadmissibl
eincourt
,onemustaccountf oreverystepinitshandl
ing.Thisincludes
theti
mewhent heevidencewasf oundatt hecrimesceneunt ili
tispr esentedas
evi
denceincourt
.Thi
sisanotherreasontohaveaccurateandcompletenotes.

Keept henumberofper sonsinvolvedinthehandl

ingofevidencet oaminimum.
Remembert hati tmaybenecessar yforal lt
hosewhohandl edtheevidencetotesti
fy.
I
fpossi ble,t he offi
cerwho col lect
st he i
tems ofevidence should also handl
e
t
ransportationofshi pmentt oandfrom laborator
y.Donotdelayinget t
ingevi
denceto
t
helaborat ory.I fpr
actical
,takeit
.Otherwise,senditbyr
egist
eredmai lorot
heragency
-
approvedcar r
iers.

20
 Chapt
erI
V
FORENSI
CEVI
DENCEEXAMI
NATI
ON

Aft
er t
he coll
ect
ion, preser
vati
on, i
nvent
ory, packagi
ng, t
ranspor
t, and
submi
ssi
ont
othef
orensi
claborator
y,exami
nati
onsarethenconduct
ed.

Ther
ear
e50di
ff
erentf
orensi
cexami
nat
ionspr
esent
ed.Thesear
ethef
oll
owi
ng:

Ant
hropol
ogi
calExami
nat
ions

A f orensi
c anthr
opologist can assist i
nt he ident
if
icati
on of deceased
i
ndividual
s whose r emains ar e decomposed,bur ned,mut il
ated or ot
herwise
unrecognizableusingskelet
onandpot enti
all
ydeter
mineavi cti
m' sage,
 
sex,
 st
ature,
and ancestry,oreven,
candetermine,whetheriti
shumanoranimal s.

DNAExami
nat
ions

Deoxyri
bonuclei
cacid(DNA)i sanalyzedinthebodyfl
uids,st
ains,andother
biol
ogi
calti
ssuesrecover
edfrom evi
dence.Theresul
tsofDNAanalysi
sofquesti
oned
biol
ogi
calsamplesar ecomparedwithther esul
tsoftheDNAanalysi
soft heknown
samples.

ThetwosourcesofDNA;a)evi dencecontainingblood,semen,sal
iva,bodyti
ssues,
andhair
swit
ht i
ssues,andb)evidencecontainingnatur
alshedhair
s,hairfr
agments,
bones,
andt
eeth.

Cont
rol
ledSubst
ancesExami
nat
ion

Control
ledsubst
ancesexami
nat
ionscanest
abl
isht
race-
drugpr
esence,
ident
it
y,
andquanti
ty.

Fi
rear
msExami
nat
ions

Fi
rear
msexami
nat
ionscandet
ermi
net
hegener
alcondi
ti
onofaf
ir
ear
m and

21
whetherthefi
rearmismechanicall
yfuncti
onalorinaconditi
onthatcouldcontr
ibut
e
toanunintent
ionaldi
scharge.Fi
rearmscanbet est-
fi
redtoobtai
nknownspeci mens
forcompari
sonstoevidenceammuni t
ioncomponentssuchasbullet
s,cart
ri
dgecases,
shotshel
lcasi
ngandot herpart
sofaf ir
earm.Comparisonsofsuspect’
sfir
ear
mscan
bemadewi thfi
rear
msdepi ct
edinsurvei
ll
anceimages.

GunshotResi
dueonHandsExami
nat
ions

Formuzzle-
to-t
argetdistancedet er
minat i
oni nvol
vinggunshotr esi
due.Whena
fi
rear
m i sdischarge,vaporousand par ti
cle mat eri
alscalled gunshotresidue are
expel
led.Aft
ercollect
inggunshotr esiduefrom asuspect edshoot er’
shand,themaj or
el
ement alcomponent s ofmostcar tr
idge primermoi stur
es can be anal yzed to
associat
easuspectwi thther ecentdischargeofgunpowderf r
om af ir
earm.Thi s
examinati
onisusedt odetermi neifaper sonwasi nt hepresenceofgunshotr esi
due
withi
nal i
mit
edt i
meper i
odaf teraweapondi scharge.

Hai
rsandFi
ber
sExami
nat
ions

Hairexaminati
onscandeter
mi newhet
herhai
rsaref
rom ani
malsorhuman.
Race,bodyarea,methodbeassoci
ateahairt
oapersonont
hebasisofmicr
oscopi
c
char
acteri
sti
csinthehai
r.

Fi
bersexami nationscani denti
fythetypeoffi
bersuchasani mal,veget
able,
mineral,andsyntheti
c.Questionedfiber
scanbecompar edtofi
bersfr
om vict
ims’and
suspects’clot
hing,carpeti
ng,andot hertext
il
es.Aquesti
onedpieceoff
abr i
ccanbe
physi
callymatchedt oknowf abri
c.

Faci
alI
magi
ng

VisualI nf
ormati
on Special
istprovide composit
e drawi
ng,two-and t hree-
di
mensionalf aci
alreconst
ructi
onsf r
om skel et
alremai
ns,faci
alageprogressions,
post
mortem reconstr
ucti
ons,anddigi
talphotographi
cmanipul
ati
onsandr
etouches.

Lat
entPr
int
sExami
nat
ions

Lat
entpri
ntsaredevelopedbot
hatthecrimescenesandl
abor
ator
ies.Caut
ion
shoul
dbetakentopreventdestr
oyi
ngl
atentpr
int
s.

22
I
mageAnal
ysi
sExami
nat
ions

a) Phot ographi
cCompar i
sons–exami nat
ionsoff
il
ms,negat
ives,di
git
ali
mages,
phot
ogr
aphicpri
nts,andvi
deorecor
dings

b) Phot
ogr
ammet
ry–usesofgeomet
ri
cfor
mul
aeoron-
sit
ecompar
ison

c) Locat
ion,Ti
meandDat
e– usi
ngl
ocat
ion,t
imeanddat
ethatt
hei
magewas
taken

d) Authent
ici
tyandimagemanipul
ati
ondetect
ion–det
ermi
newhet
hert
hei
mage
i
sar
esul
tofacomposit
e,anal
ter
ati
on,oracopy

e) Sour
ceandAge–canest
abl
isht
het
imef
ramedur
ingwhi
chaphot
ogr
aphwas
taken

f
) Camer
as–whet
hert
hespeci
fi
ccamer
acapt
uredaspeci
fi
cimage

g) Vi deos–photographicimagescanbepr
oducebyvi
deosf
orenl
argementand
usedi
ncourt
room pr
esentat
ions

h) Aut omobi
leMakeandModelI
dentif
icat
ion–vehi
clesdepi
ctedi
nsurvei
l
lance
i
magescanbecomparedwi
tht
heNationalAutomot
ivei
mageFilet
odeter
minemake
andmodel

i
) ChildPornographyExaminat
ions–t heseizedimagesofchildpor
nogr
aphycan
becompar edagainstintheChi
ldExploi
tati
onandObscenityReferenceFi
let
oidenti
fy
thesourceofthei mages.Videoclipsandst i
llimagesofrealpeopleandevent
sor
whethertheyr
epresentcomputer-
generatedsubject
sandevents.

Ar
sonExami
nat
ions

Examinat
ionsofdebr
isr
ecoveredf
rom t
hescenecandet
ermi
net
hepr
esenceof
i
gni
tablel
iqui
dsintr
oducedtoafi
re.

Audi
oExami
nat
ions

Thef
oll
owi
ngt
het
ypesofexami
nat
ionsar
econduct
edt
oaudi
oevi
dence:

a) Aut
hent
ici
tyexami
nat
ionar
econduct
edt
odet
ermi
newhet
heraudi
orecor
dings

23
areori
ginal
,cont
inuous,unal
ter
ed,andconsi
stentwi
tht
heoper
ati
onoft
her
ecor
ding
devi
ceusedt omaketherecordi
ng

b) Enhancementexaminat
ionst o sel
ect
ivel
yreducei
nter
fer
ing noi
seon audi
o
recor
dingst
oimpr
ovet
hei
ntel
li
gibl
y

c) Spect r
ographi
cexaminati
onscompareanunknownrecordedvoi
cesampletoa
knownver
bati
m voiceexemplarproducedonasimilart
ransmissi
onandrecordi
ng
devi
ce

d) Si gnalanal
ysi
sexami
nati
onsareconductedtoi
dent
if
y,compar
e,andi
nter
pret
si
gnal
ssuchasgunshot
sandtel
ephonetouch-
tones

e) Damaged medi
aisr
epai
red and r
est
ored,orr
etr
ieved f
orpl
ayback and
exami
nat
ion

BankSecur
it
yDyesExami
nat
ion

Bankdyepackscont
ain dyet
o st
ain moneyand cl
othi
ng and t
eargast
o
di
sor
ientrobber
s.

Bul
letJacketAl
loyExami
nat
ions

Elementalanalysi
sofbull
etjacket
scanbedonewhenabul l
ethasf
ragmented
sothati
ndivi
dualpiecescannotbeusedf orcompari
sontotest-
fi
redammunit
ionf
rom
afi
rearm ori
ntheabsenceofaf i
rearm ortoleadcomponentofabull
et.

Chemi
calExami
nat
ionsofGener
alUnknown

Generalunknownsar ecomponent sorsubst anceswhi

ch areindeter
minate
origi
n.When compar ison samplesareavail
able,itmaybepossi bleto comment
regarding t
he consi
stencyoft he unknown subst
ance wit
h a known comparison
sampl es.

Comput
erExami
nat
ion

24
 Examinat
ionscanbedeterminewhattypeofdat
afil
esareinacomputer
.Itcan
compar edatafi
lestoknowndocuments,i
tsti
meandsequencethedatawher
ecreated,
extract
ionfrom thecomputerandcomput erst
oragemedia.Passwor
dscanalsobe
recoveredandusedt odecryptencodedfi
lesandsourcecodecanbeanalyzedand
compar ed.

Cr
imeSceneSur
veys,
Document
ati
onandReconst
ruct
ion

Two-di
mensional and t hr
ee-
dimensi
onal vict
im and cr ime scene
reconstr
ucti
onscomput er
-ani
mat
edmodeli
ngdepict
ingbull
ett
raj
ect
ory,li
ne-
of-
sight
analysi
s,andvehi
cularandhumanmovementanal
ysi
s.

Cr
ypt
anal
ysi
sandRacket
ingRecor
dsExami
nat
ion

Iti
nvol
vest heanal
ysi
sofencodedandencipher
eddocumentsusedbyt err
ori
st,
i
ntell
igence agents,viol
entcrimi
nals,gangs and organi
zed cr
ime gr oups,the
exami nat
ionofdrugrecor
ds,gambl
ingbusi
ness,l
oansharki
ng,moneylaunderi
ng,and
prost
ituti
onsbusiness.

El
ect
roni
cDevi
cesExami
nat
ions

Thi
sincl
udestheexaminat
ionsofel
ect
roni
cdevicessuchaselectroni
cdevices
used i
n commercialest
abl
ishment,communicat
ion devi
ces and otherelect
ronic
devi
cesandcir
cui
ts.

Expl
osi
vesandExpl
osi
vesResi
dueExami
nat
ion

Examinati
onofevidencer esul
ti
ngfrom apparentexplosi
onand/orrecover
yof
an explosi
vedevi ceon thepr emisesoft hescene,and det er
minati
on ofresi
due
whetherthesubst ancesar
ehi ghorlow explosi
ve,orincendi
arymixt
ures,orwhether
thecompositionofthesubstanceisconsi
stentwiththeknownexplosi
ves.

Feat
her
,Gl
assandI
nkExami
nat
ion

Feat
herexami
nat
iont
odet
ermi
nebi
rdspeci
esf
oundi
nobj
ect
swi
thf
eat
her

25
f
rom t
hecr
imescene.

Glassexami
nati
ontodetermineglassf
ragmentsori
ginat
edf oundinobject
s
wi
tht
hoseincri
mescene,
anddeterminet
hedir
ecti
onandtypeofbreakingf
orce.

Examini
nginkwr
it
inginconj
unct
ionwithothert
echni
quescanpr
ovi
dedetai
ls
r
egardi
ng documentprepar
ati
on.Ink wri
ti
ng can al
so vari
es wi
ththe t
ype of
i
nst
rumentisused.

Lubr
icat
ionExami
nat
ion

Deter
mini
ngsubstancesincl
udi
ngpet
rol
eum product
s,natur
aloil
sandot
her
subst
ancescanbeusedaslubri
cant
s,whi
chmaybefoundasevidence.

Met
all
urgyExami
nat
ions

Examinationonmetalsandot hermetal
licobject
sbasedoncompar i
sonoft wo
met als,thecausesoff ai
lureordamageoft hemet alwith appl
icat
ion ofstress,
analysi softhecomponent swhethert heinferiorcomponent
swer esubsti
tut
ed in
contr acti
ng frauds. Bur
ned,heat ed or mel ted metal
s can be det ermine the
appr oximated temperat
ure which the metalwas exposed.Exami nati
on can also
determi newher ethemetalwascutorsawed.Themet alf
ragmentscanbedet ermine
byitsnat urethatwasthesourceofthef r
agment s.

Thecondi
ti
onscausi
ngawatch,cl
ock,ti
mer,orothermechani
sm t
ostopor
mal
functi
onandwhet
hertheti
medi
spl
ayedrepr
esentsa.
m.orp.m.canbedet
ermi
ned.

Exami
nat
ioncanbedeter
minewhetheral
ampbulbwasi ncandescentwheni
ts
gl
assenvel
opewasbrokenorwassubj
ect
edtoaimpactf
orce.

Pai
ntExami
nat
ions

A compari
son oft helayerstruct
ureofaquest i
oned pai
ntsampl ecan be
compar
ed with known sources.The sequence,rel
ati
ve,thi
ckness,colortext
ure,
number
,andchemi calcomposit
ionofeachoft
helayer
scam becompar ed.

26
PepperSpr
ayandFoam Exami
nat
ions

Exami
nat
iont
ocheckt
hepr
esenceofol
eor
esi
ncapsi
cum,
dyeandt
eargas.

Phar
maceut
icalExami
nat
ions

I
dent
if
icat
ionofconst
it
uent
s,act
ivei
ngr
edi
ent
s,quant
it
y,andwei
ght
.

Pol
ymer
sExami
nat
ions

Todet
ermi
net
hecomponent
sofpi
ecesofpl
ast
icf
oundi
nthescene

Pr
oductTamper
ingExami
nat
ion

Whenacommer
cialpr
oducti
sint
ent
ional
lydi
stor
tedt
ohar
m someoneorf
or
ext
ort
ionpur
poses

Quest
ionedDocument
sExami
nat
ions

- Handwrit
ingandhandpr
int
ingcandet
ermi
net
heor
igi
noraut
hent
ici
tyofa
quest
ioneddocuments

- Al
ter
edorobl
it
erat
edwr
it
ingcanbedet
ermi
nedanddeci
pher
ed

- I
dent
if
ynon-
genui
nesi
gnat
uresf
rom t
hegenui
ne

- Typewr
it
ingcanbeexami
nedt
hrought
heuseandabuseoft
het
ypewr
it
er

- Graphi
car t
sofpr
int
ingdocument
scanbeassoci
atedasor
igi
nat
ingf
rom a
commonsource

- Paperusecandet
erminewat er
marksorindent
ati
onsf
rom thewri
ti
ngsoni
tor
tor
npiececanmatchestot
heor i
ginal
.Burnedorcharr
edpapercandeci
pher
,aswel
l
asageofdocumentcandet
ermine

- Checkwr
it
erdet
ermi
nesi
mil
arl
yast
ypewr
it
ingdet
ermi
nat
ion

- Tr
acesofcar
bonf
il
m,embossi
ngandsealmar
ks,andi
ndent
ati
onbyr
ubber

27
st
ampscanbedet
ermi
ne

- Banknot
ecanbemat
chedwi
tht
hebanknot
efi
le

- Anonymousl
ett
erar
eident
if
iedt
hrut
heanonymousl
ett
erf
il
es

RopesandCor
dsExami
nat
ion

Ropesorcor
dsf
ibercanbedet
ermi
nebymat
chi
ngwi
tht
hequest
ionr
ope

Saf
eInsul
ati
on

Exami
nat
ionofsaf
einsul
atorcanbedet
ermi
net
hemanuf
act
urer

Ser
ialNumber

Obl
it
erat
edser
ialnumber
sar
erest
ored

Shoepr
intandTi
reThr
eadI
mpr
essi
ons

- Al
limpr
essi
onsfoundint hecri
mescenemustbephotogr
aphedi
ndet
ail
s
whet
heronsoi
l,
sand,
snow,oranysur
facet
hei
mpressi
oni
sseen

- Met
hodsusi
ngdent
alst
onef
orcast
ingi
mpr
essi
ons

- Pr
eser
vat
ionofthefi
lmisnecessar
yt ost
oreevidenceoni
mpr
essi
onssi
nce,
i
mpr
essi
ondoesnotl
astl
ongonthesurf
aceitwasimpr
inted

Soi
l

Canbedet
erminewhet
hersoi
lsshar
eacommonor
igi
nsbycompar
ingcol
or,
t
ext
ureandcomposi
ti
ons

Tape

Compar
isonoft
apesf
rom knownsour
cewi
tht
het
ornendoft
het
ape

28
Tool
mar
k

Tool
s can bearuni
que mi
croscopi
c char
act
eri
sti
cs due t
o manuf
act
uri
ng
pr
ocessesanduse

Fr
act
ure

Fr
act
ureexaminat
ionscanbeusedt
oassoci
atewhet
herevi
dencewasj
oined
t
oget
herandsubsequent
lybrokenapar
t

Toxi
col
ogy

Candiscl
oset
hepr
esenceofdr
ugsandpoi
sonsi
nbi
ologi
calspeci
mensand
f
oodpr
oduct
s

Vi
deo

Videoexaminat
ionhassimi l
armet hodsasst i
llphot
ograph,it
sauthenti
cit
y,
enhancement,i
mageprocessi
ng,conver
sion,it
ssynchroni
zat
ion,speci
alef
fect
s,and
howtor epai
rdamagevideo

WeaponsofMassDest
ruct
ion

Nuclearand/
orr
adi
ologi
cal
,bi
ologi
cal
,orchemi
calar
edet
ermi
nei
nweaponsof
massdest
ructi
on

Wood

Canmatchsides,ends,andf
ract
ures,candet
ermi
newoodspeci
es,andcan
comparewoodpar
ti
clesfound

29
Abr
asi
ves

Determi
ne whattype ofabr
asi
ve mat
eri
aland composi
ti
on used t
o sabot
age
equipmentandmachi
nery

Adhesi
ves

Adhesi
ve,
caul
ks,
andseal
ant
scanbecompar
edbycol
orandcomposi
ti
on

Bui
ldi
ngmat
eri
als

Compar
isonoft
hebr
icks,mor
tar
,pl
ast
er,st
ucco,cementandconcr
etewi
th
knownsour
ces

Fi
nger
pri
nti
ng

Fi
ngerpri
nti
ngincludes,
palm pr
int
sandbar
efootpri
nti
ng,ar
ethebestevi
dence
toplaceani ndi
vidualatthesceneofacr i
mebymatchingfoundpri
ntsonthecri
me
scenewiththeknowsour ce

Bi
temar
ks

Bit
emar
ksusuall
yfoundinsexualassaul
tsandcanmat
chedt
othei
ndi
vidual
whoputt
hebi
tebycompari
ngdent
alfeat
ures

Br
okenFi
nger
nai
ls

Abrokenfi
nger
nail
sfoundatacri
mescenecanbematchedt
othei
ndi
viduali
t
camef
rom manymonthsaft
erthecr
imehasbeencommi
tt
ed.

30
31
 Chapt
erV
OVERVI
EW OFREVI
SEDRULESOFEVI
DENCEANDEXPERTWI
TNESS

Gener
alPr
ovi
sions

Evidenceist
hemeans,sanctionedbytheser ul
es,ofascer
taininginajudi
cial
proceedingt het
rut
hrespecti
ngamat t
eroffact.Therulesofevidenceshallbethe
samei nallcourt
sandinallt
ri
alsandheari
ngs,exceptasother
wisepr ovi
dedbylawor
theserules.

Evi
denceisadmi ssiblewheni ti
srelevanttotheissueandisnotexcludedby
thelaw oftheserul
es.Evi dencemusthavesuchar el
ati
ontothef acti
nissueast o
i
nducebel i
efinit
sexist
enceornon- exist
ence.Evidenceoncoll
ater
almatter
sshallnot
beallowed,exceptwheni ttendsinanyreasonabledegreetoestabl
ishtheprobabi
li
ty
orimprobabil
it
yofthefacti nissue(
Rule128).

TypesofEvi
dence

1. Obj ect(
real
)evi
dence-Objectsasevidencearethoseaddressedt
othesenses
ofthecourt.Whenanobjecti
sr elevantt
ot hefactinissue,i
tmaybeexhibit
edt o,
examinedorvi
ewedbythecourt
.

32
2. Document ar
yevidence-Document sasevi denceconsi
stofwr i
ti
ng orany
materi
alcont
aini
nglet
ters,
words,
number s,f
igur
es,
symbolsorothermodesofwri
tt
en
expr
essionoff
eredasproofoft
heircont
ents.

3. Test
imoni
alevi
dence

Wi
tnesses

Qual
if
icat
ionsofwi
tnesses.Al
lper
sonswhocanper
cei
ve,andper
cei
ving,can
maket hei
rknownper cept
iontoother
s,maybewi t
nesses.Rel
igi
ousorpol
it
icalbeli
ef,
i
nteresti
ntheout comeofthecase,orconvict
ionofacrimeunlessot
her
wiseprovided
bylaw,shallnotbegroundfordi
squal
ifi
cati
on.

Di
squal
if
icat
ionbyr
easonofment
ali
ncapaci
tyori
mmat
uri
ty.Thef
oll
owi
ng
personscannotbewi tnesses:(a)Thosewhosement alcondi
ti
on,atthetimeofthei
r
productionforexami nati
on,i ssucht hattheyareincapableofint
elli
gentl
ymaking
knownt hei
rpercepti
ont oot hers;(b)Chil
drenwhosement almaturi
tyissuchast o
renderthem incapabl
eofper ceivingthefact
srespect
ingwhichtheyareexaminedand
ofrelat
ingthem trut
hfull
y.

Di
squal
if
icat
ion by r
eason ofmar
ri
age.Dur
ing t
hei
rmar
ri
age,nei
thert
he
husbandnorthewi femaytest
if
yfororagai
nstt
heotherwithouttheconsentoft he
aff
ectedspouse,excepti
nacivi
lcasebyoneagai
nsttheother,orinacriminalcase
foracrimecommi ttedbyoneagai
nsttheot
herorthelat
ter
'sdirectdescendantsor
ascendant
s.

Di
squal
if
icat
ionbyr
easonofdeat
hori
nsani
tyofadver
separ
ty.Par
ti
esor
assignorofpart
iestoacase, orpersonsinwhosebehal facaseisprosecuted,agai
nst
anexecutororadmi ni
str
atororotherrepresent
ati
veofadeceasedper son,oragainsta
personofunsoundmi nd,uponacl aim ordemandagai nsttheest
ateofsuchdeceased
personoragainstsuchpersonofunsoundmi nd,cannottesti
fyastoanymat teroff
act

33
occurr
ingbef
oret
hedeat
hofsuchdeceasedper
sonorbef
oresuchper
sonbecameof
unsoundmind.

Di
squal
if
icat
ionbyr
easonofpr
ivi
legedcommuni
cat
ion.Thef
oll
owi
ngper
sons
cannott
est
if
yast
omat
ter
slear
nedi
nconf
idencei
nthef
oll
owi
ngcases:

a)Thehusbandort hewif e,duringoraf t

erthemar ri
age,cannotbeexami ned
wit
houtt he consentoft he ot
heras t o any communicati
on received i
n
confi
dencebyonef rom t heotherduri
ngt hemarri
ageexceptinacivilcaseby
oneagainsttheot her
,ori nacr imi
nalcasef oracr imecommi t
tedbyone
agai
nsttheotherorthelatter'
sdir
ectdescendant
sorascendants;

b)Anat t
orneycannot,withouttheconsentofhi scli
ent,beexaminedast oany
communi cat
ionmadebyt heclienttohim,orhi sadvicegiventher
eoni nt he
courseof,orwi t
havi ew to,prof
essionalemployment,norcananat t
orney's
secret
ary,st
enographer
,orclerkbeexami ned,wit
houttheconsentoftheclient
and his employer
,concer ni
ng anyfactt he knowledge ofwhich has been
acquir
edinsuchcapacity;

c)Aper sonauthori
zedtopract
icemedi ci
ne,surgeryorobstetr
icscannoti
nacivil
case,wi t
houttheconsentoft hepat ient,beexaminedast oanyadvi ceor
treatmentgivenbyhi m oranyi nformationwhichhemayhaveacqui r
edin
attendi
ng such pati
entin a professionalcapacit
y,whi ch inf
ormati
on was
necessaryto enablehim to actin capacity,and which would bl
acken t
he
reputat
ionofthepati
ent;

d)A mini
sterorpriestcannot,withoutt heconsentofthepersonmakingthe
conf
essi
on,beexami nedast oanyconf essi
onmadetooranyadvi
cegivenby
himinhisprofessionalchar
acteri nthecour seofdi
sci
pli
neenj
oinedbythe
chur
chtowhichthemi nist
erorpriestbelongs;

e)Apubl
icoffi
cercannotbeexamineddur i
nghisterm ofof
fi
ceorafterwards,as
t
ocommuni cat
ionsmadetohiminof f
ici
alconf
idence,whenthecourtfi
ndsthat
t
hepubli
cinter
estwouldsuf
ferbythediscl
osure.

Par
ent
alandf
il
ialpr
ivi
lege.Noper
sonmaybecompel
ledt
otest
if
yagai
nsthi
s
par
ent
s,ot
herdi
rectascendant
s,chi
ldr
enorot
herdi
rectdescendant
s.

34
Admi
ssi
onsandConf
essi
ons

Admi
ssi
onofapar
ty.Theact
,decl
arat
ionoromi
ssi
onofapar
tyast
oar
elevant
f
actmaybegi
veni
nevi
denceagai
nsthi
m.

Of
ferofcompr
omi
senotadmi
ssi
ble.I
nci
vilcases,anof
ferofcompr
omi
sei
s
notanadmi ssionofanyl i
abil
it
y,andisnotadmi ssibleinevidenceagai nstt
heof feror
.
Incriminalcases, exceptt
hoseinvolvi
ngquasi-of
fenses( criminalnegli
gence)ort hose
all
owedbyl awt obecompr omised,anofferofcompr omisedbyt heaccusedmaybe
receivedinevidenceasani mpli
edadmi ssi
onofgui lt.Apleaofgui l
tylat
erwithdrawn,
oranunaccept edof ferofapl eaofgui l
tytol esserof fense,isnotadmi ssiblein
evidenceagai nstt heaccusedwhomadet hepleaorof fer.Anof f
ertopayort he
paymentofmedi cal,hospi
talorot herexpenses occasi oned byan i nj
uryi s not
admi ssi
bleinevi denceasproofofcivi
lorcri
minalliabil
it
yfort heinjur
y.

Opi
nionRul
e

Theopi
nionofwi
tnessi
snotadmi
ssi
ble,
exceptasi
ndi
cat
edi
nthef
oll
owi
ng:

Opi
nionofexper
twi
tness.Theopi
nion ofawi
tnesson amat
terr
equi
ri
ng
speci
alknowl
edge,ski
ll
,exper
ienceort
rai
ningwhi
chheshownt
opossess,maybe
recei
vedi
nevi
dence.

Opi
nionofor
dinar
ywi
tnesses.Theopi
nionofawi
tnessf
orwhi
chpr
operbasi
s
i
sgi
ven,
mayber
ecei
vedi
nevi
dencer
egar
ding—

a)Thei
dent
it
yofaper
sonaboutwhom hehasadequat
eknowl
edge;

b)Ahandwr
it
ingwi
thwhi
chhehassuf
fi
cientf
ami
li
ari
ty;and

c)Thement
alsani
tyofaper
sonwi
thwhom hei
ssuf
fi
cient
lyacquai
nted.

35
 Thewitnessmayal sotesti
fyonhi
simpr
essi
onsoft
heemot
ion,behavi
our
,
condi
ti
onorappearanceofaperson.

Char
act
erEvi
dence

Char
act
erevi
dencenotgener
all
yadmi
ssi
ble;
 except
ions:

nCr
1.I imi
nalCases

a.Theaccusedmaypr ovehisgoodmoralchar
act
erwhi
chi
sper
ti
nentt
o
themoralt
rai
tinvol
vedintheoff
ensechar
ged.

b.Unl
essinr
ebutt
al,
theprosecuti
onmaynotpr ovehisbadmoralchar
act
er
whi
chisper
ti
nenttothemor alt
rai
tinvol
vedi
nt heoff
ensechar
ged.

c.Thegoodorbadmor alcharact
eroftheoffendedpar
tymaybeprovedi
fit
tends to establ
ish in any r easonabl
e degree the pr
obabi
li
ty or
i
mpr obabi
l
ityoftheoffensecharged.

nCi
2.I vilCases

Evi
denceofthemoralcharacterofapart
yincivi
lcasei
sadmi
ssi
bleonl
ywhen
per
ti
nentt
otheissueofchar
acterinvolvedi
nthecase.

3.I
nthecasepr
ovi
dedf
ori
nRul
e132,
Sect
ion14.

Bur
denofPr
oofandPr
esumpt
ions

Burdenofproofisthedut
yofapar tytopr
esentevi
denceont hefact
si nissue
necessar
ytoest
abl
ishhi
scl
aim ordef
encebyt
heamountofevi
dencerequi
redbylaw.

Exami
nat
ionofWi
tnesses

Exami
nat
iont
obedonei
nopencour
t.Theexami
nat
ionofwi
tnessespr
esent
ed
i
nat
ri
alorhear
ingshal
lbedonei
nopencour
t,andunderoat
horaf
fi
rmat
ion.Unl
ess

36
thewit
nessisincapaci
tat
edt
ospeak,orthequesti
oncal
lsf
oradi
ff
erentmodeof
answer
,theanswersoft
hewit
nessshal
lbegi
venoral
ly.

Or
deri
ntheexami
nat
ion ofan i
ndi
vidualwi
tness.Theor
deri
n whi
ch t
he
i
ndivi
dualwitnessmaybeexami ned i
sasf ol
lows;(a)dir
ectexaminat
ion byt
he
pr
oponent;(b)cr oss-
examinat
ionbyt heopponent;(
c)re-di
rectexami
nat
ionbythe
pr
oponent;and,(d)re-
cross-
examinati
onbytheopponent.

Di
rectexami
nat
ion.Di
rectexami
nat
ioni
stheexami
nat
ion-
in-
chi
efofawi
tness
byt
hepar
typr
esent
inghi
m ont
hef
act
srel
evantt
othei
ssue.

Cr
oss-
exami
nat
ion;i
tspur
poseandext
ent
.Upont
het
ermi
nat
ionoft
hedi
rect
examination,thewi t
nessmaybecr oss-
examinedbyt headversepar tyast omany
mat t
ers stat
ed int he dir
ectexaminati
on,orconnect ed t
herewi th,with suff
ici
ent
ful
lnessandf reedom totesthi
saccuracyandtruthful
nessandf reedom from inter
est
orbias,orthereverse,andtoel
ici
tal
limport
antfactsbeari
ngupont heissue.

Re-
dir
ectexami
nat
ion;i
tspur
poseandext
ent
.Af
tert
hecr
oss-
exami
nat
ionof
thewitnesshasbeenconcluded,hemayber e-
exami
nedbyt hepar t
ycall
inghim,to
expl
ainorsupplementhisanswer sgivendur
ingthecross-examinati
on.Onre-di
rect
-
examinati
on,quest
ionsonmat t
ersnotdealtwithdur
ingt hecross-exami
nati
on,may
beall
owedbyt hecourti
nit
sdiscreti
on.

Re-
cross-
exami
nat
ion.
 Upont
heconcl
usi
onoft
her
e-di
rectexami
nat
ion,t
he
adversepart
ymayr e-
cross-
exami
nethewitnessonmat
ter
sstat
edi
nhisre-di
rect
examinati
on,andal
soonsuchot hermat
ter
sasmaybeal l
owedbyt
hecourtinits
discr
eti
on.

Recal
li
ngwi
tness.
 Af
tert
heexami
nat
ionofawi
tnessbybot
hsi
deshasbeen
concluded,thewitnesscannotberecall
edwit
houtleaveofthecour
t.Thecour
twi
ll
grantorwithhol
dleaveinit
sdiscr
eti
on,asthei
nter
estsofj
ust
icemayrequi
re.

37
 Leadi
ngandmi
sleadi
ngquest
ions.
 Aquest
ionwhi
chsuggest
stot
hewi
tness
theanswerwhi chtheexaminingpar t
ydesi r
esisal eadingquest ion.Itisnotallowed,
except:(a)oncr ossexamination;(b)onpr el
iminar ymat ters;(c)whent her
ei sa
dif
ficul
tyisgettingdi
rectandintell
igi
bleanswersf rom awi t
nesswhoi signorant,ora
chil
doft enderyears,orisoffeeblemi nd,
oradeaf -mut e;(d)ofanunwi l
li
ngorhost il
e
witness;or(e)ofawi t
nesswhoi sanadver separ t
yoranof ficer,dir
ector,ormanagi ng
agentofapubl icorpr i
vatecorporati
onorofapar tnershiporassoci at
ionwhi chi san
adverseparty.

I
mpeachmentofadver
separ
ty'
swi
tness.
 Awi
tnessmaybei
mpeachedbyt
he
partyagainstwhom hewascal led,bycont r
adict
oryevi
dence,byevidencethathi s
generalr
eput at
ionfortruth,honest l
y,orintegri
tyisbad,orbyevidencethathehas
madeatot herti
messt atementsi nconsistentwithhi
spresent,t
esti
mony,butnotby
evi
denceofpar ticul
arwr ongf
ulact s,exceptthatitmaybeshownbyt heexamination
ofthewitness,ortherecordofthej udgment ,t
hathehasbeenconvict
edofanof fense.

Of
ferandObj
ect
ion

Thecour
tshal
lconsi
dernoevidencewhichhasnotbeenf
ormal
lyof
fer
ed.The
pur
poseforwhi
chtheevi
dencei
sofferedmustbespeci
fi
ed.

Asr egardsthetestimonyofawi t
ness,theoffermustbemadeatthetimet he
wi
tnessiscalledtotest
ify.Document
aryandobj ectevi
denceshal
lbeof
fer
edafterthe
pr
esentat
ionofapar t
y'stesti
moni
alevidence.Suchof f
ershal
lbedoneoral
lyunless
al
lowedbyt hecourttobedonei nwri
ti
ng.

Objecti
ontoevidenceof f
eredorall
ymustbemadei mmediatel
yaf t
ertheof f
eris
made.Obj ectiontoaquest i
onpr opoundedi
nt hecourseoft heoralexaminationofa
wit
nessshal lbemadeassoonast hegroundst heref
orshallbecomer easonably
apparent.Anof f
erofevidenceinwr i
ti
ngshallbeobject
edt owit
hinthree(3)daysaf t
er
noti
ceunl essadiffer
entperiodisall
owedbyt hecourt
.Inanycase,thegroundsf orthe
obj
ectionsmustbespeci f
ied.

I
fdocument
sort
hingsof
fer
edi
nevi
dencear
eexcl
udedbyt
hecour
t,t
heof
fer
or

38
mayhavet hesameatt
achedtoormadepartoftherecor
d.Ift
heevi
denceexcl
udedis
oral
,theoff
erormaystat
eforther
ecordthenameandot herper
sonalci
rcumst
ances
ofthewit
nessandthesubst
anceofthepr
oposedtesti
mony.

Wei
ghtandSuf
fi
ciencyofEvi
dence

Incivilcases,thepar tyhavingbur denofpr oofmustest ablishhi scasebya

preponderance ofevi dence.I n determini
ng wher ethe preponderance orsuper ior
weightofevi denceont heissuesinvolvedlies,t
hecourtmayconsi deral lthefactsand
cir
cumst ancesoft hecase,t hewitnesses'manneroft esti
fyi
ng,thei
ri nt
el l
igence,t
heir
meansandoppor tuni
tyofknowi ngthef act
st owhichtherearetesti
fying, t
henat ur
eof
thefactstowhi chtheyt esti
fy,t
hepr obabili
tyorimprobabili
tyoftheirtestimony,their
i
nterestorwantofi nterest,andalsot heirpersonalcr
edibil
it
ysof arast hesamemay
l
egitimatel
y appearupon t he tri
al.The cour tmay al so considert he numberof
witnesses,thought hepr eponderanceisnotnecessar i
lywiththegreaternumber .

Inacri
mi nalcase,theaccusedi sent
it
ledt oanacquit
tal
,unlesshi sgui
lti
s
shownbeyondr easonabledoubt
.Proofbeyondr easonabl
edoubtdoesnotmeansuch
adegr eeofproof,excludi
ngpossibil
it
yoferror,producesabsol
utecertainl
y.Moral
cert
ainlyonl
yisr equir
ed,orthatdegreeofpr oofwhi chpr
oducesconvi cti
oninan
unprejudi
cedmind.

Anextr
ajudici
alconfessionmadebyanaccused,shal
lnotbesuf
fi
cientgr
ound
f
orconvi
cti
on,unlesscorr
obor atedbyevi
denceof
 cor
pusdel
ict
i.

Ci
rcumst
ant
ialevi
dencei
ssuf
fi
cientf
orconvi
cti
oni
f:

1.Ther
eismor
ethanoneci
rcumst
ance

2.Thef
act
sfr
om whi
cht
hei
nfer
encesar
eder
ivedar
epr
oven

3.Thecombinat
ionofal
ltheci
rcumst
ancesi
ssuchast
opr
oduceaconvi
cti
on
beyondr
easonabl
edoubt

Incasesf i
ledbef
oreadmi ni
str
ati
veorquasi-j
udi
cialbodi
es,afactmaybe
deemedest abli
shedifitissupportedbysubstant
ialevi
dence,orthatamountof
rel
evantevidencewhichar easonablemindmightacceptasadequatetojust
if
ya
conclusi
on.(n)

39
Over
viewoft
hePhi
li
ppi
neCour
tSyst
em

ThePhili
ppi
neJudiciar
yi soneoft hethree(3)br
anchesoft
hegovernment
fol
lowingtheDoctri
neofSepar ati
onofPower s.UnderSect
ion1,Ar
ticl
eVI
IIofthe
1987Phi l
ippi
neConsti
tut
ion,thejudici
alpowerisvest
edinoneSupremeCourtand
suchlowercourtsasmaybeest abl
ishedbylaw.

A courtisdefi
nedasanor ganoft hegover
nment,bel
ongingtothejudi
cial
depar
tment,whosefuncti
onist
heappli
cati
onoflawstocont
rover
siesbr
oughtbef
ore
i
tandthepublicadmini
str
ati
onofj
usti
ce.

Thefoll
owingarethecour
tsint
hePhi
li
ppi
nesasestabl
ishedbyt heJudi
ciar
y
Reor
ganizat
ionActof1980(BP129)whi
cht
ookeff
ectonJanuary18,1983,andot
her
l
aws.

a) Muni
cipalandCi
tyCour
ts

b) Regi
onalTr
ialCour
ts(
RTC)

c) Shar
i’
aCour
ts

d) Cour
tofTaxAppeal
s(CTA)

e) Sandi
ganBayan

f
) Cour
tofAppeal
s

g) Supr
emeCour
t

There aref our(4)level

s ofcourtsinthe Phil
ippines.The l
owestar ethe
MunicipalTr
ialCourts.Thenexthi
ghercourt
saretheRegi onalTri
alCour
ts,andthen
fol
lowedbyt heCour tofAppealsincl
udi
ngtheSandiganBayanandt heCour tofTax
Appeals.ThehighestistheSupr
emeCourtofthePhil
ippi
nes.

Admi
ssi
bil
it
yofEvi
dence

Evi
dencei
sadmi
ssi
blewheni
tisr
elevantt
othei
ssuesandi
scompet
ent
,i.
e.,i
t

40
i
snotexcl udedbyt helawort heRul
esofCour t
.Evi
denceisrelevantifi
ttendsi
nany
reasonabledegreetoestabli
shtheprobabi
li
tyori
mprobabi
li
tyofaf actini
ssue.I
tisof
al esserdegreeofr el
iabil
it
yasevidencethanmateri
alevidence.Mat er
ialevi
dence
direct
lyprovesafactinissue.

Evi
dencenotfor
mall
yoffer
edwi l
lnotbeconsider
edbythecourti
ndecidi
ngthe
case.Apartymakesafor
malof f
erofhisevidencebystat
ingi
tssubstanceornat
ure
andthepurpose/
sforwhi
chtheevidencei
sof f
ered.

TheRol
eoft
heExper
t

Anordi
narywit
nessiscall
edtotell
,andisonl
yallowedtotel
l,thejudgeorjur
y
whathe hi msel
factuall
y percei
ved.An expertwitness may,however ,draw an
i
nferencefrom f
actsthatheobservedhimself
,orassumest obet rue,ifhedidnot
himselfobser
vethem.Butit
’salwaysforthej
udgeorjurytodeci
dei fthosefact
sare
tr
ue.

Qual
it
iesofanExper
t

Asummar
yoft
henecessar
yqual
if
icat
ionsf
oranexper
twi
tnessmaybel
ist
ed
asf
oll
ows:

1. Knowl
edgebaseduponpr
opert
rai
ningi
nthesubj
ectunderr
evi
ew.

2. Humi
li
tyi
nadmi
tt
ingwhent
her
eisdoubt
.

3. Cour
agei
ndesi
ri
ngt
oest
abl
isht
het
rut
h.

4. Remai
ntol
erantandcour
teous,
whi
lstf
ir
m.

41
 Chapt
erVI
ADMI
SSI
BILI
TYOFSCI
ENTI
FICORTECHNOLOGI
CALEVI
DENCE

Admi
ssi
bil
it
yofEvi
denceundert
hePhi
li
ppi
neRul
esofCour
t(sec.3Rul
e128)

Basedf
rom,

 Rel
evance–theevi
dencemustbei
mpor
tantt
othei
ssuesf
ort
her
esol
uti
on
oft
hecase,
and;

42
  Competence–evidencemustnotbeexcludedbyl aw oft
herules,i
tmust
notbegather
edfrom i
ll
egalsear
chandsei
zure,anditmustnotbeaf r
uitof
apoisonoust
ree.

Wei
ghtofevi
dencevs.Admi
ssi
bil
it
yofevi
dence

Admissibi
li
tyofevidencedependsoni t
srelevanceandcompetencewhil
ethe
weightofevidencepert
ainstoevidencealr
eadyadmittedandi
tst
endencytoper
suade
andconvince.(Permanentsavingsandloanbankv.Vel ar
deG.
RNo.140608)

Needf
orStandardsorRulesofAdmi
ssi
bil
it
yofSci
ent
if
icorTechnol
ogi
calEvi
dence
i
nAmericanJuri
sprudence

Misuse of scient
if
ic evi
dence is a serious probl
em,even Gover
nment
l
aborator
iesareundersuspici
on,forexample,apolicechemistf
alsi
fi
edr
epor
tsand
senthundredsofi
nnocentpeopl
eawayt ojai
lonrapecharges.

TheFr
yeTest

Scienti
fi
cevidencei sadmissi
bleifitwasbasedonageneral
lyaccept
edand
rel
iabl
esci entif
ictechnique.Experttest
imonywasadmi t
ted byvi
rt
ueofexpert’
s
credenti
al,experi
ences,ski
llandr
eputati
on.

TheDauber
tSt
andar
ds,
(Dauber
tv.Mer
rel
lDow)

UnderDauber
t,t
headmissi
bil
it
yofexper
ttest
imonyi
stobemor
eri
gor
ousl
y
scr
uti
nizedbyt
hetri
alj
udge.

Speci
fi
cfact
orsonadmi
ssi
bil
it
yofevi
dence:

1. Whet
herat
heor
yort
echni
quecanbeandhasbeent
est
ed.

2. Whet
heri
thasbeensubj
ect
edpeerr
evi
ewandpubl
icat
ion.

3. I nr espectt
o a par
ti
cul
art
echni
que t
he known orpot
ent
ialer
rorand t
he
exi
stence.

4. Whet
hert
het
heor
yort
echni
quesenj
oysgener
alaccept
ancewi
thi
nar
elevant

43
sci
ent
if
iccommuni
ty.

UnderDauber
t,t
headmissi
bil
it
yofexpertt
est
imonyistobemor eri
gorousl
y
scr
uti
nizedbyt
hetri
alj
udget
odeter
mi newhet
heri
tmeet
stherequi
rement
sbelow:

I
fscienti
fi
c,techni
cal,orotherspecial
izedknowl edgedet ermineafactinissue,a
wit
nessquali
fiedas expertbyknowledge,ski
ll
,experience,
t r
aini
ngoreducat
ion,may
t
esti
fyther
etointheform ofopi
nionorotherwi
se.

KumhoDoctri
ne-expansi
onofDauber
tint
otechnol
ogi
calt
est
imony(
KumhoTi
revs.
Car
michael
)

InKumho,
theSupr
emeCourtexpandedthescopeoftheDauber
ttestt
oincl
ude
al
lfor
msofexpertt
est
imony.(
KumhoTirev.Carmi
chael,526U.
S.137,119S.Ct
.1167
(
1999)
.

JudgeasGat
ekeeper
s

Thetr
ialj
udgemustdeter
mineatt
heout
set
,pur
suantt
oRul
e104(
a.)whet
her
t
heexperti
sproposi
ngt
otesti
fyto:

1. Sci
ent
if
icknowl
edget
hat

2. Wi
llassi
stt
het
ri
eroff
actt
ounder
standordet
ermi
neaf
acti
nissue

St
andar
dofRevi
ewofj
udges’
deci
sion

Onappeal,thestandar
df orreviewi
ngaj
udge’
sdeci
siont
oadmi
torexcl
ude
exper
ttest
imonyis“AbuseofDiscr
etion”

TWOWAYSi
nwhi
chappel
lat
ecour
tshaver
evi
ewedal
owercour
t’
sdeci
siont
o
excl
udeori
ncl
udeexper
ttest
imony:

 Whetherther
ewasanabuseofdiscret
ionbyt
hej
udgei
nhi
sappl
icat
ionoft
he
Daubertf
actor
stodet
ermi
ner
eli
abili
ty

 Whethertheexper
ttest
imonyhad an adequat
efact
ualbasi
sso ast
o be
deemedreli
abl
e.

44
Appl
icat
ionofDauber
tSt
andar
dst
ofor
ensi
cevi
dence:

Thef
oll
owi
ngi
snotacompl
etel
ist
,andi
snotaccur
atef
oral
ljur
isdi
cti
ons.

1. Bal
li
sti
cs.Gener
all
yfai
lst
heDauber
tst
andar
ddespi
tewi
despr
eadaccept
ance

2. Bat ter
ed Woman Syndrome.Has sat
isf
ied t
he Dauber
tst
andar
din some
j
uri
sdi
cti
onbutf
ail
edt
hetest,
butfai
lsi
nmost.

3. ComputerSi
mul
ati
on.Has f
ail
ed because exper
ts of
ten can’
texpl
aint
he
al
gor
it
hms.

4. Chi
ldAccommodat
ionSyndr
ome.Hasf
ail
edt
het
est
,fort
hemostpar
t.

5. EyeWi t
nessIdenti
fi
cat
ion.General
lyfail
stheDauber
ttestf
ort
hemostpar
t,
asmostsoci
alsci
ence,
li
kesocialpsychol
ogy,does.

6. Hai rAnal
ysi
s.Dauberthasbeensuccessf
ull
yappl
iedt
ospect
rophot
omet
erand
gaschr
omatogr
aphi
ctestf
ordetect
ingthepastuseofdr
ugs.

7. For ensicAnt
hropol
ogy.HasnotyetmettheDauber
ttest
,butt
hest
udyof
cer
tai
nfeaturesf
rom t
hebonesr
emai
nsrel
iabl
e.

8. Hypnosi s.Hasknownt her

apeuti
cval
ue,butnotasamet hodofproducing
accur
aterecol
lect
ionofpastevents,asi
twoul
dbeusedincour
t.Hypnosi
sther
efore
doesnotmeetDauberttest
.

9. I nt
oxi
lyzerTest.Havebeenr
uledval
idandar
econsi
der
edbeyondsci
ent
if
ic
di
sput
ebymanyj udges.

10. Pol ygr

aph.Evidence (
usual
lyaccept
abl
e underfrye w/few excepti
ons)is
beginningtobefoundreli
abl
einDauber
theari
ngs,butst
il
ldoesnotenj
oywi despr
ead
acceptance.

11. Psychi atri

c.Evidencehashadmi xedresul
tsunderDauber t
.Techniquessuch
asuseofpeni lepl et
hysmographyt omeasuresexualar ousalhavehadpr obl
ems
gett
ing admitt
ed i n some states,buthave faced no problems i
n otherst ates.
Testi
monyr egardingment aldisorder
sthatgot othemat terofmensr eagener ally
sati
sfi
esDauber tTest.Asdoesmuchdi mini
shedcapaci
tyt
estimonyandmor epr oven
vari
etyofsyndromes.

12. Quest i
onedDocuments.Rul
edbymanyjudgesasnotr
equir
ingtheDauberttest
becausesci enti
fi
cpri
nci
pleshavenot
hingt
odowiththedayt
odayt askasperformed
by practi
cing QDE’s.However,some newertypes ofanalysi
s are exper
ienci
ng
di
ffi
cult
ies.

45
13. Tr aceEvidenceCompar
ison.Hasnotyetbeendeci
dedduetocont
rover
syover
thequal
if
icat
ionsrequi
redf
orf
orensi
csci
enti
storlabt
echnici
anasamicr
oanalyst
.

14. Voi
ceCompar
ison.Havef
ail
edDauber
ttestf
ormostpar
t.

Frye,Dauber
tandKumhocaseshaveper
suasi
veEf
fect
sint
hePhi
li
ppi
nesSupr
eme
Court

Peopl
( evs.JoelYatar
)Evidencei
sadmissi
blewheniti
srel
evanttothefact
i
ssueandisnotother
wiseexcl
udedbystat
uteortherul
esofcour
t(i
.e.compet
ent)
(
sec.3,
Rule128)

Neit he Fr
her t ye – Schwar
tz st d nor Dauber
andar t-
Kumho st
andar
dis
cont
rol
li
nginthePhi
li
ppi
nes.

UsageofFr
ye,
Dauber
tandKumhoDoct
ri
nesi
nPhi
li
ppi
neJur
ispr
udence.

The Phi
li
ppine cour
ts do notfol
low t
he r
est
ri
cti
ve t
estf
oradmi
ssi
bil
it
y
est
abl
ishedbyFrye-
SchwartsandDauber
t-
Kumho.

UnderPhil
ippi
neRul
esofCourt
,evi
dencei
sadmissibl
ewheni
tisr
elevanttothe
f
acti
nissueandisnotot
herwi
seexcl
udedbystat
uteortheRul
esofCourt(sect
ion3,
Rul
e128)
.

Chapt
erVI
I
DNAASEVI
DENCE

DNAt esti
s(oranal
ysi
s)issynonymoustoDNAt
ypi
ng,
DNAf
inger
pri
nti
ng,
DNA
pr
ofi
li
ng,geneti
ctest
s,andgeneti
csfi
ngerpr
int
ing.

DNAtestoranal
ysi
si sbasedf
rom thef
actthatourdi
ff
erencesasi
ndi
vidual
sar
edue
t
othedif
fer
encesinthecomposit
ionofourgenes.

46
DNAandDNAt
est
ingaccor
dingt
oPhi
li
ppi
neSupr
emeCour
ts

Peopl
ev.Val
lej
o(G.
R.No.144656)

DNAordeoxyribonucleicacidorDNAi sanorgani
csubstancesfoundi
n
aperson’scel
lswhi
chcont ainshisorhergeneti
ccode.Excepti
denti
caltwi
ns,
eachperson’
sDNAprofil
eisdi st
inctanduni
que.

ThepurposeofDNAt esti
ngist oascertai
nwhetheranassociat
ionexi
sts
betweent heevidencesampleandt her ef
erencesample.Thesamplescoll
ected
aresubjectedtovariouschemicalprocessestoestabl
ishthei
rpr
ofi
le.

Thet
estmayyi
eldt
hreepossi
bler
esul
ts:

Thesampl esaredi f
fer
entandt her
efor
emusthaveor igi
natedfrom dif
fer
ent
sources.This concl
usion i
s absol
ute and r
equi
res no fur
theranalysi
s or
discussi
on.

Iti
snotpossibl
et obesur e,basedont heresul
tsoftherest,whet
herthe
sampleshavesi
milarDNA types.Thismightoccursi
navar iet
yofreasons
i
ncludi
ngdegr
adati
on,cont
aminati
on,orf
ail
ureofsomeaspect
softheprot
ocol
.

Thesampl esaresimilar
,andcouldhaveori
ginat
edfr
om thesamesource.I
n
such case,the samples arefound t
o be si
mil
ar,t
he anal
ystpr
oceeds t
o
deter
minethestati
sti
calsigni
fi
cance

Peopl
ev.Yat
ar(
G.R.No.150224)

DNA i samol eculethatencodest hegeneti

ci nfor
mat i
oninal ll
ivi
ng
organisms.Aper son’sDNAi sthesamei neachcellandi tdoesnotchange
throughoutaper son’sli
feti
me;theDNAi naper son’
sbloodi sthesameast he
DNAf oundi nhi
ssaliva,sweat,bone,therootandshaftofhair,ear
wax,mucus,
uri
ne,ski n,ti
ssue,andvagi nalandr ect
alcell
s.Mosti mpor t
antl
y,becauseof
polymor phismsinhumangenet icstruct
ure,not woindivi
dualshavethesame
DNA, withthenotableexceptionofidenti
caltwi
ns.

Forpur
posesofcr i
minali
nvesti
gati
on,DNAidenti
fi
cati
oni safert
il
esour ceof
bot
hincul
patoryandexcul
patoryevi
dence.I
tcanassisti
mmensel yineffect
ing
amor eaccurateaccountifthecrimecommi tt
ed,effi
cient
lyfacil
it
ati
ng the

47
 convict
ionoftheguil
ty,securi
ngtheacqui
ttaloft
hei
nnocent
,andensur
inghe
properadmini
str
ati
onofj ust
iceinever
ycase.

Her
rer
av.Al
ba(
G.R.No.148220)

DNAisthefundament
albui
ldi
ngblockofaperson’
sentir
egenet
icmake-
up.DNAi sf
oundinallhumancell
sandi sthesameineverycelloft
hesame
per
sonanddi f
fer
entinever
yotherper
son,henceaper son’
sDNApr ofi
lecan
det
erminehi
sident
it
y.

DNAanal
ysi
sisaprocedur
einwhichDNAextractedfrom abi
ologi
cal
sampl
eobtai
nedfr
om ani
ndivi
duali
sexaminedandprocessedtogenerat
ea
pat
ter
,orDNApr
ofi
le.

Thechemi
calst
ruct
ureofDNAhasf
ourbases.

 A-adeni
ne

 G-guani
ne

 C-cyt
osi
ne

 T-t
hymi
ne

DNAisadoublest
randedmol
ecul
e.I
tiscomposedoft
wospeci
fi
cpai
red
bases,
cal
l genes”
ed“ .

Somewher eint heDNA f r

ameworkaresecti
onsthatdiff
erknownas
pol
“ ymorphicloci
”,whicharetheareaanal
yzedinDNAtyping,pr
ofi
li
ng,t
est
s,
f
inger
pri
nting,
andot heranal
ogousDNAanalysi
s.

Howi
sDNAt
ypi
ngper
for
med?

Fr
om aDNA sampl eobtai
nedorextract
ed,amol
ecul
arbi
ologi
stmay
pr
oceedtoanal
yzei
tinsever
always.Theyar
e:

 RFLP-r
est
ri
cti
onf
ragmentl
engt
hpol
ymor
phi
sm

r
 HLA–“ever
sedotbl
ot”

 mt
DNApr
ocess

 VNTR–var
iabl
enumbert
andem r
epeat
s

48
  PCR-
basedSTR;PCR(
pol
ymer
ase)
,STR(
shor
ttandem r
epeat
s)

DNAt
ypi
ngt
odet
ermi mat
ned“ ches”
:

WhenDNAorf ingerpri
nttest
sar edonetoident
ifyasuspectinacriminal
case,the evidence coll
ected from the cri
me scene is compared wit
ht he
“known”pri
nt.Ifasubst anti
alamountoft heidenti
fyi
ngfeaturesarethesame,
theDNAorf ingerpr
intisdeemedmat ch.Buteveni ft
heonlyonef eat
ureofthe
DNAorf i
ngerprinti
sdi f
fer
ent,i sdeemednott
ti ohavecomef r
om thesuspects.

Pat
erni
tyDNATest
s

Aper son’spossessest wogenetict ypesofhumanDNAr egionscal l

ed,“al
lel
e”,
oneinheri
tedf r
om eachpar ent.I
napat ernit
ytest,t
hef orensi
csci enti
stlooksata
numberoft hesevari
ableregionsi nanindividualt
oproduceaDNApr of
il
e,compar i
ng
DNAoft hemot herandchild,anddeterminet heall
egedfatherprof
il
e.I ft
heman’ sDNA
typesdonotmat chthechi l
d, heisexcl
udedast hefat
her.IfDNAt ypesmat ches,
then
heisnotexcludedasthef ather.

I
ntr
oduct
ionofDNAevi
dencei
ncour
tini
ti
all
yrecei
vedwi
thcaut
ion

Peopl
ev.Teehanke(
G.R.No.125938)

TheSupr emeCour tstatedasanobi terdict

um that,“
whileeyewit
ness
i
dent i
fi
cati
on is si
gnif
icant,itis notas accurate and aut
horit
ati
ve as t
he
scienti
fi
cf or
msofi denti
ficat
ionevidencesuchast hef i
ngerpr
intortheDNA
testresul
ts.”

PeLi
m v.CA(
336Phi
l741)

“DNA,bei ngar elat

ivel
ynew sci ence,hasnotasyetbeenaccor ded
off
icialrecogni
tionbyourcour t
s.Paternitywoul
dstilhavetoberesol
vedby
such convent i
onalevidence as the relevanti
ncri
minati
ng act
s,ver
baland
wri
tten,bytheput at
ivefat
her.”

Ti
ji
ngv.CA(
G.R.No.125901)

49
 SupremeCour tobserved that,“Parentagewi l
lst i
llber esolved using
convent ionalmet hods unless SC adopt st he moder n and sci enti
fi
c ways
available.For t
unat el
y,thePhi li
ppineshavenow t hef aci
li
tyandexper tisein
usingDNAt estforidenti
fi
cationandpar entagetesti
ng.”TheDNAoft hemot her,
theal l
egedf atherandchi ldar eanal yzedtoest abl
ishpar entage.Ofcour se,
beinganovelsci enti
fi
ctechnique,theuseofDNAt estasevi dencesist i
llopen
tochal l
enges.Ast heappropr i
atecasecomes, court
sshoul dnothesi t
atetor ul
e
ont headmi ssi
bili
tyofDNAevi dence.”

Fi
rstbr
eakt
hroughofDNAi
nPhi
li
ppi
necour
ts

Thefi
r stbreakthroughofDNAanal ysi
sasadmi ssibl
eandaut hori
tat
ive
evidenceinthePhi l
ippineJuri
sprudencecamei n2002inPeoplevVallejo(G.R.
No.144656)wher et he rape and mur dervictim’
s DNA sampl es fr
om t he
bloodstai
nedcl ot
hesoft heaccusedwer eadmi t
tedi
nevidence.TheDNApr ofil
e
fr
om t hevaginalswabst akenfr
om t hevicti
m andSCaf fir
medt heaccused’s
convicti
onofr apewi t
hhomi ci
deandsent encedhimtodeath.

TheSChel dthatinassessingthepr obati

vevalueofDNAevi dence,t her
efore,
courtsshoul
dconsi der
,amongot herthings,how sampleswerecollected,hos
theywerehandled,thepossibi
li
tyofcont aminat
ionofthesamples,t heproper
standar
dandpr ocedurefol
lowedintesti
ngsampl es,andthequal
if
icationofthe
analyst
.

Si
gni
fi
canti
mpactonj
uri
spr
udenceofDNAt
est
ing

Peopl
ev.Yat
ar

Thecourtfol
lowedVal lej
o’s,aff
ir
medt heconvicti
onofappel l
antbecause
thephysi calevi
dence,corroboratedbycircumst anti
alevidence,andjust
ifi
cati
on
ofexper twitnessfortheDNAsampl escoll
ect ed,showedhi sguil
t.SCadmi tt
ed
thatt heyintegrat
edt heseadvancesi nsci enceandt echnologytoPhi l
ippi
ne
j
usticesyst em butmustbecaut i
ousi ntraversi
ngi ntor el
ati
velyuncharter
ed
waters.Si gnifi
cantl
y,SC uphel dt he const i
tut
ionali
ty ofDNA t est
ing and
admi ssibil
it
yoftheresultsthereof.

I
nre:Wr
itofHabeasCor
pusf
orDeVi
ll
a

50
 Theconvicted-
pet i
ti
onerpresent
edDNAt estresul
tstopr
ovet hathei s
nott
hef atherofthechildconceivedattheti
meofcommi ssi
onoftherape.The
Courtrulesthatadi f
ferencebetweentheDNApr ofi
leoftheconvi
ct-
petit
ioner
and the DNA pr ofi
le oft he vi
cti
m’s chi
ld does notprecl
ude the convict
-
pet
it
ioner ’
scommi ssi
onofr ape.

Tecson,
etalv.COMELEC(
G.R.No.161434)

Incaseofpr oofoffi
li
ati
onorpaterni
tywouldbeunlikelyt
osati
sfactor
il
y
establi
shorwoul dbedi ff
icul
ttoobtai
n,DNAt esti
ng,whichexaminesgenet i
c
codesobt ai
nedfrom bodycellsoft
heil
legit
imatechi
ldandanyphysicalresi
due
ofthel ongdeadpar entcouldberesor
tedt o.Aposit
ivemat chwouldclearup
fi
li
ationorpater
nity.

Peopl
ev.Janson(
G.R.No.125938)

TheSCacquitt
edt heaccusedchar gedwithrapef orlackofevidence
becauset heydoubton therealmal ef
actors.A compl exoffensehad been
perpetr
atedbutt
heycannotest
ablishedt
heper pet
rat
ors.AccordingtoSC,“
How
wewi shwehadDNAorot herscienti
fi
cevidencetosti
llourdoubts.
”

Agust
inv.CA(
G.R.No.162571)

TheCourtsaid“fortoolong,il
legiti
matechildrenhavebeenmarginal
ized
byfatherswhochoset odenyt heirexistence.Thegr owingsophi
sti
cati
onof
DNA testi
ngt echnologyf i
nall
ypr ovidesamuchneededequal i
zerforsuch
ostr
acizedandabandonedpr ogeny.Thecour thasl ongbeli
evedi
nthemer i
tsof
DNA testi
ngandhaver epeatedl
yexpr essedasmuchi nt hepast
.Thecour t
ther
eforetakest hi
soppor tunit
yt of orceful
lyreit
erated ourst
and t
hatDNA
test
ingisaval
idmeansofdet ermini
ngpat ernit
y”.

Her
rer
av.Al
ba(
G.R.No.148220)

Evi
denceisr el
evantwhenithassuchanon- exi
stence.Sec.49ofRul e130,
Rul
esofCourt,whichgovernstheadmissi
bil
it
yofexper
ttesti
mony,provi
dest hatt
he
opi
nionofthewitnessonamat t
errequi
ri
ngspeci
alknowledge,ski
ll
s,exper
ienceor

51
tr
aini
ngwhi
chhei sshowntopossessmayber ecei
vedi
nevidence.Thi
sRul
edoesnot
poseanyl
egalobstacl
etot
headmi ssi
bil
it
yofDNAanalysi
sasevidence.

DNATest
s:Whendeemedunnecessar
ytot
ool
atet
oconsi
der
:

The i
ssue ofDNA t ests as a more accurat
e and author
itative means of
i
denti
fi
cat
ion t
han eyewitness identi
fi
cat
ion need notbe belabored.DNA t est
ing
pr
oposedbypetit
ioner
s,inacaseatbar ,t
ohaveanobj ect
iveandsci enti
fi
c basisof
i
denti
fi
cat
ionof“semensampl estocompar ewiththosetakenfrom thevagi naofthe
vi
cti
m”arethusunnecessaryorar efor
gott
enevidencetoolatet
oconsi dernow.

Pr
obat
iveval
ueofDNAanal
ysi
sasevi
dence

TheSupr emeCour theldthataDNAt estisaval idpr obativetooltodetermine

paternity(Her r
eravAl ba).TheCourtsaidt hattherei
snot hi
ngi ntherulesofevidence
orl aw t hatpr ohibit
st hatadmi ssibi
li
ty ofa DNA t est.Despi t
el i
beralrules on
admi ssibil
ity,tr
ialcourt
sshoul dbecaut i
ousi ngivi
ngcr edencet oDNAanal ysi
sas
evi
dence, asaccor di
ngt oJusticeCarpioandr eit
erat
et hest atement sinVallej
o,which
sai
dt hatinassessi ngt heprobati
veval ueofDNAevi dence,t herefor
e,courtsshould
consider ,
amongot herthings,howthesampl eswerecol l
ected, howt heywer ehandled,
the possi bili
ty ofcontami nat
ion,the properst andard and pr oceduref oll
owed in
analyzingt hesampl esandt hequali
ficat
ionoft heanalyst.

Appl
icabi
li
tyofsel
f-
incr
imi
nat
ion

Obtai
ning DNA sampl es from an accused i n a cr
iminalcase orf rom the
respondentinapat erni
tycase,cont r
arytothebeliefoftherespondentinthisacti
on,
willnotviol
atether i
ghttoself-i
ncr i
minati
on,astheSCr uli
ngint hecasePeopl ev.
Yatar,thekerneloft heri
ghti snotagai nstallcompulsion,butagainsttestimonial
compul si
on.Therightagainstsel
f-incri
minati
onissimplyagainstthelegalprocessof
extract
ingfr
om thel i
psoft heaccusedanadmi ssi
onofgui lt
.Itdoesnotappl ywhere
theevidencesoughtt obeexcl udedi snotani ncri
minati
onbutaspar tofobject
evidence.

Secti
on17,Ar ti
cle3oft heConst it
uti
on,pr
ovi
desthat“noper sonshal lbe
compel l
edt obeawi t
nessagainsthimself.
”Invari
ousSC ruli
ng,t
hisr ul
eisonl y
appl
icablet o use of physicalor mor alcompulsi
on to ext
ort communi cati
on
(t
est
imoni alevidence)fr
om adefendant,notanexcl
usionofevi
dencetakenfrom his
bodywheni tmaybemat er
ial
.

52
For
eignj
uri
spr
udenceasci
tedi
nPhi
li
ppi
necour
ts

 Wil
sonv.Lumb-Showst hatDNAtest
ingi
ssocommonl yaccept
edt
hat
,insome
i
nstances,
order
ingt
hepr
ocedur
ehasbecomeamini
ster
ialact
.

 Gregv.Coleman–Mi chi
ganSCwhi leruli
ngontheconsti
tut
ional
it
yofaprovisi
on
oflawal
lowingnon-modifi
ablesuppor tagr
eementspoi
ntedoutthati
twasbecause
ofthedi
ffi
cult
yofdetermini
ngpat erni
tybefor
etheadventofDNAt est
ingt
hatsuch
suppor
tagreementswer enecessary.

 Raff
ert
yv.Per
kins– Resul
tsshowi
ngpater
nit
yweresuff
ici
entt
ooverthr
ow t
he
pr
esumpti
onofl
egit
imacyofachi
ldbor
nduri
ngthecour
seofamarri
age.

 Kohlv.Amundson–Evendefaul
tjudgmentsofpat
ernit
ycoul
dbevacatedaf
tert
he
adj
udicat
edfat
herhad,
thr
oughDNAt est
ing,est
abl
ishednon-
pat
erni
ty.

 FryevU. S–Whenasci enti

fi
cprincipleordi scoverycrossest heli
nebet weenthe
experimentalanddemonst r
ablest agesisdi fficul
ttodef i
ne.Somewher eint hi
s
twil
ightzonet heevidenti
alforceoft hepr inciplemustber ecognized,andwhi l
e
courtswi l
lgo al ong wayi n admi tt
ing exper ttest
imonydeduced f rom awel l
recognizescienti
fi
cpr i
ncipl
eofdi scovery,thet hi
ngfrom whicht hededuct i
onis
mademustbesuf f
ici
entl
yestabli
shedt ohavegai nedgeneralaccept anceinthe
parti
cularf
iel
di nwhichitbel
ongs.

 Statev.Schwart
z–Whi l
ethecourtagreewit
hthet r
ialcour
tf orensi
cDNAt ypi
ng
hasgainedacceptanceinthescienti
fi
ccommuni ty,theadmi ssibi
li
tyofspecifi
c
testresult
sin a part
icul
arcase hinges on t
he laborat
ory’
s compl iance wit
h
appropri
atest
andardsandcontrol
s,andt heavail
abil
ityoftheirtesti
ngdataand
resul
ts.

Feder
alRul
eofEvi
dence

53
 Rel
evantevi
dence– i
sdef
inedst
hatwhi
chhasany”
tendencyt
omaket
he
exist
enceofanyfactt
hatisofconsequencetothedeterminat
ionoft
heact
ionmor
e
probabl
eorlesspr
obabl
ethanitwoul
dbewi t
houttheevidence.

Al
lrel
evantevidenceisadmi ssi
ble,exceptasot herwi
sepr ovidedbytheConst
it
uti
on,
byactcongress,byt heserulesorbyot herrulesprescri
bedbyt heSCpursuantto
st
atut
oryauthori
ty.Evi
dencewhi chisnotrelevantisnotadmi ssibl
e.

Rule702oft heFeder alRulesofEvi dencegoverningexper twitnesspr ovides;i

f
sci
ent i
fi
c,techni cal,orotherspeci al
izedknowl edgewillassistthet ri
eroft hef actto
understandt heevi denceort odet ermineaf actinissue,awi tnessqual ifi
edasan
expertbyknowl edge, ski
ll
,experience,trai
ning,oreducation,mayt estif
yt heretointhe
for
m ofanopi nionorot herwise.If(1)thet esti
monyisbaseduponsuf f
icientfactsor
data,(2)thet estimonyi sthepr oductofr el i
ablepri
nci
plesandmet hods,and( 3)the
witnesshasappl iedtheprincipl
esandmet hodsr el
iabl
ytot hefactsoft hecase.

54
 Chapt
erVI
II
FORENSI
CIDENTI
FICATI
ON

55
For
ensi
cIdent
if
icat
ion
Forensi
cident
if
icat
ioni
stheappl
icat
ionofforensi
csci
enceandtechnol
ogyto
i
denti
fyspecif
icobj
ectsfr
om t
hetr
acestheyleave,
oftenatacr
imesceneorsceneof
anacci
dent.

Pi
ecesofi nformati
onordataofaper sonorahumancanbecol lectedthrough
tr
acesoff ingerpri
nts,teet
hbite,photogr
aph,wal kpatt
erns,andhandwriti
ng,when
accumulatedt oget
hershapest hereconstructi
onpuzzl
eofacr i
meori nvesti
gation.
Theresult
s( specif
icfindi
ngs)arepresent
edi ncour
t(f
orensicmeans“f
ort hecourts”)
asevidence.

Thef i
el doff orensici dent if
icationencompassesmul t
if
ar i
ousaspect sgr ouped
i
ntodifferentbr anchesofsci ent i
ficst udiesusedi nfor ensiclabor atoryint heUni t
ed
Stat
esFeder alBur eauofI nvest igation, Phil
ippineNati
onalPol ice,andNat ionalBureau
of Investigation, ar e the f ollowing: Ant hropometry; Biomet rics/other Physi cal
Character
istics; Fi nger
pr int I dent i
ficati
on; For ensic Ant hropol ogy; For ensi
c
Odontology;For ensi cRadi ology;For ensicBi ochemist
ry;For ensicBot any;Quest i
oned
Document ( Identifi
cati
on) ; Tr ace Evi dence I dent
if
ication; For ensi c Entomol ogy;
Fi
rearmsI dent if
icati
on;andot herf or ensicfields.

Forensi
cidentifi
cati
onhascomeal ongway.I ntheear lyhalfofthe19thcentury,
credithasbeenat tri
butedtotheQuét el
etCl assifi
cati
on( measur ementofhei ght)and
l
at eron,t he Bertil
lon Cl
assif
icati
on-PortraitPar l
e( Anthropomet r
y)has l aidthe
foundation f
ormoder n cl
aycr i
mi nalident i
fi
cati
on.Br eakthroughs in sci
ence and
technologypavedt hewayf ormor esophisticatedandi nnovativetool
swhi chr epl
aced
the ancientmet hods ofidenti
ficati
on wi t
ht he mor e accur at
e DNA Anal ysis and
Fingerpri
ntAnalysis.

Cor
pusDel
ict
i
Corpusdeli
ctiisalegalterm whichoftentur
nsupi nmur dercases.Itli
terall
y
means“thebodyoft heof
fence”,thoughthecorr
ectmeaningofthetermis“ aggregate
mater
ialci
rcumstancesconsti
tutingtheevi
denceoftheoffence”
.Identi
fi
cationoft he
bodyisoneofi t
sessentialparts.Inpract
ice,i
namur dercase,thesentencei snot

56
passedunt i
lthecor
pusdel i
ctii
sful
lyestabl
ished.However,ther
eisnol aw t
hata
sentencecannotbepassedwi t
houtt
hecorpusdel i
cti
.Murdersareusual
lyundert
he
fal
sei mpressi
onthatwithoutthecorpusdelict
i,convi
cti
onf ormurdercannotbe
obtained.

Phil
ippinejur
isprudencei srepletewithCor pusDeli
cticases.Proofofcor pus
delictiisindispensableinpr osecutionf orfel
oniesandof f
enses.Whi leinautopsy,
repor tofamedi colegalexper tincasesofmur derorhomici
dei sprefer
ablyaccepted
toshow t heext entofthei njuriessuf f
eredbyt hevicti
m,iti
snott heonlycompet ent
evidencet opr ovetheinjuriesandf actofdeat h.Peoplev.Barr
o,Sr .
,338SCRA312,
326( 2000).I tmaybepr ovedbyt het est
imoniesoft hecr
ediblewitnesses.Evena
singlewi tness’uncorroborated t esti
mony,i fcredibl
e,maysuf fi
cet o proveitand
war rantaconvi ct
iontherefore.Ri mor i
n,Sr.v.People,GRNo.146481,Apr i
l30,2003;
Peopl
ev.Ol
iva.

I
dent
if
icat
ionoft
heLi
ving
Ident
if
icati
onofthelivi
ngassumesimport
ancei
navar
iet
yofmedi
col
egal
si
tuat
ions.Dr.Ani
lAggr
avalhasci
tedt
hefol
lowi
ng:

 Impersonations.Whenaper sonclai
mst obesomeonehei snot .Cases
ofimper sonation occurin making passpor
ts,admissi
onsi n schools,
i
nsurancecl aims,inheri
tance,andmi ssi
ngpersons.Theintent
ioni sto
decei
ve ot hers by fal
se ident
it
y.The wor d“ i
mpostor
”isaf orm of
i
mper sonation.

 PersonHidi
nghisIdentity.Whenapersonwantstoconcealhi
sident
it
y
orclai
msthatheisnott hepersonwhom ot
hersaret
aki
nghimtobe.For
example,an eyewitness may assertseeing t
he per
son murderi
ng
someone,andthatpersonassertshei
snotthesame.

 Ident
if
icati
oninaCour tofLaw.Whenapersonneedst obei denti
fi
edi na
casebef orethecour t
,hemustunder goamedi colegalexami nati
on
conducted by the t esti
fyi
ng doct
orhimsel f
.The exami ned person
broughtandi dent
if
iedi ncourtmustmatcht heexami nat
ionsresultsto
assurethatthesubjectisthesamepersonexami ned.

57
  InterchangeofBabi es.Whenbabi
eshavebeeninadver
tentl
ychangedin
ahospi talnurser
y,itmaybecomenecessar
ytoidenti
fythecor
rectbaby
belongingtoamot her,t
oavoi
daninj
usti
cetotheli
vesofthebabiesand
theirparents.

 Abscondi
ngSoldiers.I
dent
if
icat
ionmaybecomenecessar
yincasesof
abscondi
ngsol
diers.

Met
hodsofi
dent
if
yingt
hel
ivi
ngar
ethr
ought
hef
oll
owi
ng:

 PersonalImpression(orVisualI
denti
fi
cation).Wi t
nessesincourtmaybe
askedtopoi ntouttheper
sonaccused.Ident i
kitisacompositepi
ctur
eofa
personfrom awi t
nessaccount.I
tcanal sobeunr eli
abl
ebecausepersonal
i
mpr essi
onsbasedonappear anceofhair,must acheandbeardcaneasil
ybe
al
tered.Plast
icsurger
ymaychanget hefacialfeaturesofaper
son.

 Phot
ogr
aphy.Mor
eusef
uli
nident
if
yingt
hel
ivi
ngt
hant
hedead.

 Handwri
ti
ng.Expert
suset hi
sinidenti
fyi
ngf or
geri
esorident
if
icat
ionofa
per
son.Met hodsusedincl
udephotographi
cenl ar
gement
,analysi
sofink,
andanal
ysisofpaper.

 Fi
ngerpr
ints(Dact
ylography).Skinsont hefinger
sofhandshaveauni que
ri
dgepatter
npeculiartoever yindi
vidual.Whent heskincomesincontact
wit
hasmoot hsurf
ace,agr easyimpressionisleftbehindduetothefats
fr
om the sweat.The i mpression can be devel
oped bysuitabl
e dust
ing
powderandcanbel if
tedafterdevel
opment .

I
dent
if
icat
ionoft
heDead
Asi
def r
om ident
if
yingthelivi
ng,thereisalsoaneedtoi dentif
yt hedead,
becausef oroneitwil
ldeter
mi neast owhetherornotthepol
iceinvesti
gationwil
l
proceed.Atti
mest hehel
poft hepathol
ogisti
sneededtolookf
orthef actsthatcan
l
eadt otheposit
ivei
dent
if
icat
ionofthedeceased.

I
dent
if
icat
ionmayber
equi
redi
nthef
oll
owi
ngci
rcumst
ances,

58
 1.Inrecent
lydeadper
sons,t
hosedeadbodi
esabandonedatsomepl aceand
no one knows who thatper
son i
s,though hi
sf eat
ures ar
e perf
ectl
y
recogni
zabl
e.

2.Inlongdeadpersons,thebodiesofthepersonswhohavebeendeadf or
somet i
meandar eont heprocessofdecomposit
ionmaki
ngident
if
icat
ion
thr
oughtradi
ti
onalmeansimpossibl
e.

3.Inmuti
latedbodies,thebodiesofpersonsthathavebeenmut
il
atedbyt hei
r
murderer
st opreventi denti
fi
cat
ion,orthosethathavebeenmut i
lat
edi n
acci
dentsand/ordisasters.

4.I
nbodi
eswhi
chhavebeenr
educedt
omer
eskel
etons.

Themet
hodsofi
dent
if
yingt
hedeadar
ethef
oll
owi
ng,

1.Pri
mar yPhysicalChar
acteri
sti
cs,whi
chi sver
ydif
fi
cul
ttochange,i
nvol
vest
he
sex,age,
heightorstat
ure,weight
,andraceofaper
son.

2.Secondar
yPhysi calCharact
erist
ics,whichiseasiertochange,invol
vesskin
col
or,eyes,teeth,hair
,scar s,tatt
ooing,fi
ngerpri
nts,exter
nalpecul
iar
it
ies,
defor
miti
es,
clothingandotherobjects,
jewel
ry,andcosmeticsoft
hedeceased.

3.DNA Fingerpri
nti
ng,DNA compar i
sons all
ow defi
nit
ive i
dent
ifi
cati
on ofan
i
ndivi
dual,whetherthati
ndividualisli
ving,whoisinvolvedinassaul
t,rapeor
pater
nit
ydispute,ori
sdead, wherethereareonl
yremai ns,t
heDNAext ract
edin
thebonesmaybecompar edwi thfamil
ymember s.

4.For
ensi
cAnt
hropol
ogy

5.For
ensi
cOdont
ology

6.TheDat
ingofHumanSkel
etalRemai
ns

7.Labor
ator
yTest
s

8.I
ndi
vidual
izi
ngSkel
etalFeat
ures

Bi
omet
ri
cs

59
 Bi
omet
ri
cs i
sthesci
enceofusi
ngpar
ti
cul
araspectoft
hehumanbodyt
o
r
ecogni
zeaper
sonf orsecur
it
yat
tendance,oranyot
herpur
posesf
orwhi
chpr
oofof
i
dent
it
yisr
equi
red.

Biometr
icsyst emsgatherphysiological“si
gnatures”suchasf ingerprint
s–t he
mostwidelyusedbi ometri
c,DNA,iri
ses,r et
inas,voi
ce,handwr i
ti
ng,facialrecogniti
on,
hand and facialgeomet ry,and ot her biomet r
ici denti
fi
ers used i ni denti
fyi
ng
i
ndivi
duals.Further
mor e,theuseofbi omet r
icsystemsi sr api
dlygr owi ng i
nl aw
enfor
cement,banking,ande- commerce,whi chhasr evolut
ionar
yi mpactonsecur i
ty
andhowwei nteractwithcomputers.

TheSupr
emeCourtofthePhi
li
ppi
neshadthechancet
odiscussbi
ometryi
nthe
caseofOpl
ev.Tor
res,r
egardingani
ssueinAdmini
str
ati
veOrderNo.308.Thecour
t
sai
d,

Biomet ryorBiomet r
icsis“ t
hesci enceoft heappl icat
ionofst ati
sticalmet hods
tobiologicalfacts,amat hematicalanal ysisofbiologicaldat a”.Thet erm“ bi
omet r
ics”
has now evol ved int
o a br oad cat egor y oftechnol ogies whi ch pr ovi de precise
conformat ion ofan i ndi
vidual’
si dentityt hrough the use oft he indi vidual
s own
physiologicaland behavi oralchar acter i
sti
cs.A physi ologicalchar act eri
sti
ci sa
rel
ati
vel y stabl
e physicalchar acteri
stic such as a f ingerpr i
nt,r eti
nalscan,hand
geomet ry orf acialfeatures.A behavi or
alchar acteristi
c,on t he ot herhand,i s
i
nfluenced by t he indivi
dual’
s per sonal i
ty and incl
udes voi ceprint,signat ure and
keystroke.

Thef
oll
owi
ngt
echni
quesar
ethemor
ecommonbi
omet
ri
csi
nuset
oday,

1.Fi
nger
pri
nts,
themostwi
del
yusedbi
omet
ri
ctool
.

2.DNAMatchi
ng,compari
ngoftheDNAcodesorindexofanindi
vidualt
othe
DNApr
ofil
eintheelect
ronicdatabase,ort
oabl
oodrel
ati
ve.UsesCODI S
(
Combi
nedDNAI ndexSystem).

3.EyeScans,cat egori
zedintotwotypes:i
ri
sandr et
inal.I
risscansdigi
tall
y
process,recordandcompar etheli
ghtanddar
kpat ternsintheiri
s’fl
ecks
and rings.Retinalscan,on the ot
herhand,requires cl
ose-up i
nfr
ared
scanningthroughthepupil
.

4.Faci
alRecogni
ti
on,coversever
aldi
ffer
entt echni
quesincl
udi
ngvideoand
photoi
maging,ther
mography– whichr eadst heheatpat
ter
naroundt he
eyesandcheeks,andtheabil
it
ytoscant hedi mensi
onsofanindivi
dual’
s

60
 head.

5.Hand Geomet
ry,r
eads t
he out
li
ne ort
he shape ofa shadow,nott
he
handpr
int
.

6.Voi
ceRecogni
ti
on,
scanst
het
oneandt
imbr
eofaper
son’
svoi
ce.

7.Handwr i
ti
ng and Si gnatur
eI denti
fi
cation,identi
fi
cati
on by a person’
s
handwrit
ingast ohow thet extswerewr i
tt
en.Signatur
erecogni
ti
on,uses
progr
amst hatreadsi
gnatureswr i
tt
enonanel ect
roni
cpadbymeasur i
ngthe
speed,pressure,anddi
recti
onoft hestrokes.

Thedevel
opmentofbiometr
ici
dent
if
icat
ionsyst
ems,
requi
rest
hatphysi
caland
behavi
oralf
eat
uresf
orrecogni
ti
on,

1.Areuni
queaspossi
bleorani
dent
icalt
rai
twon’
tappearont
wopeopl
e
(
UNIQUENESS)
.\

2.Occuri
nasmanypeopl
easpossi
ble(
UNI
VERSALI
TY)
.

3.Don’
tchangeovert
ime(
PERMANENCE)
.

4.Ar
emeasur
abl
ewi
thsi
mpl
etechni
cali
nst
rument
s(MEASURABI
LITY)
.

5.Ar
eeasyandcomf
ort
abl
etomeasur
e(USERFRI
ENDLI
NESS)
.

Ot
herPhysi
calChar
act
eri
sti
cs

Gai
tAnal
ysi
s

Istheprocessofquant i
fi
cat
ionandi nt
erpret
ati
onofanimal(
incl
udi
nghuman)
l
ocomoti
on.Pathol
ogicalgaitmayr ef
lectcompensati
onsforunder
lyi
ngpathol
ogi
es,
orber
esponsi
bleforcausati
onofsympt omsinitsel
f.

Gai
tanalysi
si swi
delyusedi
npr
ofessi
onalspor
tst
rai
ningt
oopt
imi
zeand
i
mpr
oveathl
eti
cperfor
mance.

Gaitst
ylecanbeusedasabiomet
ri
cident
ifi
ert
oidentif
yindi
vidualpeopl
e.The
par
amet
ersaregroupedt
ospat
ial
-t
empor
alandkinemati
cclasses.

61
Footpr
intTr
acksDesi
gns

Basi
ctypesofmeasur
ement
sorgai
tpat
ter
ns:

a)Str
idefr
om onefoott
oanot
her
.Di
stancef
rom t
het
oeofonef
oott
otheheel
oftheot
herfoot
.

 Shor
tst
ri
de–suggest
sani
ndi
vidualwascar
ryi
ngsomet
hing.

 Nor
malst
ri
de–i
ndi
cat
esanor
malwal
kingpace.

 Longst
ri
de–i
ndi
cat
eani
ndi
vidualwasr
unni
ng.

b)Theangl
eatwhichthetoepoi
nts.Angl
einwhichasuspectst
oepoint
saway
fr
om the di
rect
ion ofmoti
on.Nor mal
lythi
sf al
ls bet
ween -
20 and +20
degr
ees.

c)Dist
ancefr
om onesteptoanot
her
.Distancefr
om thetoeofonef
oottot
he
heeloft
hatsamefoot.Mayi
ndi
cat
eifthesuspecthasali
mporhit
ch.

d)Thedist
ri
but
ionofweighti
nfeet.Thetendencyformoreweighttobeplaced
on onefootversestheotherand/ orthet endencyt
o“ walk”on cert
ain
sect
ionsoft
hefoot(t
oeorheelstr
iker)
.

e)Widt
hbetweensteps.Wi
dthbet
weent
hei
nnermostpar
toft
her
ightf
oot
andthel
eftf
oot
.

) Theappr
f oximat
esizeofthesuspect
.Lengt
hoft
hef
ootpr
intandt
hedept
h
gi
verel
ativesi
zingi
nfor
mati
on.

 Smal
lpr
intandnotdeep-shor
tper
sonwhodoesnotwei
ghtal
ot.

 Smal
lpr
intanddeep–smal
lper
sonwhowei
ght
sal
ot.

 Lar
gepr
intandnotdeep–t
allper
sonwhodoesnotwei
ghtal
ot.

62
  Lar
gepr
intanddeep–t
allper
sonwhowei
ght
sal
ot.

g)Thedi
rect
ional
it
yoft
hepat
ter
n.Mayi
ndi
cat
ethesuspect
’smodusoper
andi
.

The ul
ti
mat e goal
:Fi
nd mul
ti
ple wearpat
ter
ns i
n a pr
intwhi
ch hel
pto
i
ndi
vidual
izeit
.

Phot
ogr
ammet
ry

Measuri
ngusingtheimagesoft heperpetratorcaptur
edbyt hesurvei
ll
ance
cameras.Usi
ngthecomputersof
tware,synchr
onousi magesfr
om di
ffer
entcameras
werecomparedandcur
rentbodyf
eatureswereidenti
fied.

Ear
pri
nt

Cour
thol
dsearpr
intnotgener
all
yaccept
abl
ebysci
ent
if
iccommuni
ty.

Li
pPr
int

Isgeneral
lyaccept
abl
ewi
thi
nthef
orensi
csci
encecommuni
ty,asameansof
posi
ti
veident
if
icati
on.

Alt
houghseldom used,i
sver
ysimilart
ofi
nger
pri
ntcompar
isonandi
sknown
andacceptedf
orm ofsci
enti
fi
ccompar
ison.

FBIandIl
li
noisstatepol
iceconsi
deri
tasuni
quel
ikef
inger
pri
ntsandar
ea
posi
ti
vemeansofident
if
icati
on.

Pal
m pr
intandHandwr
it
ingI
.DSat
isf
yDauber
tRul
e

Pal
m pr
intevi
dencei
sadmi
ssi
blei
ncour
tjustl
ikef
ingerpr
intevi
dence.

Cani
neI
dent
if
icat
ionofHumanScent

Cani
nei
dent
if
icat
ionofhumanscentdoesnotyethaveapr
opersci
ent
if
ic

63
f
oundat
ion.

Theyareveryhel
pfulforjudgesinevaluati
ngthereli
abi
li
tyofdogscentli
neups
andther
eforecanbeconsideredasar easonable,
auxil
iar
ystandardoft
hereli
abil
it
yof
l
ineupseveninPol
ishcr
iminaltri
als,especi
all
yintheabsenceofindi
genouscri
ter
ia.

64
 Chapt
erI
X
FORENSI
CANTHROPOLOGY

Anthropologyi sof t
endi videdintot hreeareas:cultur
alant hropology,physical
anthropology and ar chaeology. Physi calant hr
opology,whi chi st hest udyoft he
pri
mat eor der,pastandpr esent,suchaspr imatebiology,skel
et albiol
ogy,andhuman
adaptati
on,hasal waysbeenar ecognizedar eaoff or
ensicexper t
isesi nce1850.
ForensicAnt hropologyi st
heappl icat
ionoft hescienceofphysi calanthropologytothe
l
egalpr ocess. For ensi
c ant hropologists apply standard sci enti
fi
ct echni
ques
developedi nphysi calanthropologyt oi dentif
yhumanr emains,andt oassistinthe
detecti
onofcr i
me.

Al
thoughthepr i
marytaskoftheant hropologisti
st oestabl
ishtheidenti
tyofa
decedent,t
heyar enow alsoabletopr ovideexper topinionont hetypeandsi zeof
weapon/ susedandt henumberofbl owssust ainedbyt hevi
ctimsofviolentcrimes.
Generall
y,aforensi
cant hr
opologi
stcant ellalotaboutaper sonf r
om theirskelet
al

65
r
emai
nssuchast
hef
oll
owi
ng:

 Thesexoftheperson.Thisisdeter
minedbyst
udyi
ngt
hepel
vis,
baseof
theskul
l,
thef
orehead,andthejaw.

 Theapproxi
mateageoft
heper
son.Thi
sisdonebyexami
ningt
hej
oint
s,
bonesandteet
h.

 Theheightoft
heper
son.I
tisbasedont
hel
engt
hoft
hel
egandar
m
bones.

 Theperson’
swei
ght
.Thi
scanbeseenf
rom t
hewearont
hebonesat
cer
tai
npoint
s.

 Theraceoftheper
son.Thi
scanbeident
if
iedbyexamini
ngthewidth
andheightoft
henoseaswellasf
aci
alorheadhairi
ffoundwit
ht he
skel
eton.

 Theper
son’
soccupat
ion.

 Whet
hert sonwasl
heper eftorr
ight
-handed.

 I
ft soneveri
heper njur
edorf
ract
uredt
hebonedur
inghi
sli
fet
ime.

 I
ft sondi
heper edvi
olent
ly.

 Appr
oxi
mat
ewhent
heper
sondi
ed.

Forensi
cAnthr
opologyi
snecessar
yandi
ndi
spensabl
eespeci
all
yincer
tai
nscenar
ios,
l
ikethefol
lowi
ng:

 Scenesofcr ime,parti
cul
arl
yint hecaseofhumanr emains,especial
ly
charred bodi
esand bur i
ed skelet
ons,wher ein ordertor ecoverand
appropri
atel
yregist
ersuchremai ns,experi
enceinforensi
car chaeol
ogy,
asubdi sci
pli
neofforensi
canthropology,i
snecessary

 Di
agnosi
sofspeci
esofor
igi
nofosseousorchar
redr
emai
ns

66
  Diagnosi
soft hepost
-mor
tem i
nter
vali
ncasesofskel
etalr
emai
ns,i
n
parti
cul
arbur
iedremai
ns

 Construct
ingabi ol
ogicalprofi
le:di
agnosi
sofsex,age,r ace,st
atur
e,
skel
etalpathol
ogi
es,dentalst
atusandfaci
alreconst
ruct
ion

 Personalident
if
icat
ionbyanthropol
ogi
calmet
hods:compar
isonofbone
mor phology,f
acialfeat
ures,etc.when DNA orodontol
ogy ar
e not
applicable

 The st
udyofbone t
rauma (
bluntinj
ury,shar
pf orce i
njur
y,gunshot
wounds,sawmar
ksi
ncasesofdismemberment,et
c.)

 Agedet
ermi
nat
ionandi
dent
if
icat
ionofl
ivi
ngi
ndi
vidual
s

 Recover
yandi
dent
if
icat
ionofvi
cti
msofmassdi
sast
ersandwarcr
imes.

Forensi
canthropologistsar ealsocall
ed“bonedet ect i
ves”.Theyhelpthepol i
ce
solvecompl excasesi nvolvi
nguni dentif
iedhumanr emai ns.Theyf requentl
ywor kin
conjuncti
onwi t
hf orensicpat hologist
s,odontologi
stsandhomi cideinvesti
gatorsto
i
dent i
fyadecedent ,discoverevi denceoff oulplay,and/ orthepost mortem inter
val.
Thei denti
fi
cati
onofskel etal
,badl ydecomposedorot herwise,unidenti
fi
edhuman
remainsisimportantforbot hlegalandhumani tari
anr easons.

67
 Chapt
erX
FORENSI
CODONTOLOGY

For
ensi
cOdont
ology
The br
anch off orensic medi
cine,thatdeals wit
ht he proper
,handli
ng and
presentat
ionofdentalevidenceinacour tofl
aw.Iti
sthesciencesofstudyi
nghuman
denti
t i
onsandapplyi
ngt hecharact
eri
sticsint
heident
ifi
cati
onofindivi
dual
s.

THEWORKOFAFORENSI
CONDOTHOLOGI
ST

1. I
dent
if
icat
ionofbi
temar
ksont
hevi
cti
msofat
tack.

2. Compar isonofbit
emar kswiththet
eet
hofasuspectandpr
esent
ati
onoft
his
evi
dencei
ncourtasanexper
twitness.

3. I denti
fi
cat
ion ofbi
temar
ksi
n ot
hersubst
ancesuch aswood,l
eat
her
,and
foodst
uffs.

4. I
dent
if
icat
ionofunknownt
hroughdent
alr
ecor
ds.

5. Ageest
imat
ionsofskel
etalr
emai
ns.

In shor
t,t
he maj
orwor
ks offorensi
c odont
ologi
sts can be cat
egori
zed i
ntr
o
i
dent
ifi
cati
onofhumanr
emains,bi
temarks,postmortem examinati
ons,anddental
pr
ofi
li
ng.

68
THEHUMANDENTALFORMULA

Deci
duous Per
manent

Maxi
ll
a 212 2123

Mandi
ble 212 2123

Notethathumanshavenodeci
duousmolars.Subst
ant
iali
ndivi
dualvar
iat
ions
occurintoot
hnumber ,butmostof
tent
hevar
ianti
st hel
ossofatoothattheboundary
betweentoothkinds.

I
dent
if
icat
ionofHumanRemai
ns

Compar
ati
veDent
alI
dent
if
icat
ion

Allmouthsar euniqueanddif
fer
entbecausetherear edi
ffer
encesi nthenumbers
andcharacteri
sti
csoft heteet
hofeveryhumanbei ng.I ndi
vidualwit
hnumer ousand
complexdentaltreatmentareoft
eneasiert
oi dent
if
yt hanthosei ndi
vidualswithl
it
tl
e
ornorestor
ativetreat
ment.

Postmor
tem Dent
alPr
ofi
li
ng

Whendent alrecor
dsarenotavail
abl
eandothermethodsofident
if
icat
ionsarenot
possibl
e,theforensicdenti
stcanoft
enproducea“pict
ure“ofthegeneralfeat
uresof
thei
ndividual
.Thepr ocessisknownaspost-
mort
em dentalpr
ofi
li
ng.

Rol
eofDNAi
nDent
alI
dent
if
icat
ions

Dentalt i
ssues ar
erelat
ivel
yresist
ant t
o envi
ronment
alassault
,such as
i
ncinerat
ions,immersi
on,t
rauma,muti
lati
onsanddecomposit
ion,t
eet
hpr esentan
excel
lentsourceofDNAmateri
al.

Genomi
cDNA

Isfoundinthenucl
eusofeachcellandrepr
esent
stheDNAsour ceformost
f
orensi
cappli
cati
ons,
whenbodyti
ssuehavecomposed,t
hest
ruct
uresoftheenamel
,

69
dent
ine,
andpul
pcompl
exper
sist
.

Mi
tochondr
ialDNA

Themai
nadvant
ageofmt DNAisther
eisahighcopyofnumberofeachcel
l
causedbyhi
ghnumberofmi
tochondr
iapr
esenti
nmostcel
ls.

Dent
alI
dent
if
icat
ioni
nMassDi
sast
ers

Theident
ifi
cationoflargenumber sofcasual
ti
esi nmassdisastersarecompl ex
andf r
aughtwithhazar ds,bothphysical
lyandemotionall
y.TheI
denti
f i
cati
onpr ocess
i
sf undamentall
yt hesameast hati
nar outinecomparati
vedent
alidentif
icat
ions,but
theinher
entproblem aremagni f
ied.

Bi
teMar
kAnal
ysi
s

Typi
calPr
esent
ati
onofBi
teMar
ks

Humanbi t
emar ksaremostoft
enfoundontheski
nofthevi
cti
ms,and
theymaybef oundonal mostallpar
tsofthehumanbody.Femalesaremostof
ten
bit
tenonthebr eastandlegsdur i
ngsexualatt
acks,wher
easbitesonmalesare
commonlyseenont hear
msandshoul der
.

Thephysi
calchar
act
eri
sti
csofbot
hbi
temar
kwoundandt
hesuspect
’st
eet
h
i
ncl
udes:

1. Thedi
stancef
rom cuspi
dtocuspi
d.

2. Theshapeofmout
har
ch.

3. Teet
hwi
dthandt
hickness,
spaci
ngbet
weent
eet
h.

4. Mi
ssi
ngt
eet
h

5. Thecur
vesofbi
ti
ngedges.

6. Uni
quedent
ist
ry

70
7. Wearpat
ter
nssuchaschi
psorgr
indi
ng.

UseofBi
teMar
kst
oIdent
if
y

Anoblongpi
eceofchewi
nggum wasf
oundatt
hesceneofacr
ime,
itappear
ed
t
ohavei
mpressi
onofhumanteet
h.

Phi
li
ppi
neDent
istar
eObl
igedt
okeepDent
alRecor
ds

PD1575r
equi
respr
act
it
ioner
sofdent
ist
ryt
okeepr
ecor
dsoft
hei
rpat
ient
s.The
recognizedtheimport
anceoff orensi
cdenti
str
y,t
hel
awcit
edthatt
heident
if
icati
onof
personsi sanecessaryfactorinsolvi
ngcri
mesandinset
tl
ingcer
tai
ndisputessuch
usclaimsf ordamage,i
nsurance,andinher
it
ance.

BOARDI
DENTI
FICATI
ONGUI
DELI
NES

Thepostmort
em dent
alexaminat
ionsareconductedbytheauthor
it
yandunder
t
hedi
rect
ionoft
hemedicolegalof
fi
cerorhi
sdesignee,
typi
cal
lyafor
ensicpat
hol
ogi
st.

1. Exami
nat
ionPr
ocedur
es

a. Vi
sual

b. Decomposed

c. Skel
etoni
zedRemai
ns

2. Phot
ogr
aphy

3. JawResect
ion

4. Techni
quesf
orDi
ssect
ion/
Resect
ion

5. ThePost
mor
tem Dent
alRecor
d

6. Dent
alExami
nat
ion

7. Nar
rat
iveDescr
ipt
ionandNomencl
atur
e

71
8. Dent
alI
mpr
essi
on

9. Dent
alRadi
ology

Sour
cesf
orAnt
emor
tem Dat
a

Thisincludes dent
alradi
ographs,writ
ten recor
ds,model
s and phot
ogr
aphs.
Or
igi
nalr
adiographsshouldbeobt
ainedifpossi
ble.

Compar
isonofAnt
emor
tem &Post
mor
tem Evi
dence

Thi
ssectiondeal
swithfact
orswhi
chmaybepresenti
nbot
htheantemor
tem and
postmortem dent
alevi
denceandcanbeusef
ulf
orcompari
sonpur
poses.

72
73
 Chapt
erXI
FORENSI
CRADI
OLOGY

Forensic Radiol
ogy i
s a speciali
zed ar
ea of medicali
maging uti
li
zing
r
adi
ologicaltechni
questoassi
stphysi
ciansandpathol
ogi
stsi
nmatter
spert
aini
ngt o
t
hel
aw.

UsesofFor
ensi
cRadi
ology:

1.Suspici
ous Death orMurder-i
tassi
ststhe pat
hol
ogistto det
ermi
ne t
he
potenti
alcause ofdeat
h ormayaler
tthem fora previ
ousl
yunsuspect
ed
suspici
ousdeath.

2.Anal
ysisofAdverseMedi
calEvent
s-Itpr
ovi
desrecor
dsofpati
ent
’scondi
ti
on
andthespecial
istsr
evi
ew theimagesintheli
ghtofautopsyfi
ndingsand
cl
ini
calaudi
tcanavoi
dfut
uremishap.

3.LegalMatter
s-experti
nterpret
ati
onsoft
hei
magesf
rom r
adi
ologymaypr
ovi
de
i
ncr i
minalandci
vilj
uri
sdicti
on.

4.Chil
dAbuse-itpr
ovidesevidenceofbot
hacuteandchroni
cinj
ury,
someoft
he
fi
ndingsar
especi
fi
cf orabuseandcruci
alf
orconvi
cti
ons.

5.Drug Traff
icking -itcan assi
stlaw enfor
cementagenci
es i
n scr
eeni
ngs
suspected drug tr
aff
icker
s who ar
e usi
ng sophi
sti
cat
ed met
hods t
o avoi
d
detect
ion.

6.BodyI
dent
if
icat
ion-Radi
ologypr
ovi
desi
dent
if
icat
ionofvi
cti
mst
hroughpr
e-

74
 mort
em exami
nati
ons(CTscanorradiogr
aphs)thatcanbecompar
edwi
th
anat
omi
caldet
ail
sofsi
mil
arpostmor
tem st
udi
es.

7.DiseaseIdent
if
icat
ion (e.
g.Marf
an’s)-radiologyconf
ir
msanypat
hol
ogi
cal
suspici
onofgeneti
cdiseaset
hatcanbedetectedinanautopsy.

8.DonorBankAnal
ysis-al
lbodypar
tsdonatedforuseasgraf
tsmustbecar
eful
ly
scr
eenedtoavoi
dinser
ti
onof“di
seased”materi
altot
hereci
pient
.

For
ensi
cRadi
ologymakesVi
rt
ualAut
opsyaReal
it
y

Radi
ology i
s bei
ng part
nered wi
th Forensic Sci
ence t
o pr
ovide bl
oodl
ess
mi
nimal
lyi
nvasi
vemethodsinexamini
ngaccidentaldeat
hsandmurders.

Vi
rtualaut
opsycombinescomput edtomography(CT)andmagneticr
esonance
(MR)i maging.TheCTi magespr ovi
dedataongener alpat
hol
ogyoft hebodyand
detai
ledinformat
ionabouttraumai nj
uri
es.MRi magingisusedtofocusonspecifi
c
areasofthebody,provi
dingdetai
lsonsoftt
issues,
musclesandorgans.

Vir
topsyusesMRspect
roscopyt
oi dent
if
yt het
imeofdeath,atechni
quet hat
measuresthemetabol
it
esi
nbr
ainsemer
gingduringpost
-mor
tem decomposit
ion.

Incaseswher eweaponisused,3D scanni

ngdocumentsthesurf
aceoft
he
body.Thei
nvesti
gatorscancompar
ethevi
rt
ualmodelofthei
njur
ywiththe3Di
mage
ofthesi
mulatedsi
milart
ypeofweapon.

AboutVi
rt
opsy.Thef
oll
owi
ngar
ethef
ivegoal
soft
hepr
oject
:

 Theimplementat
ionofradi
ologi
caldi
git
ali
magingmethods(
Mul
ti
sli
ce-Computed
Tomography/MSCTandMagnet icResonanceImagi
ng/MRI
)asmaindiagnosti
c
tool
inForensi
cPathol
ogy.

75
 Theexactfor
ensi
c-medi
calr
econst
ruct
ionsthroughimagingtechni
ques(
CTand
MRD),phot
ogrammetr
y,andt
hreedi
mensionalopti
calmeasuri
ng.

 The appl i
cat
ion of photogrammetr
y,and 3D surface scanning i
nf or
ensic
reconstr
ucti
on in addit
ion t o r
adi
ologi
cal i
magi
ng techniques as well as
developmentofbi
omechani calmodel
s.

 Pr
oduci
ngandval
idat
ingt
hebi
omechani
calpr
ofi
lebymeansofMRSpect
roscopy.

 Thei mpl ement ati

onofani magingdatabaseasat echni
calbasisofacent erfor
compet encei nvirt
ualaut opsy.Thevir
tualaut
opsypr oj
ectint
endstor evi
sethe
technicalpr oceduresofthest andar
dautopsywithnewpr ot
ocol
swhichar e:1.t
he
util
izati
onofmoder nradiologi
calimagi
ng,2.curr
entl
yacceptedinci
sionsitesfor
i
nvasi vetissuer emoval.

Pr
ojectBenef
it
sofVi
rt
opsy

Uni
for
m Document
ati
onofFi
ndi
ngs-Thi
swi
llsubst
ant
ial
lyi
ncr
easet
hequal
it
y
oftheevi
dencepresent
edincourtbyexper
ts.Qual
it
ycont
rolandexper
tsuper
visi
on
andfor
ensict
elemedici
nebecomepossi
ble.

I
ncr
easedUnder
standabi
li
ty-t
heavai
labi
li
tyof2Dand3DReconst
ruct
ionswi
ll
i
mpr
ovet
hecl
ari
tyandunder
standabi
li
tyoff
utur
eexper
ts’
evi
dence.

Sci
ent
if
icBenef
it
s-Themul
ti
disci
pli
ner
esear
chef
for
tsbet
weenr
adi
ologyand
for
ensic medici
ne wil
ll ead tothe devel
opmentofnew pr ot
ocols and i
maging
sequenceincomputedtomogr aphyandmagneticr
esonanceimaging,t
hepart
ici
pat
ing
sci
enti
ficdi
sci
pli
newillbenefi
tfrom eachot
her
’sspeci
ali
zedknowledge.

Soci
etalBenef
it
s-Vi
rt
ualAut
opsywi
llal
low medi
col
egalpr
act
icei
ncul
tur
al

76
ci
rcl
eswhereconvent
ionalaut
opsyissti
gmatizedorevenf
orbi
dden.Themet
hods
coul
dbeusef
uli
nexami nat
ioni
nhighl
yinf
ect
iousbody.

77
 Chapt
erXI
I
FI
NGERPRI
NTI
NG

Fi
nger
pri
nti
ngI
dent
if
icat
ionorDact
yloscopy

Finger
pri
nti
ngIdenti
fi
cati
oni
sthemet
hodofi
denti
fi
cati
onusingt
hei
mpr
essi
on
madebyminuteri
dgeformati
onofpat
ter
nsf
oundonthef
ingerpr
int
s.

Fi
ngerpr
intIdenti
ficati
on,referr
ed t
o as dact yloscopy i
st he process of
compar i
ngquestionandknownf ri
cti
onskinr i
dgei mpr essi
onaref r
om thesame
fi
ngers,pal
ms,andt oes).Thef l
exi
bil
it
yoffr
icti
onridgethem skinmeanst hatnotwo
fi
ngerorpalm print
sar eeverexactlyali
ke(neverident
icalineverydetai
l)
,eventwo
i
mpr essi
onrecordedimmedi atel
yaft
ereachother.

Afi
nger pr
intisanimpressionoft hefr
ict
ionri
dgesofal
loranypartofthefi
nger
.
Af r
ict
ionridgeisar ai
seporti
onoft heevidenceont hepal
marandf inger(
palm and
fi
ngers)orpl ant
ar( sol
eandt oes)skin,consi
stingofoneormor econnectedridge
unit
soff r
icti
onr idgeskin.Theser i
dgesar esometimesknownas“ dermalri
dges”or
“der
malpapi l
lae”.

Fingerpr
intneverchanged.Smal
lri
dgef
orm ofapersonhandsandf
eetbef
ore
t
heyar
ebor nanddonotchangef orasl
ongastheper
sonli
ves.

78
 Notwof i
ngerpri
ntsareali
ke.Theri
dgesofthehandandfeetofallper
sonshave
t
hreecharact
erist
ic(r
idgeending,bi
fur
cati
onanddots)whichappearincombinat
ions
t
hatareneverrepeat
edont hehandsorfeetofanytwopersons.

Basi
cFundament
alsi
ntheSci
enceofFi
nger
pri
ntI
dent
if
icat
ion

Per
manence.Fi
nger
pri
ntr
idgesar
efor
meddur
ingt
het
hir
dtwof
our
thmont
hof
fet
aldevel opment.These r i
dges consi
stofindividualcharacter
isti
cs call
ed ri
dge
endings,bi f
urcati
on,dots and many r i
dges vari
ances.The uni trelat
ionshi
p of
i
ndividualchar acter
ist
ics does notnatural
ly change throughoutl i
fe… unt i
lthe
composi t
ionafterdeath.

Permanentscars,diseaseddamage,andtempor
arychangessuchaspaper
cut
sappearasjaggededgesandsomet i
mes”pucker
ed”ri
dgedetai
linopposi
ti
ont
o
smoot
hflowi
ngnaturalf
ormation.

I
ndi
vidual
it
y.Thi
smeanst
hati
ngener
alanyar
eaoff
ri
cti
onski
nthatonecan
coverwithadi me(andoftenwit
hj ustapenci l
,er
aser)ononcef i
nger
’s,palms,orsol
e
ofone’sfeetwillcontai
nssuffi
cientindi
vidualchar
acter
ist
icsisaunitrelati
onshi
pto
enableposit
iveidenti
fi
cati
ontotheabsoluteexclusi
ontotheotheruni
t.

Howl
ongdof
inger
pri
ntsl
astoneevi
dence?

Fi
ngerpri
ntsonpaper ,cardboardorunfi
nishedwoodcanl astforupt oforty
years(peractualcasewor khi st
ori
es)unlessexposedtowater(andcont aminate
tr
ansferprints can even t hen somet i
mes persi
st)fi
nger
pri
nts on pa non-porous
surf
acesuchaspl astic,met alandgl asscanlastformanyyearsifnotexposedt o
waterandiflef
tundistur bed.

Ar
efi
nger
pri
nti
nher
it
ed… ar
ethey mor
e si
mil
arbet
ween f
ami
ly member
sthan
bet
weenst
ranger
s?

Thegener alshapeoveral lpatter

n offinger
sand pal m pri
ntsare/can be
i
nher i
ted.Familymember swilloft
enhavesi mil
arpatter
nsordesign( whorl
s,loops,
etc.
)ont hesamef ingeroftheirhands.Thet i
nydetail
sint hefi
ngerpri
ntsridges,
however ,ar
enoti nheri
tedandar edif
ferentbet
weenal lfr
ict
ionsski
nsar easofal l
person…bet weentwins.

79
I
dent
icalt
winshavedi
ff
erentf
inger
pri
nt

Linotypever
susPhenotype.Ident
icaltwi
nsdevelopedwhenasi ngl
efert
il
ized
egg spli
tint wo,leading t
ot wo embr yos.Because they both came fr
om t he
combinati
onoft hesameeggandsper m,t heyident
icalDNA,barri
ngt hegenerall
y
i
ndict
ablemi cr
omutati
onthatbegi
nsassoonasseenst artdi
vidi
ng.

Typesoff
inger
pri
nt

Finger
print
scanber ecordedonast andar
df i
ngerpri
ntcardsorcanber ecorded
digi
tall
yandt r
ansmit
tedel ect
ronicall
ytothePhi l
ippi
neNat i
onalPoliceorNBIf or
compar i
son.Bycompar ingf i
ngerpri
ntsatthesceneoft hecri
mewi ththef i
ngerpri
nt
records ofsuspected per
sons,of f
ici
alcan be establ
ished absol
ute pr
oofoft he
presenceoridenti
tyofaperson.

 Latentpri
nts.Alt
hought hewordl
atentmeanshiddenorinvi
sibl
e,i
nmodernusage
forf or
ensi
c science the t
erm l
atentprint
s means any chance oracci
dental
expressi
onl ef
tbyf ri
cti
onskinorsur f
ace,regar
dlessofwhetheriti
svisi
bleor
i
nvisibl
eatthetimeofdepositi
on.

 Pat
entPr i
nts.Thesear efri
cti
onr i
dgef ormati
on/i
mpressionofunknownor i
gin
whi
char eobvi oust othehumaneyeandar ecausedbyat ransf
eroffor
eign
mater
ialont hefinger
,ont
oasur face.Becausetheyar
eal readyvisi
blet
heyneed
noenhancement ,andorphot
ographedinsteadofbei
ngli
fted.

 Plasti
cPr ints.Aplasti
cpri
ntsisaf ri
cti
onr i
dgei mpressionfrom afingerorpalm
(ortoe/foot)deposi t
edinamat eri
althatr etainstheshapeoft heridgedetai
l.
Commonl yencount er
edexamplesar emel t
edcandl ewax,puttyremovedf rom t
he
peri
met erofwi ndowpanesandt hickgreasedeposi t
soncarpar ts.Suchprint
sare
alr
eadyvi sibleandneednoenhancement ,buti nvesti
gatorsmustnotover l
ookthe
potenti
alst hatinvi
siblel
atentpri
ntsdeposi tedbyaccompl icesmayal sobeon
suchsur faces.

Cl
assi
fyi
ngFi
nger
pri
nts

Bef
ore comput
eri
zat
ion r
epl
aced manualf
il
ing syst
ems i
nlar
ge f
inger
pri
nt

80
operati
ons,manualf i
nger
printclassificat
ion system wer e used to categorized
fi
ngerprint
sbasedongener alri
dgef or mation( suchast hepresenceorabsenceof
ci
rcularpatternsinvar
iousfi
ngers)thusper mi t
ti
ngf i
li
ngandr et
ri
evalofpaperrecords
i
nl ar
gecol lecti
onbasedonfrict
ionridgepat ternindependentofname, bi
rt
h,dateand
otherbiographicdatat
hatpersonmayr epresent.

Ofthesesystem,Poschersyst
em wasdevelopedinGermanyandimplement
ed
bot
hGer manyandJapan,t heVucetechSystem wasdevel opedinArgenti
naand
i
mplementedthroughoutSouthAmer i
ca,andHenr ySystem wasdevel
opedinIndi
a
andimpl
ement edi
nmostEngl i
shspeaki
ngcountr
ies.

Fi
nger
pri
ntPat
ter
nTypes

Fingerpri
ntsar
etheresultofminut
er i
dgesandvall
eysf oundont hehandof
everyperson.Inthefi
nger
sandt humbs,theseridgesf
orm patter
nofl oops,whorl
s
andarches.Eachofthethr
eeridgesofpatt
erntypeshavefocalpointwhichareused
forcl
assif
icati
on.

Int
helooppatternther
earet
wofocalpoi
nts:t
hecore,ort
hecenterofaloop
andthedel
ta.Thedeltaisthear
eaoft
hepatter
nwher et
hereisatr
iangulat
ionora
di
vidi
ngofther
idges.

Thewhorlpat
ter
nwi l
lhavetwoormor edel
tas.Fort
hewhor
lpat
ter
n,al
ldel
tas
andt
heareasbetweenthem mustberecor
ded.

Thear chpatt
ernhasnodelt
aandcor e:but,i
ttoo,
mustbef
ull
yrecor
dedsot
hat
i
tsi
ndi
vidualchar
acter
ist
icscanbereadi
lydist
ingui
shed.

I
dent
if
icat
ionChar
act
eri
sti
cs

 Ri
dgeEndi
ng

 Bi
fur
cat
ion

 DotorI
sland

Fi
nger
pri
nti
mpr
essi
onType

Ther
ear
etwot
ypeofi
mpr
essi
oni
nvol
vedi
ntaki
ngf
inger
pri
nt.Theuppert
in

81
i
mpr essionaretakenindivi
dual
ly,t
humbs, index,middle,ri
ng,andl
it
tl
efi
nger
sofeach
hand.Thesear erefer
redt oas“rol
led”becauseoft hef i
ngersarer
oll
edfr
om onesi
de
ofthefinger
nailtotheother,
inordertoobtainallavai
lableri
dgedet
ail
.

Basi
cFi
nger
pri
nti
ngEqui
pment

Fi
nger
pri
ntcanber
ecor
dedwi
thanyoft
hef
oll
owi
ngmat
eri
als:

 I
nk(Bl
ackPr i
nter
sInkorPar elonPadandpaperst
andar
dFi
nger
pri
ntcar
d)A
Par
elonPadcont
ainsabuil
t-
inksupply.

 Chemi
cal
sandPaper(St
andar
dFi
nger
pri
ntCar
d)

 Li
vescan

St
epsf
orFi
nger
pri
nti
ng

1.Fi
nger
stobef
inger
pri
ntedmustbecl
eananddr
y.

2.Theindi
vidualbei
ngfi
nger
pri
ntedshoul
daskedtost
andi
nfr
ontofandata
for
earm’
sl engt
hfr
om t
hefi
ngerpr
int
ingdevi
ce.

3.Encour
aget
hei
ndi
vidualbei
ngf
inger
pri
ntedt
orel
ax.

4.Gr
aspt
hei
ndi
vidual
’
sri
ghthandatt
hebaseoft
het
humbwi
thone’
sri
ghthand.

5.I
fusingtheinkandpapermethodrol
ethefi
ngerorthei
nkingplat
eorPar
lon
Padsothatt
heenti
ref
inger
pri
ntpat
ter
nareai
sevenl
ycoveredwit
hink.

6.I
ntaki
ngt heroll
edi mpression,t
hesideoft hebul
boft hefi
ngerisplaceupon
t
hepaperf i
nger
printcardoft hefi
ngerpr
inti
ngdevice,
andthefingeri
sr ol
ledt
o
t
heothersideunti
litfacestheopposit
edirecti
on.

7.Inordertotakeadvant
ageoft
henaturalmovementoftheforear
m,t hehand
shouldberot
atedfr
om t
hemoredi
ff
icul
tposi
ti
ontotheeasi
estposi
tion.

8.Rolleachf
ingerf
rom nai
ltonai
lint
heappr
opri
atespacet
aki
ngcar
etol
if
teach
fi
ngerupandawayaf t
errol
li
ngtoavoi
dsmudgi
ng.

9.I
fusi
ngt
hei
nkandpapermet
hodandr
oll
edi
mpr
essi
oni
snotaccept
abl
e,one

82
 mayuseanadhesi
vet
ore-
tabt
ocovert
hef
inger
pri
nti
nit
sspace.

10.
Plai
nimpr
essi
onar
epr
int
edl
ast
,att
hebot
tom oft
hecar
d.

11.
Ifusi
ngt heinkandpapermethod,compl
etetheinf
ormati
onatt het
opoft
he
fi
ngerpr
intcard.I
fusi
ngl
ivescan,
complet
etherequi
redi
nformat
ion.

Qual
it
ycheckl
ist

Toveri
fythatt
hefi
nger
pri
nti
mpressi
onineachf
inger
pri
nti
mpr
essi
onmeett
he
r
equi
rements,pl
easeusethef
oll
owi
ngcheckl
ist
.

1.Isthereaf ingerpr
inti
mpr essi
on in each fi
ngerbl
ack?Ifther
e a mi
ssi
ng
fi
ngerpr
inti
mpr essi
on,i
stherear easonnotedinafi
ngerbl
ack,mi
ssi
ngabir
th,
unabl
etoprint.

2.I
fthef i
ngerpr
inti
mpressi
onisaloop,arethedelt
aandcor
epr
esent
?Ift
he
f
inger
printi
mpressi
onisawhorl
,ar
ealldel
taspr
esent.

3.Ar
ethef
inger
pri
ntr
oll
edf
ull
y,f
rom nai
ltonai
l
?

4.I
sthef
inger
pri
nti
mpr
essi
oncl
earanddi
sti
nct
?

5.I
sthef
inger
pri
nti
mpr
essi
onuni
for
mint
oneandnott
oodar
korl
ight
?

6.Ar
ethef
ourf
ingeri
mpr
essi
onandt
het
humbi
mpr
essi
onbl
ockf
oreachhand?

7.I
stheroll
edfi
ngerpr
inti
mpr
essi
oni
nthecor
rectf
ingerbl
ockswhencompar
ed
t
otheplai
nimpressi
on?

Speci
alSi
tuat
ions

Specialattent
ion mustbe given when f i
ngerpr
inti
ng and indi
vidualwi t
h
abnor
malit
iesofthef i
nger
s,thumbs,orhands.Specialsi
tuati
onincl
ude:Amput at
ion,
Bondage Finger
s,orHands Scar s,Deformit
ies,Wor nfingerpr
int
s,Extr
a Fingers,
WebbedFinger.

 Amputat
ion.Ani mputat
ionexi
stswhenandindivi
dualhasoneormorefi
ngers,
t
humbsmi ssing.Thiscondi
ti
onshouldbenotedintheappropr
iat
ebl
ockofthe
fi
nger
pri
ntsubmi ssi
on.

 BandageFi
nger
sorHands.I
fthei
ndi
vidualhasabandageorcastonaf
inger
,

83
 t
humborhand,pl
acet
hei
ntonat
ion,“
unabl
etoPr
int
”or“
UP”i
ntheappr
opr
iat
e
f
ingerbl
ock.

 Scars.Ascarexi
stwhenanindivi
dualhasapermanentt
issuedamaget
ofinger,
thumb orhand and only when only pat
ter
n ar
eas t
hathave been t
otall
y
destr
oyedortheri
dgedet
ailappearsdi
stort
ed.

 Deformi t
ies.A defor
mitymayexi stasar esultofani njury,bir
thdef
ectsor
disease.An at temptshoul d be made tof ingerpr
inti ndivi
dualwit
ht he
techniques outl
ined pr
eviousl
y:alt
hough specialequipmentmaybe needed
whenf ingerpr
int
ingindi
vidual
swit
hdeformi
ties.

Howt
oUset
heFi
nger
pri
ntSpoon

1.Pl
aceaf
inger
pri
ntcar
dst
ri
phol
der(
spoon)

2.Usingthespat
ula,
inkthef
inger(
star
ti
ngwi
tht
her
ighthand)andbesur
eto
applyt
heinkfr
om nailt
onail
.

3.Pl
acethei
nkfingeront hef
inger
pri
ntcar
dst
ri
phol
der(
cover
edar
ea)and
pr
essdown.Donotrol
lthefi
nger.

4.Cutoutt
hefingerbl
ockfr
om thecardst
ri
pandpast
eint
hecor
respondi
ng
bl
ockonthestandar
dfi
ngerpr
intcar
d.

5.Repeatthesestepsfort
hesestepsf
oreachoftheremai
ningf
inger
s.Besur
e
t
or ecor
dt hecorr
ectfi
ngeri
tthecor
rectf
ingerbl
ock.

 Wor nFinger
pri
nt.Anindi
vidualmay,bythenatureofthei
rworkorage,have
verythi
norwor nri
dgesinthepatter
narea.Atechni
queknownas“mil
kingthe
fi
ngers”canbeusedtorai
set hef
inger
pri
ntspr
iortof
inger
pri
nti
ng

 Extr
aFinger.Ifanindivi
dualhasmor ethantenf i
nger
s,t
hethumbsandthenext
fourfi
ngersshouldbepr i
nted.Whent hesubjectwit
hmorethanten(
10)fingers
hasani nt
entionalcomputati
onperformed,i
tisinvari
abl
ytheext
rafi
ngeront he
l
itt
lefi
ngersickthatisamputated.

 WebbedFingersorSpl
itThumbs.Anindivi
dualmayhavetwoormor efi
ngers
webbedorgrowntoget
hermaki ngi
timpossibl
erol
lsuchfi
nger
s,suchfi
ngers
shoul
dber ol
ledascompletel
yaspossibleandanotati
onmadet otheeff
ect

84
 t
hatt
heyar
ejoi
nedorwebbed.

I
ntegr
atedAut
omat
edFi
nger
pri
ntI
dent
if
icat
ionSyst
em (
IAFI
S)

TheIntegr
atedAut omat edFingerpri
ntIdenti
ficat
ionSyst em morecommonl y
knownasI AFIS,i
sanat i
onalfingerpri
ntandcriminalhist
or ysystem mai
ntainedbyt he
Feder alBureau ofInvestigat
ion (FBI)
,Cr i
minalJust i
ceI nformati
on Service(CJIS)
Divi
sion.The I AFIS provides automat ed fi
ngerprint search capabil
iti
es,latent
searchi ngcapabi
li
ty,el
ectr
onici magestorage,andelectronicexchangeoff i
nger
prints
andr esponses,24hoursadayand365daysayear .

TheIAFISmaintai
nsthel
argestbiometr
icdatabaseinthewor
d,cont
aini
ngthe
fi
nger
print
sandcorrespondi
ngcriminalhi
stor
yinformati
onformorethan47mi l
li
on
subj
ectsinthecr
imi
nal mast
erf
il
e.

ThePhil
ippi
neNati
onalPoli
ceandtheNationalBureauofI
nvest
igat
ionar
enow
devel
opi
ngidenti
fi
cat
ionsyst
em si
mil
artothatofUSI AFI
S.

Pr
ocessi
ngGui
def
orDevel
opi
ngLat
entPr
int
s

Ot
hercontaminantsf oundinprint
sresultf
rom contactwit
hdi ffer
entmat
eri
als
i
nt heenvironment.Lat
entpr i
ntscanbef oundonal ltypesofsur faces.I
ngeneral
,
surfacecanbechar act
erizedaspor ous,non-por
ousorSi miporous.Underst
andi
ng
thesecharact
eri
sti
cswill
ai dintheprocessi
nganitem forl
atentpr
ints.

Adherence to correctprocessing t
echnique incr
eases the probabi
l
ity of
devel
opingt hebestquali
tylat
entpri
nts.Adherencetotheli
stedsequenceensurest
he
bestopportunit
ytodevelopalllat
entpri
ntsonanobj ectandmi ni
mizi
ngthechanceof
destr
oyingthelatentpr
ints.

Dependi
ngontheci
rcumst
ances,al
lofthesuggest
edpr
ocesseswi
llnotal
ways
beper
formed.Thi
sisl
eftt
othedi
scret
ionoftheexaminer
.

Por
ousSur
faces:

1.Vi
sual

2.I
nher
entf
luor
escencebyl
aseroral
ter
nat
eli
ghtsour
ce.

85
 3.I
odi
neFumi
ng

4.DFO(
1.8Di
azaf
lour
en-
9-one)

5.Laseroral
ter
nat
eli
ghtsour
ce

6.Ni
nhydr
in

7.Physi
caldevel
oper

8.Al
ter
nat
eli
ghtsour
cei
ncl
udeul
tr
avi
olet(
VV)l
ight
.

Non-
Por
ousSur
face:

1.Vi
sual

2.I
nher
entf
luor
escencebyl
aseroral
ter
nat
eli
ghtsour
ce

3.Cyanoacr
ylat
eFumi
ng

4.Laseroral
ter
nat
eli
ghtsour
ce

5.Cyanoacr
ylat
edye

6.Vacuum ment
aldeposi
ti
on

7.Powder

Sel
ect
ionofPr
ocesses

I
naddi t
iontot hetypeofsur faceanotherdeterminingfactorinchoosingt he
properprocessinr esi
dueoft helatentpri
nt,i
ncludingpr epar
ati
on,bloodoilgrease,
anddust .Thecondi ti
onoft hesurfacealsocont ri
butest odetermini
ngthecor rect
processes.Such sur face char
acterist
icincl
ude dr yness,wetness,dirt
iness and
tacki
nessorsticki
ness.

Pr
ocessi
ngt
echni
ques

 Visual.Visual
lyexamineallspecimensforlat
entpri
ntsbefor
eusingany
l
atentpr intdevelopmentt echnique.Ensurethatthe surf
ace i
s wel
l
i
ll
umi nated.Turnsmal lar
ticl
esormor eandadjustli
ghttochangethe
angleofi ll
uminat
ion.Somel atentpri
ntsmaybevi si
bleonlybyobli
que
l
ightning.

86
  Fluorescence.Certai
n proper
ti
es ofperspi
rat
ion,body oil
s,and/or
forei
gnsubst ancescont
entinforei
gnresi
dueflorescencewhenexpose
tothelaseroranalter
nateli
ghtsour
ce.

St
andar
dPr
ocessesofDevel
opi
ngLat
entPr
int
s

1.Adhesi
veSur
faceTechni
ques

2.Al
ter
nat
eBl
ackPowder

3.AshGr
ayPowder

4.Gent
ianVi
olet

5.St
icky-Si
dePowder

6.Ami
noBl
ack(
Met
hanolBase)

7.Ami
noBl
ack(
Wat
erBase)

8.Cyanoacr
ylat
eFl
uor
escentDye(
RAM)

9.Cyanoacr
ylat
eFumi
ng

10.
DAB(
Diamenobezi
dine)

11.
DFO

12.
Finger
pri
ntPowder
s

13.
Iodi
neFumi
ng

14.
Iodi
neSpr
ayReagent

15.
LCV(
Leucocr
yst
alVi
olet
)

16.
Ninhydr
in(
Pet
rol
eonOt
herBase

17.
Physi
calDevel
oper

18.
Sil
verNi
tr
ate

19.
SudanBl
ack

87
 20.
Vacuum Met
alDeposi
ti
on(
VMD)

Advancesi
nFi
nger
pri
nti
ngTechnol
ogy

Cyanoacr
ylat
eFumi
ngMet
hod.TheCyanoacr
ylat
efumi
ngmet
hodi
sanew
technologyinret
ri
evi
ngt
helat
entpr
int
s.Lat
entfingerpr
int
s,whi
charepr
intsar
etaken
offobjectatacr i
mesceneandthemostdiff
iculttypeofpri
ntst
olocatearereal
it
y
retr
ievetoday.

Thef inger
pri
ntretri
evingdeviceconsistofavaporwandf it
tedwithar echar
geable
cart
ri
dgeofacur edsubst ancecall
edcyanoacr
ylat
e,i
mpr egnatedwithanultr
avi
olet
dye.Once i gni
ted,t he cyanoacryl
ate emi
tsfumes thatt ag f
inger
pri
nts pr
ints
consistent
lyonallnon-por
oussurfaceonabout20seconds.

Ni
nhydr
inMet
hod.Whi
lecyanoacr
ylat
emet
hodwasst
il
lunderdevel
opment
,
NIJsuppor t
edDr .Madel i
neM.Joul li
esresear
chatt heUniversit
yofPennsyl vaniafor
developmentofnewr eagentsforcapt uri
nglatentf
ingerpr
ints.Ninhydr
in,acr ystal
li
ne
oxidi
fyingagenthasl ongber egardedasoneoft hemostef fecti
veandaf for
dable
reagentforvisual
izati
onoflatentfingerpri
ntonporoussur f
aces.Ninhydrinder i
vati
ves
havesol vethepr oblem off i
ndingsol ventsubsti
tutesforchlorofl
uorocarbonsi nce
theyarequitesolubleinorganicsolvent.

Phi
li
ppi
neJur
ispr
udenceaboutFi
nger
pri
nti
ng

Posi
ti
veFi
ndi
ngofMat
chi
ngFi
nger
pri
nthasgr
eatsi
gni
fi
cance.

Accusedwerechar gedwi t
hthecr i
meofRobberyi nBandwi t
hHomi cidefora
deathofPat rol
maninMani la.Thegatewayvehicl
ewasf oundinMendi olaSt.,i
nfront
ofCent ro ScolarUniversi
ty.The high courtuses the posi
ti
ve identif
icati
on by
fi
ngerpri
ntofoneoft heaccusedandl inkedhi
mt othecri
me.TheSupr emeCour tfind
i
tsel
fcompel l
edtocompl ywiththel
awandi mposeuponeachoft hem themaxi mum
penalt
ypr escri
bebylaw-death.

Absenceofmatchi
ngf i
ngerpr
intdoesnotel
imi
nat
epossi
bil
it
ythataccused
coul
dhavebeenatsceneoft
hecrime.

A posi
ti
vef
indi
ngofmat
chi
ngf
inger
pri
ntshasgr
eatsi
gni
fi
cance,t
hecour
t

88
cannotsust aint het heoryoftheaccused t hatf rom t henegat i
vef i
ndingsi nthe
fi
nger pr
intexami nat
ionconduct edi nthecour sei nvesti
gati
oni nt heinstantcase,it
mustbeconcl udedthatt heycouldnothavebeenatt hesceneoft hecr i
me.Negat ive
fi
ndings do notatal lti
mes lead to a vali
d concl usion fort heymaybe l ogical
explanationfortheabsenceoft heidenti
fi
ablel atentprintsotherthantheirbeingnot
presentatthesceneoft hecri
me.Onl ylat
entfinger pri
ntsfoundonsmoot hsur f
acear e
usefulforpurposesofcompar i
sonoft hecri
mel aboratorybecausepr i
ntsleftonrough
surfaceresulti
ndot t
edl i
nesorbr okenli
nesinsteadofcompl eteandcont inuousli
nes.

15.
3Ident
it
yofvi
cti
m conf
ir
medbyFi
nger
pri
nti
ng

Finger
pri
ntst
oget
herwi
thot
herci
rcumst
ant
ialevi
denceputt
heaccusedi
nthe
cr
imescene.

COMELECcanor
derf
inger
pri
nti
dent
if
icat
ionbasedonpr
ocedur
es.

COMELECi sdut
yboundt oinvesti
gat
eall
egat
ionoff
raud,t
err
ori
sm,vi
olence
and otheranal
oguecausesi n act
ion f
orannul
mentofelecti
on r
esul
torfort he
decl
arati
onoffai
lur
eofelect
ion.

Accusedmayber equi
redt osubmitfi
nger
pri
ntexami
nat
ionwi
thoutvi
olat
ing
t
heconsti
tut
ionalpr
ovi
sionagainstsel
f-
incr
imi
nati
on.

89
 Chapt
erXI
II
FI
NGERPRI
NTI
NG

Tr
aceEvi
dence

Trace evi
dence i
s evi
dence thati
sfound ata cr
ime scene i
n smallbut
measurableamounts.Exampleoft hiski
ndofevidencei
ncl
udeshair,fi
ber
,soil
s,
gunshotresi
due,gl
assandmanymor e.

Hai
rasTr
aceEvi
dence

Hairi
sinalll
ikel
ihoodoneofthemostcommont ypesoftraceevidence.Hairs,
whicharecomposedprimaril
yofprot
einkerat
in,
canbedefinedasslanderoutgrowths
oftheskinofmammal s.Greatcaremustbeusedi nt
heuseofhai rasevi dence.I
tis
ver
yusefulaspoi
ntedoutbyVer nonJ.Gerber
thin:

1.Hel
pingt
oest
abl
i
sht
hescopeoft
hecr
imescene.

2.Pl
aci
ngaper
pet
rat
oratascene.

3.Connect
ingasuspectwi
thaweapon.

90
 4.Suppor
ti
ngwi
tnessst
atement
.

5.Connect
ingcr
imescenear
eas.

The“Locard’sPr
incipleofTr ansfer
”isapplicabl
etoHairEvidenceashairscan
t
ransf
erdirect
lyf r
om ther egionoft hebodywher etheyaregrowing– apr i
mar y
t
ransf
er– ort heycant ransferf r
om thecl ot
hingofani ndivi
dual– asecondar y
t
ransf
er.Theabovement i
onedt heorybeli
evesthatwhenoneper soncamei ncontact
wit
hanotherpersonorobject,acr osst
ransferofmi nut
epart
icl
esoccurred.

Met
hodsofCol
lect
ingHai
rEvi
dence

1.Col
lect
ionofvi
sual
lyobser
vedhai
rs.

2.Vacuumi
ngmet
hod.

3.Br
ushi
ng,
Scr
api
ngorshaki
ngofgar
mentorot
hercl
othobj
ect
s.

4.Pl
aci
nggar
ment
sandf
abr
icsi
nabagandagi
tat
ed.

5.Combi
ng

6.Cl
ippi
ng

Af t
erthe process ofcol l
ecti
on oft he hairevi
dences,i
tshallundergo an
examinati
oncalledHai rMi cr
oscopy.Thisi sanexami nati
onofhumanhai rinthe
for
ensiclabor
atoryandi st ypical
lyconductedt hr
oughtheuseoflightmi
croscope.I
t
wil
lundergoat wo-steppr ocess–t heidenti
f i
cat
ionofthequest
ionedhai
rsandt he
comparisonofthequestionedandknownhai rs.

Ahai rhasthreepar tswhicharer ef

err
edt oast heroot,theshaft
,andt heti
p.
Andi dent
ifyingahai ri
fiti sfrom ahumanoranani mali salsoimport
ant.I nmost
cases,ahumanheadhai rwi t
ht heexcepti
onoft hatofaMongol oi
dr acehasa
conti
nuousmedul l
a.Tohel pusvi sual
izedwhatamedul l
ai s,ahairmaybevi sual
ized
asapenci lwherethemedul l
aistheleadofthepencilwhi lethecortexi
sthewoodand
thecuticl
ei sthepaintthatcover sthewood.Whi l
eanani malhairontheot herhand
hasacont inuousori nt
erruptedmedul l
a.Itdi
ffer
swi tht hatofahumanhai rbecause
ananimalhai rexhi
bitspatternssuchasuniormul ti
serialladder.

91
 Thebodyareafrom whicht hehairorigi
natedcanbedet erminedbygeneral
morphol
ogy.The l
ength,shape,size,color,sti
ff
ness,curli
ness,and micr
oscopic
appear
anceal
lcont
ri
butestothedeterminat
ionofthebodyarea.Thetypesofhai
rthat
maybeexaminedarePubichair
,faci
alhair
,li
mbhair,fr
ingehai
r.

Fi
berEvi
dence

For
ensicExami nat
ionoff ibercanbeaver ystr
ongf orensict
oolandmaycome
toai dofthef or
ensicscientistwhenever ythi
ngelsefails.Af i
berisasmal l
estunitof
texti
lemat eri
alt
hathasal engthmanyt i
mesgr eatert
hani t
sdiamet er
.Iti
sconsidered
af orm oftraceevi
dencet hatcanbet ransfer
redfrom theclothingofasuspecttot he
clothingofthevict
im duri
ngt hecommi ssionofthecri
me.

Whentwopeopl ecomei ncontactorwhencontactoccurswit

hani
tem f
rom t
he
cri
mescene,t hepossibili
tyexist
sthataf i
bertransf
erwilltakepl
acebutnorinall
cases.Cert
aintypesoffabricdonotshedwell(donorgarments)andsomefabri
csdo
notholdfi
berwell(reci
pientsgarment)
.

Pai
ntExami
nat
ion

Pai
ntsarepi gmentsandaddi
ti
vessuspendedi nabi nderwiththeai dofa
sol
vent.Exampleofcommonpai ntevidencei
sf r
om aut omobil
eofhi t-
and-r
unor
col
li
sioncases.Paintsareexami
nedthr
oughami croscope,chemicalpr
opert
ies,and
col
lecti
onofpaintevidences.

GEOLOGY/
SOI
LANALYSI
S

Soi
lincl
udesanydisi
ntegratedsurf
acemateri
al,bothnaturalandar
tif
ici
al,t
hat
l
iesonorneart heear
th’
ssur face.Itcanbediff
erenti
atedanddi sti
ngui
shedbyi ts
appear
ance.Soi
lcanbecompar edusingadensi
ty-
gradienttubetechni
que.

92
 Chapt
erXI
V
QUESTI
ONEDDOCUMENTEXAMI
NATI
ON

Alsoknownasf orensi
cdocumentexami nati
on,documentexami nati
on,et c.
Quest i
onedDocumentExami nationistheappli
cati
onofal l
iedsci
encesandanal yti
cal
techniquest oquestionsconcer ni
ngdocument s,andconsi stsoftheanal ysisand
compar i
sonofquestionedhandwr i
ti
ng,handpri
nti
ng,typewr i
ti
ng,
commer cialpri
nti
ng,
photocopi es,paper
s,inks,andot herdocumentaryevidencewi t
hknownmat er
ialin
ordertoest abli
shtheauthenti
cit
yoft hecont
estedmat er
ialaswellasdet
ect i
onoft he
alter
ations.

On t herhand,a quest
he ot ioned documentis any si
gnat
ure,handwri
ti
ng,
t
ypewr
it
ing,
orothermar
kwhosesourceorauthent
ici
tyi
sindisput
eordoubtf
ul.

ScopeofQuest
ionedDocumentExami
nat
ion:

1.Handwr
it
ingandSi
gnat
ure

2.Typewr
it
ers,
Phot
ocopi
es,
Laserpr
int
ers,
FaxMachi
nes

3.Check-
wri
ter
s,Rubberst
amps,
Pri
cemar
ker
s,Labelmar
ker
s

4.Pr
int
ingPr
ocesses

5.I
nk,
Penci
l,
Paper

6.Al
ter
ati
ons,
addi
ti
ons,
erasur
es,
obl
it
erat
ions

7.I
ndent
ati
ons

8.SequenceofSt
rokes

9.Physi
calMat
chi
ng

93
 Fur
thermor
e,t he Forensi
cDocumentExami ner
’sroleisto helpl
awyersby
examiningandofferi
ngwr it
tenopinionsonavar i
etyofdisput
edproblemsincl
uding;
wil
ls,deeds,medi calrecords,income tax recor
ds,time sheet
s,contract
s,loan
agreements,el
ect
ionpetit
ions,checksandanonymouslett
ers.

Gr
aphol
ogy,as di
sti
ngui
shed f
rom For
ensi
c DocumentExami
nat
ion,i
sthe
studyofaperson’
shandwrit
inginordertorevealt
hechar act
erorpersonal
it
ytrai
tsof
the wri
ter
,whilethe l
att
eri nvol
ves t
he analysis and comparison ofquesti
oned
documents wit
h known mat er
iali
n ordertoi denti
fythe authororor i
gin ofthe
questi
oneddocument.

Handwr
it
ingAnal
ysi
s

Eachperson’
shandwr i
ti
ngi
suni
que,eveni
fapersontr
iest
odi sguisei
t.I
tmay
dependonseveralt
hingssuchast
hebr
ain,
eye,orhandoft
heindi
vidual.

Handwrit
ingcomparisonsarebasedont hepri
ncipl
ethatnotwopeopl
ewr
it
e
exact
lyal
ikeandthatchar
acteri
sti
csr
eoccurt
hroughoutever
yperson’
swr
it
ing.

St
eganogr
aphy

St
eganogr
aphyi
sthear
tofcover
edorhi
ddenwr
it
ing,f
ort
hepur
poseofa
cover
tcommuni
cat
ion–t
ohi
det
heexi
stenceofamessagef
rom at
hir
dpar
ty.

Typewr
it
er,
Typewr
it
tenText
,andTypewr
it
erRi
bbonCompar
isons

Typewri
ter
saremachi
nesthatputanimageonpaperusi
nghardtype.Now
typewri
tingisbecomi
ngarel
icofthepastasmorepeopl
eusecomput
ersandword
processors.

Inor
dert
oanswerdocumentquest
ions,aquest
ioneddocumentexami
nermust
st
udyt
hechar
acter
ist
icsoft
hecl
assofmachines.

94
Comput
erFor
ensi
cs

Computer
sandcomput erpr
int
outsleaveatr
ailthatcanbef oll
owed,whether
from somethi
ng simpleli
kethecontentsofa print
er’sinkcar t
ri
dge,thevari
ous
alignment
sandmi sal
ignment
sofdotmat ri
xandlaserprint
ers,andfiberanal
ysi
sof
thepaperused.

95
 Chapt
erXV
FORENSI
CSEROLOGY

Forensi
cserol
ogyi
st hestudyofbl ood,semen,sali
vaorsweatinmatter
s
per
tai
ningtothel
aw.Where,ser
ologyi
stheanal ysi
softheproper
ti
esandef
fect
sof
ser
umsorbodyf l
uidsi
nbl
ood,semen,sal
iva,sweatorf
ecalmatt
er.

 Camef
rom t
heanci
entSanskr
itsar
a,meani
ng“
tof
low”
.

 Todayitisknownt hatever
yfl
uid,whichf
lowsinthehumanbody,canbe
i
denti
fi
ed:someti
mest oprovet
heguiltofasuspect
edper
son,butal
sover
y
oft
entoprot
ectt
heinnocent.

TheSci
enceofFor
ensi
cSer
ology

Br
iefHi
stor
icalOr
igi
n

 I
n1628,
Engl
ishphysi
cianWi
ll
iam Har
veydi
scover
edt
heci
rcul
ati
onofbl
ood

 I
n1901Kar
lLandst
einernamedandst
andar
dizedt
hebl
oodt
ypesi
ntogr
oups.

 Todayf
orconveni
ence,
thegr
oupsar
eknownasO,
A,BandAB

I
mpor
tanceofFor
ensi
cSer
ology

 Deter
minati
onofthetypeandcharacter
ist
icsofblood,bl
oodtest
ing,
bloodst
ain
examinat
ionandpreparat
ionoft
esti
monyorpr esentat
ionatt
ri
al

 Anal
yzessemen,sal
iva,ot
herbodyf
lui
dsandmayormaynotbei
nvol
vedwi
th
DNAfinger
pri
nti
ng.

Ser
ologi
calPhysi
calEvi
dence

 Bl
oodandbl
oodst
ainevi
dencei
sani
ntegr
alpar
toft
hecr
imescenet
hata

96
 poli
ceinvesti
gator
/bloodst
ainspeci
ali
stmi
ghtbef
oundi
nsomej
uri
sdi
cti
on
thatwoul
dt est
if
yontheulti
matei
ssue.

 Despi
tehow wel
lthecri
mescenemaybecl eanedup,event
hef
inestt
raceof
bl
oodcanoft
enbedetectedandf
urt
hert
est
ed.

Bl
ood

Bl
oodisoneoft hemostcommont ypesofphysicalevi
denceassoci
atedwi
th
cr
imesofviol
enceagai nstthepersonandi t
spresenceal waysli
nkssuspectand
vi
cti
mtooneanotherandt hesceneofvi
olence.

Pr
oper
ti
esoft
heBl
ood

 Bloodissli
ghtl
yalkal
ineflui
dmadeupofwat er
,cell
s,enzymes,prot
einsand
i
norgani
c subst
ances thatcir
culat
ethroughoutthe vascul
arsyst
em carryi
ng
nouri
shmentandtr
ansporti
ngoxygenandwaste.

 Ser
um iscont ai
nedi naplasma,whi chisyell
owi
shandconsi stofwhi
tecel
l
sand
pl
atel
ets.Withserum,t heanalystcandeter
minethefreshnessofbl
oodsample.I
t
al
socontainsantibodieswhichhavef or
ensi
cimpl
icat
ions.

 Redcell
swhichisanon-
fl
uidpor
ti
onoft
hebl
oodcont
ainsant
igenwhi
chhave
for
ensi
cimpl
icat
ion.

Bl
oodTypi
ng

Abasicprinci
plei
nser ologyisthatforeveryantigen,ther
eexist
saspecific
anti
body.Forr
outi
nebloodtypingscient
istonlyneedstwoser ums:anti
-Aandanti
-B.
Blood ofType A wil
lbe agglutinat
ed by anti
-A ser
um;bl ood oftype B wi
llbe
agglut
inat
edbyanti
-Bser
um;ABbl oodbyboth;andObl oodbynei t
her
.

Anindivi
dual
izedbloodtypeisbasedinthetypi
ngofprot
einsandenzymes
whichexistinsever
alformsandvar i
ant
sandeachhassubtypes.Theprobabi
li
tyof
f
indingtwopeopleinthepopulat
ionwi
ththi
sexactt
ypewoul
dbealmostimpossi
ble.

97
Bl
oodst
ainChar
act
eri
zat
ion

St
epsi
nBl
oodSt
ainAnal
ysi
s

1.I
sthesampl
ebl
ood?

 KASTLE-
MEYERTEST-usesphenol
phthal
eint
hatwhenitcomesi
ncontact
wit
hhemoglobi
n,i
trel
easesper
oxi
daseenzymesthatcauseabri
ghtpink
col
ortof
orm.

 LUMINOLTEST-det ect
sinvi
sibl
ebloodstai
nswhensprayedasitreveal
sa
sl
ightphosphor
escentl
ighti
nthedarkwherebl
oodst
ainsarepr
esent.

 TEICHMANTEST,TAKAYAMATESTandWAGENHAARTEST-wher elong-
dri
edbloodhascrystal
l
izedorwasmadet
ocr
yst
all
izebyt
heuseofvar
ious
sal
ine-
acidmixt
ures.

2.I
sthesampl
eani
malbl
ood?
,and

3.I
fani
malbl
ood,
from whatspeci
es?

I
tisi
mpor
tanti
nor
dert
orul
eoutt
hepossi
bil
it
yofani
njur
ytohousehol
dpet
.

 PRECIPI
TINTESTi satechniquebasedoninj
ect
inganani
mal(usual
lyr
abbi
t)
wit
hhumanbl ood.Ther abbi
t’
sbodycr eat
esanti
-humananti
bodi
es.Ifi
t
cr
eatescl
ott
ing,thesampleishuman.

4.I
fhumanbl
ood,
whatt
ype?

I
fadequat
eandqual
it
ysampl
e,di
rectt
ypi
ngusi
ngt
heA-
B-Osyst
em i
sdone.

 ABSORPTION-ELUTION TESTisanindi
recttypi
ngonseverel
ydr i
edstai
ns
whichaddscompat ibl
eanti
ser
um anti
bodies,t
henheati
ngthesampl eto
br
eakanti
body-ant
igenbondsandaddsredcell
stoseewhatcoagulat
es

5.Cant
hesex,
age,
andr
aceoft
hesour
ceofbl
oodbedet
ermi
ned?

Forensi
cscient
istusesvar
iouscol
orandni
tr
atet
estaswel
laspr
inci
plet
o
est
imateage,sexandrace.

98
  Clott
ing and cr yst
all
izat
ion help estimat
e age, t est
oster
one and
chromosomet est
inghelpdeterminesexandcertai
nr aci
algeneti
cmarker
s
i
nvolvingpr
otei
nandenzymet est
shelpsdet
erminerace

Pr
operHandl
ingofBl
oodSampl
es

 Wearl
atexgl
oves,
sur
gicalmasks,
andf
ull
cover
agegowns

 Eye–cover
ingsar
eneededf
orcol
lect
ingl
iqui
dsampl
es

 Keephandsoutofar
east
hatar
ehi
dden.

 Labelal
lbl
oodsampl
es.

 Packagedr
ysampl
esi
nbags,
aswel
lasst
ainedcl
othi
ng.

 Addanot
eofpr
ecaut
ioni
fbi
ohazar
dsl
ikeAI
DSorhepat
it
isar
esuspect
ed.

 Decont
ami
nat
eal
lnon-
disposabl
eit
ems.

 Dest
royt
ags,
for
ms,
orr
epor
tsspl
ashedwi
thbl
ood.

 Cl
eanuphandswi
thdi
lut
edbl
each,
anddi
sposeofcont
ami
nat
edcl
othi
ng.

 I
II
.3PRESUMPTI
VETESTS

 Fi
rsti
susi
ngapower
full
ightf
orpossi
blet
racesofvi
suali
nspect
ion.

 Ifnothi
ngisseenbutsuspect
sthatbl
oodi
spr
esent
,Lumi
noli
sspr
ayed
acrossthescene.

 TheKast
le-
MeyerCol
ort
esti
sdonet
odet
ermi
nei
fthesampl
eisbl
ood.

 Micr
ocr
ystal
li
netest
ssuchast
heTakayama andTei
chmannt
estdoneon
l
ong-dr
iedbl
oodstai
ns.

Conf
ir
mat
oryTest
ing

 Pr
eci
pit
int
estt
odet
ermi
newhet
herbl
oodi
sofani
malorhumanor
igi
n

 Aft
erthat
,anal
ystscangoaheadanddet
ermi
nebl
oodt
ypewi
thanA-
B-O
t
estandenzyme/prot
einpr
ofi
le.

99
  DNAtesti
ngonthesali
va,t
ear
drops,ski
nti
ssue,ur
ineorsement
odr
awup
anent
ir
ebloodprof
il
e.

TheCr
imeSceneandBl
ood

WetBl
oodhasmor
eVal
uet
hanDr
iedBl
ood.Mor
etest
scanber
unonwetbl
oodt
han
dr
iedbl
ood

Bl
oodSt
ainAnal
ysi
s

 Iti
saforensi
csubspeci
alt
ythatst
udi
est
hedi
ff
erentwayst
hatbl
oodl
andsona
surf
ace.

 Bl
oodatcr
imescenecanbei
nthef
orm ofpool
s,dr
ops,
smear
sorcr
ust
s.

 Pool
sofbl
oodhavemor
eevi
dent
iar
yval
uei
nobt
aini
ngwetsampl
e.

 Dr
opsofbl
oodt
ellt
hehei
ghtandangl
efr
om whi
cht
hebl
oodf
ell
.

 Bl
oodsmearont
hewal
lorf
loort
ell
sthedi
rect
ionoff
orceoft
hebl
ow

 Bl
oodcr
usti
stest
edwi
thcr
yst
all
inemet
hodst
omakesur
eiti
sbl
ood.

DNAExt
ract
ionf
rom Bl
oodSampl
es

DNAcanbeextr
actedfr
om bl
oodifwhit
ebloodcel
lswhi
chcontai
nnucl
eusi
s
pr
esentaswel
lasf
rom sper
m,bonemarr
ow,toothpul
pandhai
rroot
s.

St
epsi
nDNATest
ing:

a.Bl
oodsampl
esar
ecol
lect
edf
rom t
hevi
cti
m,def
endantandcr
imescene

b.Whi
tebl
oodcel
lsar
esepar
atedf
rom r
edbl
oodcel
ls

c.DNAi
sext
ract
edf
rom t
henucl
eiofwhi
tebl
oodcel
ls

d.Ar
est
ri
cti
veenzymei
susedt
ocutf
ragment
sofDNAst
rand

e.DNAf
ragment
sar
eputi
ntoabedofgelwi
thel
ect
rodesatei
therend

100
 f
. El
ect
ri
ccur
rentsor
tsDNAf
ragment
sbyl
engt
h.

g.Anabsor
bentbl
ott
ersoaksupt hei
mpr
int
;iti
sradi
oact
ivel
ytr
eat
ed,and
anX-
rayphot
ogr
aphisproduced.

Chapt
erXVI
BLOODSTAI
NPATTERNANALYSI
S

Bloodst
ainPatt
ernAnalysi
sistheexami
nati
onoftheshapes,l
ocat
ions,and
di
str
ibut
ionpatt
ernsofbl
oodst
ains,i
nor
dert
oprovi
deani
nter
pret
ati
onofthephysical

101
 event
swhi
chgaver
iset
othei
ror
igi
n.

Theuseofbl oodst ai
nsasevi denceisnotnew,howevert heappl icat
ionof
modern science has broughti tto a higherlevel.New t
echnologies,especi
all
y
advancesinDNAanal ysis,areavai
labl
ef ordet
ectivesandcri
minologist
st ousein
sol
vingcri
mesandappr ehendingoff
enders.

Asl
ongasananal ystfol
lowsasci
ent
if
icpr
ocess,t
hisappl
iedsci
encecan
pr
oducest
rong,
sol
idevi
dence.

Val
ueofBl
oodst
ainPat
ter
nAnal
ysi
s

a. Conf
ir
m orr
efut
eassumpt
ionsconcer
ningevent
sandt
hei
rsequence.

b. Conf
ir
m orr
efut
est
atement
smadebypr
inci
pal
sint
hecase.

c. Exami
ningt
hepat
ter
nsandt
hei
rfor
mat
ioncanpr
ovi
dei
nfor
mat
ionabout
:

i
. Or
igi
noft
hebl
oodst
ains/spat
ter

i
i. Posi
ti
onoft
hevi
cti
m att
het
imeofbl
ows

i
ii
. Numberofbl
owsst
ruck

i
v. Di
rect
ionofdeposi
t

v. Mannerofdeposi
ti
on

vi
. Di
rect
ionoft
ravelaf
teri
njur
y

I
mpor
tanceofBl
oodst
ainPat
ter
nAnal
ysi
s

Itwi
llal
lowthei
nvesti
gat
ortocor
rectl
ycollectbl
oodst
aindataatt
hesceneand
i
ntel
li
gentl
yconversewiththeMedico-
legalOffi
cer( MO),homici
dedetect
ives,and
bl
oodspatterexper
tsr
egardi
ngthebl
oodevidence.

Thebl
oodst
ainpat
ter
nanal
ysi
swi
llbeabl
etogi
vet
hei
nvest
igat
orst
hef
oll
owi
ng:

a. Locat
ionanddescr
ipt
ionofi
ndi
vidualst
ainsandpat
ter
ns,

b. Mechani
sm t
hatcr
eat
edt
hest
ains,

102
c. Di
rect
ionofabl
ooddr
opl
etwast
ravel
ing(
bycal
cul
ati
ngangl
esofi
mpact
),

d. Ar
eaofor
igi
n,

e. Typeofobj
ectusedi
nat
tack,

f
. Mi
nimum numberofbl
ows,

g. Thepr
esenceofasubj
ectatascene,

h. Posi
ti
oni
ngofavi
cti
m,suspect
,andobj
ect
sdur
ingevent
s,and

i
. Thesequenceofevent
s.

Bl
oodPr
oper
ti
es

Bl
oodisat i
ssuethatisci
rcul
atedwit
hinthebodytoassi
stotherpart
soft
he
body.Thisconnect
ivet
issuehasspeci
ali
zedcel
lsthatal
lowi
ttocar
ryoutit
scompl
ex
funct
ions.

TheTheor
y:t
heTear
dropver
sust
heBl
oodDr
op

Exper
iment
shaveshownt hatbl
oodt endst oformi nt
oaspher eratherthana
t
eardr
opshapewhenfreef al
li
ngorproj
ectedi ndropsizevolumes(appr
oximately0.
05
ml.or20dropspermi l
li
metre,t
houghsomear elar
gerandsomear esmal l
er)
.The
f
ormati
onofthespher
eisar esul
tofsur
facet ensi
on(St uar
t1999).

Bl
oodst
ainPat
ter
nCat
egor
ies

Thet
hree(
3)st
aingr e:Passi
oupsar ve,
Proj
ect
ed,
andTr
ansf
er/
Cont
act
.

1.PassiveBloodstai
n.A passi
vestai
niscreat
edwhentheforceofgr
avit
yis
acti
ngoni t.Passi
vebl
oodstainsar
edropscreat
edorf
ormedbythef
orceof
gravi
tyact
ingalone.

2.Proj
ectedBloodstai
ns.Aproj
ect
edst ai
noccur swhensomef or
m ofenergyhas
beentransf
erredtoabloodsource.Project
edbloodstai
nsarecr eat
edwhenan
exposedbloodsourceissubj
ectedtoanact ionorforce,gr
eaterthant
hef or
ce
ofgravit
y(int
ernall
yorexter
nal
lypr oduced).Thesize,shape,andnumberof

103
 r
esul
tingst
ainswilldepend,pr
imar
il
y,ont
heamountoff
orceut
il
izedt
ost
ri
ke
t
hebloodsource.

3.Transfer
/ContactBloodstai
ns.A transferbloodst
ainiscreat
edwhenawet ,
bloodysur f
ace comes in contactwi t
h a secondar
ysur f
ace.A tr
ansferor
contactstai
nisproducedwhenanobj ectwithbl
oodonitcomesincontactwi
th
anobjectorsurfacethatdoesnothavebl ood.

Vel
oci
ti
esofBl
oodSpat
ter

Therear
et hree(
3)cl assi
ficat
ionsofvel
oci
ti
esofbloodpatt
erns,wit
hal ar
ge
undefi
nedgapbet weenthemedi um-speedandhi
gh-speedvel
oci
ti
es.Thisgapi sa
resul
toft heveloci
tyclassi
ficat
ionshavinggrownoutoft hebl
oodst ai
nsfoundat
cri
mescenest hathavelimit
edcauses.

1.Low Vel
ocity.Low vel
ocitystai
nsarepr oducedbyanexter
nalf
orceless
than5feetpersecond( normalgravi
ty)
;thesestai
nsare3mm.andlar
ger.
Theyareusuallytheresultofbl
ooddr i
ppingfrom aper
sonwhoi
sholding
sti
ll
,wal
king,orr
unning,orsometi
mesf r
om cast-of
f.

2.Medi um Veloci
ty.Medium bloodspat
teri
sproducedbyanext ernalf
orceof
greaterthan5f eetpersecondandlessthan25feetpersecond.Thest ai
ns
gener al
lymeasure1-3mm.i nsize.Theyareof
tencausedbybl untorshar
p-
forcet r
auma.

a.Weapon Cast
-Off
.Weapon cast-
off
,orjustplai
n cast
-of
f,i
sof t
en
f
oundatcrimesceneswhenbluntorshar
pinst
rumentswereusedas
weaponsofat
tack.

b.Art
eri
alSpurt
s.Arter
ialbl
oodgraphical
lydi
splaysthepumpingofthe
l
eftvent
ri
cleoftheheartinsquir
tedarcs.Art
erialbl
oodspatt
erdoes
notl
eadfarbecausethebleederl
osesbloodvolumequickl
yandgoes
i
ntoshockordies.

Locar
d’spr
inci
pleofexchangest
atest
hatwhenevert
woobj
ect
scome
i
ntocontact
,someofthematterofeachobjecti
stransf
err
edtotheot
her.
Locar
d’spri
ncipl
ehasbecomeacardinalpr
inci
pleofcri
mesceneanal
ysi
s
andreconst
ructi
on.

3.Hi
ghVel
oci
ty.Anext
ernalf
orcegr
eat
ert
han100f
eetpersecondpr
oduces

104
 hi
ghvel oci
tybloodspat t
er,andt hest
ainstendtobel essthan1mm.The
patternissomet i
mesr eferredasami st
.Highveloci
typatt
ernsar
eusually
createdbygunshot sorexpl osivesbutmayal sobecausedbyi ndust
ri
al
machi neryorevenexpi
r edai r
,coughi
ng,orsneezi
ng.

Tar
getSur
faceText
ure

Bloodstainscanoccuronavar i
etyofsur
faces,suchascar pet
,wood,til
e,
wal
lpaper,cl
othing,andtheli
stgoeson.Thetypeofsurf
acethebloodstr
ikesaf
fect
s
t
heamountofr esul
tingspat
ter
,incl
udi
ngthesi
zeandappearanceofthebl
ooddrops.

Di
rect
ional
it
yofBl
oodst
ains

When a dropl
etofblood stri
kes a sur
faceperpendi
cular(90 degrees)the
resul
ti
ngbloodstai
nwillbeci
rcul
ar.Thatbei
ngthelengt
handwi dthoft
hest ai
nwi l
lbe
equal
.Bloodthatstri
kesasurfaceatanangl el
essthan90degr eeswi
llbeelongated
orhaveateardropshape.

Poi
ntofConver
genceandOr
igi
nalDet
ermi
nat
ion

Oncethedir
ect
ional
it
yofagr oupofst ai
nshasbeendet ermined,itispossi
ble
todetermineatwo(2)dimensi
onalpoi ntorareaforthegroupofstains.Bydrawinga
l
inethroughthelongaxisofagroupofbl oodst
ains,thepoi
ntofconver gencecanbe
deter
mi ned.Wherethe li
nes oft he group ofst ains i
nter
sectone anot her,the
convergencepoi
ntcanbeestabl
ished.

105
106
 Chapt
erXVI
I
FORENSI
CBI
OCHEMI
STRYANDMOLECULARBI
OLOGY

Forensicsci
enceorcri
minali
sti
csi
sbasedonthetheor
yoftransfer
:Whentwo
obj
ect
smeet ,someevidence(l
ikeDNA evi
dence)oft
hatmeeti
nggener all
ycanbe
est
abl
ishedandverifi
edatalat
erti
me.Thi
sisknownastheLocar
d’sPrinci
ple.

Bi
ochemi
str
yandMol
ecul
arBi
ology

Biochemi stryi
sauni quediscipl
ineandi tcombi
neschemi str
yandbi ol
ogy.I
tis
cl
osel yr el
ated tot he di
scipl
ine ofmol ecularbiol
ogy invol
ving the study oflif
e
processesatt hemol ecul
arlevel
,andt oget hertheyprovi
deachemi calandphysi cal
basist ounder standallaspectsaffecti
ngbi ol
ogyfrom vi
rusest ohumans.I tsstudy
providesnecessar ybackgroundt ounder standatt hemolecularlevelprocessesthat
affectli
fe,andi topensdoorstother evoluti
onsi nthemolecularli
fesciencesthatwi l
l
l
eadsci encet hroughthe21stcentury.

For
ensi
cBi
ochemi
str
yandMol
ecul
arBi
ology

I
tist
heappl
icat
ionofbi
ochemi
str
yandmol
ecul
arbi
ologyt
othei
nvest
igat
ions

107
ofthecrimebutnotl i
mit
edt ocri
meagai nsti
ndi
viduals,suchashomicide,t
heftfr
aud
andarson.Italsoinvol
vedintheinvest
igati
onofcr i
meagai nstsoci
etysuchasf ood,
adult
erati
on,envir
onmentalpoll
uti
on,useanddi stri
butionofunsafechemi cal
s,and
dangerousworkingcondit
ions.

Deoxyr
ibonucl
eot
ide(
DNA)Anal
ysi
s

DNAisthefundamentalbui
ldi
ngblockforani
ndi
vidual
’
senti
regenet
icmakeup.
Iti
sapower f
ultoolbecauseeachperson’sDNAi sdi
ff
erentfr
om ever
yindi
vidual
’
s,
exceptfori
denti
calt
wins.

Itisal
soveryimport
antinthei
dent
if
icat
ionofavi
cti
mthr
oughDNA f
rom
r
elat
ives,
evennobodycanbefound.

DNAFi
nger
pri
nti
ng

Toi
denti
fyindi
viduals,for
ensicscient
ist
sscan13DNAr egionsthatvaryf
rom
persontoper
sonanduset hedat atocreateDNApr ofi
leoft
hati
ndividual(
someti
mes
call
edDNAf i
ngerpri
nt)
.Toi denti
fythesuspect,theevi
dencecol
lectedfrom t
hecri
me
sceneiscomparedwiththe“ known”pri
nt.

Ef
fect
ivi
tyofDNAi
nIdent
if
yingPer
sons

DNAidenti
ficati
oncanbequi
teeff
ect
iveifusedint
ell
igentl
y.Port
ionsofDNA
sequencethatvaryt hemostamonghumansmustbeused;al soport
ionsmustbe
l
argeenough t o overcomethef
actthathuman mating i
snotabsol utelyr
andom
(DanielDr
elloft
heUSDOEHumanGenomePr ogr
am)

I
mpor
tanceofDNAAnal
ysi
stoLawEnf
orcement

Toidenti
fyt
heper
pet
rat
oroft
hecr
imeneedst
othi
nkr
out
inel
yaboutevi
dence
t
hatmaycontai
nDNA.

Someexampl
esofDNAUsesf
orFor
ensi
cIdent
if
icat
ion

1.Ident
if
ypot
ent
ialsuspect
s whose DNA maymat
ch evi
dence l
eftatcr
ime
scenes.

108
 2.Exoner
ateper
sonswr
ongl
yaccusedofcr
imes

3.I
dent
if
ycr
imeandcat
ast
rophevi
cti
ms

4.Est
abl
ishpat
erni
tyandot
herf
ami
lyr
elat
ionshi
p

5.I
dent
if
yendanger
edandpr
otect
edspeci
esasanai
dtowi
ldl
if
eof
fi
cial
s

6.Det
ectbact
eri
aandot
heror
gani
smst
hatmaypol
lut
eai
r,
wat
er,
soi
landf
ood.

7.Mat
chor
gandonor
swi
thr
eci
pient
sint
ranspl
ant
spr
ogr
am.

8.Det
ermi
nepedi
greef
orseedorl
ivest
ock’
sbr
eeds

9.Aut
hent
icat
econsumabl
essuchascavi
arandwi
ne

Genot
ypever
susPhenot
ype

Genotypeist
hemakeupoft hegenest
hati
stheDNAi
tsel
f.Phenot
ypesar
e
char
acter
ist
icsduet
otheexpr
essi
onofourDNA.

Phenot
ypeAnal
ysi
s-f
orbl
oodt
ypi
ngevi
dence

ABObloodref
erstoprot
einr
edbl
oodcel
ls.Bl
oodtypesar
eclassi
fiedi
ntotypes
A,B,
ABandO.Anal ysi
softhesecanonl
yexcl
udeaperson15-20percentoftheti
me
i
ncri
minalcasesorpat
erni
tysui
ts.

Genot
ypeAnal
ysi
s-f
orDNAEvi
dence

Unl
ike i
n ABO and HLA anal
yses wher
ethe t
est
s ar
e based on whati
s
expr
essed

Byt
heDNA,
inDNAanal
ysi
s,i
ttest
stheDNAi
tsel
f,ort
hegenei
tsel
f.

Usi
ngDNAasEvi
dence-
Excl
usi
onver
susI
ncl
usi
on

I
fther
eisnomat chthi
sisexcl
usi
on.Theevi
denceblooddoesnotmat
cht he
suspectorvict
im.Thi
sanalysi
sisdoneandtheDNAevi dencesayst
hesuspectis
i
nnocent.Ift
her
eisamat cht
hisi
sanincl
usi
on.

109
DNATechnol
ogi
esusedi
nFor
ensi
cInvest
igat
ions

1.Restri
ctionFr
agmentLengthPolymorphi
sm (RFLPs).RFLPi sat echni
que
foranalyzi
ngthevar
iabl
elengt
hofDNAf r
agmentsthatresul
tfrom di
gesti
ng
aDNAsampl ewit
haspecialki
ndofenzyme.

2.Variabl
eNumberTandem Repeats(VNTRs).Theseareshort
ssequencesof
non-codingDNAwhicharerepeat
edoverandover,butdi
ff
erentpeopl
ehave
di
fferentnumber
sofrepeat
s.

3.PolymeraseChainReact
ion(PCR)
.PCRisusedt
oident
if
yti
nyamount
sof
DNA.PCRi susedwhent her
eisaver
ylit
tl
eDNAorwhenaDNAi squit
e
degraded.

4.STRAnalysi
s.ShortTandem Repeat(STR)t
echnol
ogyi
susedt
oeval
uat
e
speci
fi
cregi
ons(l
oci)wi
thi
nnuclearDNA.

5.Y-ChromosomeAnal ysis.TheY-chr
omosomei spasseddir
ectl
yfrom f
ather
to son,so the analysis ofgeneti
c marker
s on the Y chr
omosome i s
especial
lyusefulfortracingrel
ati
onshi
psamongmal esorf oranal
yzing
biol
ogicalevi
denceinvolvi
ngmulti
plemalecont
ri
butors.

6.Mitochondr
ialDNAAnal
ysi
s.Mitochondr
ialDNAanalysis(
mt DNA)canbe
usedtoexami net
heDNAfr
om samplesthatcannotbeanal
yzedbyRFLPor
STR.

DNAEvi
denceandt
heCr
imeScene

DNAevi
dencecanbecoll
ect
edf r
om vir
tuall
yanywhere.DNAhashel
pedsolve
manycaseswhenimaginat
ivei
nvest
igator
scollectedevi
dencefr
om non-
tr
adi
ti
onal
sour
ces.

DNAEvi
denceCol
lect
ionandPr
eser
vat
ion

AccordingtoNIJprot
ocol
s,Investi
gatorsandlabor
atorypersonnelshoul
dwor k
toget
hertodet ermi
nethemostprobativepiecesofevi
denceandt oestabl
ishpri
ori
ti
es.
Everyof f
icershould be awar
e ofi mportantissues i
nvolved i
nt he i
denti
fi
cati
on,
coll
ect
ion,transpor
tat
ion,
andstor
ageofDNAevi dence.

110
Cont
ami
nat
ionofDNAEvi
dence

Avoi
dcont
ami
nat
ingt
hecr
imescenebecauseext
remel
ysmal
lsampl
esofDNA

Canbeusedasevi
dence,
great
erat
tent
iont
ocont
ami
nat
ioni
ssuesi
snecessar
y

Wheni
dent
if
ying,
col
lect
ing,
andpr
eser
vingDNAevi
dence.

Tr
anspor
tat
ionandSt
orageofDNAEvi
dence

Whentransport
ingandst or
ingevidencethatmaycont ainDNA, i
tisi
mportantto
keeptheevidencedry,andatr oom temperatur
e.Oncet heevidencehasbeensecur ed
i
napaperbagsorenvel opes,itshouldbeseal ed,l
abeled,andtransport
edinaway
thatensur
espr operi
denti
fi
cati
onofwher ei
twasf oundandpr operchainofcust
ody.

9.St
epst
oAvoi
dCont
ami
nat
ionofDNAEvi
dence

Toavoi
dcont ami
nat
ionofevi
dencet
hatmaycont
ainDNA,al
wayst
aket
he
f
oll
owi
ngpr
ecaut
ions:

1.Wearcl
oves.Changet
hem of
ten

2.Use disposabl
einst
rument
s orcl
ean t
hem t
hor
oughl
ybef
ore and af
ter
handl
ingeachsample.

3.Avoi
dtouchi
ngt
hear
eawher
eonebel
ievedDNAmayexi
st.

4.Avoi
dtal
king,
sneezi
ng,
andcoughi
ngoverevi
dence.

5.Avoi
dt ouchi
ngone’
sface,nose,andmout
hwhencol
lect
ingandpacki
ng
evi
dence.

6.Ai
r-
dryevi
dencet
hor
oughl
ybef
orepacki
ng.

7.Putevidenceint
onewpaperbagsorenvel
opes,
noti
ntopl
ast
icbags.Donot
usestaples.(
BC000614)
.

111
El
imi
nat
ionSampl
es

Accor
dingtoNIJprotocols,aswi
thfingerpr
int
s,t
heeff
ect
iveuseofDNAmay
requi
rethecollect
ionandanalysisofel
iminati
onsamples.I
toft
ennecessar
ytouse
elimi
nati
onsampl estodeterminewhethertheevidencecomesfrom t
hesuspector
from someoneelse.

Chapt
erXVI
II
FORENSI
CBOTANY

112
 For
ensi
cBot
anyi
stheanal
ysi
sofpl
antmat
eri
ali
nbot
hci
vilandcr
imi
nall
aw
enforcement.Itist
heappli
cati
onofpl antevi
dencetot
heresol
uti
onoflegalquest
ions.
Plantevidencecanbeusedt odestroyanal i
bi,hel
pdet
ermineti
mesincedeath,puta
suspectatacr imescene,
ortellwheresomeoneorsomethinghasbeen.

Tr
aceBot
ani
calEvi
dence

Locar
d’sTr
ansf
erPr
inci
ple.A cr
imi
nalal
waysl
eavesatt
hecr
imescene,or
t
akessomethi
ngaway.TraceEvidencecanlinkanobjectorsuspectt
othesceneof
t
hecri
me,aswellasr
uleoutasuspectorsupportanal
ibi
.

Pl
antPar
tsast
raceEvi
dence.Pl
ant
sorpl
antpar
tsasmar
ker
satt
hecr
ime
sceneoronsuspect sar
ti
clesi
ncludespol
len,pl
antf
ragment
s,pl
antr
esi
dues,t
he
chemicalcomposi
ti
onandthepl
antDNA.

Wher
etosear
chf
orPl
antCl
ues?Tr
acebot
ani
calevi
dencemaybepr
esenton
suspect
’sar
ti
cles,
oncl
othi
ng,
ont
hebody,
inmud,
insoi
l,
andi
nwat
er.

Fi
eldsonFor
ensi
cBot
any

Theuseofbot ani
calevidencei nlegali nvesti
gationi srelati
vel
yr ecentand
untouchedspecialt
y.Of t
en,aplantpathologistisbroughtint operform anal
ysisont he
evidence;however,f
indingsaresubjectedtoi ndivi
dualtr
ainingandt echniques.Today,
forensicbotanyencompassesnumer oussubdi scipl
inesinpl antscience:palynology,
anat omy,and dendr ochronol
ogy,l i
mnol ogy,syst ematic,ecol ogy,and mol ecular
biology.

Pal
ynol
ogy

Pal
ynol
ogyi
sthest
udyoff
ossi
lsandmoder
npol
len,gr
ains,spor
es,andot
her
aci
d-r
esist
antmicroorganismssuchasdinofl
agel
lat
es,acrit
archs,andchit
inozoans,
whie For
l ensi
c Palynology i
sthe st
udy ofpollen and powdered mineral
s,their
i
denti
fi
cati
ons,andwher eandwhentheyoccur
,toascert
ainthatabodyorotherobject

113
wasi
ncer
tai
npl
aceatacer
tai
nti
me.

Pol
lenRai
n:Pr
oduct
ion,
Disper
sion,
andSi
nki
ngSpeed

A plant
’s mode ofpolli
nation has consequences forthe volume ofpol l
en
released. Autogamous( sel
f-
polli
nating)plant
shasf ew as100 pol len grai
nsper
ant her
,Zoogamous( ani
malpol l
inated)plantsrel
easemuchmor ethanaut ogamous
plantsbutnotnearl
yasmuchasanemophi l
ous(wind-
poll
inated)plant
s.

Zoogamouspol l
enispar
ticul
arl
yusefulinafor
ensicanal
ysis,becauseactual
contactbetweentheplantandt
heobjectorpersonofi
nter
est
isnecessaryinorderfor
thepollent
otransfer
.

Anemophilouspol
lenisubiqui
tous,dominat
ingthepol
lenrai
nofanyar ea.I
tis
l
esseffecti
veforestabl
ishi
ngdirectli
nksbetweenpeopleandpl aces,asaper son
needonlybeinthegener
alareaofnanemophi l
ousplantt
oacquir
ethepollen.

Knowledgeofpol
lensi
nki
ngspeedcanbeusedtoidenti
fysour
cear
eas.Somet
ypeof
pol
lenarever
yli
ghtandsi
nktothegr
oundr
elat
ivel
yslowly.

Sour
cesofPol
lenEvi
dence:

a. Di
rt
,mud,
ordustr
ecover
edf
rom per
sonorobj
ect

b. Hai
randf
ur

c. Wovencl
oth,
bags,
basket
s,andr
opes

d. Packi
ngmat
eri
als(
speci
all
yst
raworcar
dboar
d)

e. Humanr emai
ns;fr
om thesof
tti
ssueoft
hest
omachandi
ntest
ineofcor
psesor
thenasalpassagesofskel
etons

f. I
mpor t
ed/expor
tedgoods,of
tent
over
if
ycount
ryofor
igi
n,e.
g.honey,f
rui
t,t
ea,
coff
ee,
tobacco

g. Ant i
quegoods,t
oval
idat
eageandaut
hent
ici
ty,e.
g.coi
nsandpapermoney,
fur
nit
ure

h. Ai
tfi
lt
ers,
todet
ermi
newher
epr
ivat
evehi
clesmayhavet
ravel
led

i
. Moneysuspect
edt
ohavebeenusedf
ordr
ugt
ransact
ionsmaybesampl
edf
or

114
pol
lenornar
cot
icspeci
es

Ecol
ogyandPl
antSyst
emat
ics

Ecol
ogicalknowl
edgeofpl antspeci esi
susef ultoinvest
igat
orsont womai n
ways:t odeterminewhethert heplantfragmentsrecoveredfrom avicti
m orobj ect
camef rom whereitwasf oundorf rom someot herarea,andinlocati
ngcl andest
ine
grave.Syst
emat i
cexpert
isei srequiredwhent heidenti
tyofsuspecteddr ugspeci a,
notabl
ymar i
juana,i
sinquestion.

Locat
ionofCl
andest
ineGr
aves

Knowledgeofpl antsuccessioncanhel pinvest

igat
orslocat
ehi ddengraves.
Whensoilisdistur
bedf oraburial
,itdoesnotremai nbareforl
ong;pioneerspecies
sooncoloni
zet hesite,fol
lowedbyl at
er-
successi
onspeci esandfinal
ly,thecl
imax
assembl
ageofspeci es.

I
dent
if
icat
ionofCont
rol
ledSubst
ances

Manycont rol
ledsubstancesar ederivedfrom pl
ants,e.
g.mar i
juana(
cannabi
s
sati
vaL. )opium poppy( papaversomniferum L.)andpeyote(LaphophoraWil
li
amsii
).
Part
icularl
yi n case ofmar i
juana,expertidenti
fi
cati
on isr equir
ed due tothe
phylogeneti
ccontroversysurroundingt
hecannabi sgenus.

Li
mnol
ogy

Li
mnol
ogyi
sadi
sci
pli
net
hatconcer
nst
hest
udyofi
nlandwat
er(
bot
hsal
ine
andf r
esh),specif
ical
lyl
akes,pondsandriver
s(bothnaturalandmanmade) ,i
ncluding
theirbiol
ogical,physi
cal
,chemical
,andhydrol
ogicalaspect
s.Limnologyi
sthestudyof
freshwaterecol ogy.Theal galcommunity,parti
cular
lythedi at
oms,isspecificall
y
usef uli
nli
nkingsuspectsandvi ct
imstocrimescenesinoraroundf r
eshwater
.

Di
agnosi
ngDr
owni
ng

115
 A positi
ve diagnosis ofdr owni ng can be ver y diff
icult
,par t
icul
arl
yi nt he
decomposed bodi eswher ephysi ologicalindicati
onsofdr owning maybeabsent .
Whenaper sondr ownsi nf r
eshwat er,diat
omsar etakennotonl yi ntothelungsbut
al
sodi sper
sedt otheot herinter
nalor gans.Int heabsenceofot herevidence,di
atoms
detect
edi nthebodyt i
ssuesar et hemostr el
iabl
ei ndi
catoroff reshwaterdrowning.
Diatomscanbedet ectedi nbonemar r
ow ofdr ownedvi ct
im.I ncasesofsuspect ed
drowning,20di at
omsper100mi croli
tresofpel l
etfrom 10gr am lungsampl e,orfive
completediatomsf r
om ot herorgans, arenormal l
yrequiredforaposi ti
vediagnosi
s.

Est
imat
ingTi
mesi
nceDeat
h

Thealgalcommuni
tyi
sanexcel
lentwayt
oassesspostmor
tem i
nter
valf
or
sever
alr
easons:

a. Di
atomsar
eubi
qui
tousi
nbot
hlot
icandl
ent
icsyst
ems

b. Al
gal
popul
ati
ons,
thoughvar
iabl
e,per
sistt
hrought
heyear

c. Mostdi
atomscanbei
dent
if
iedt
ospeci
eswi
thonl
yal
ightmi
croscope

Anat
omyandDendr
ochr
onol
ogy

Thecel
lisimportantintwoparticul
arreasons:itiseasi
lynotdi
gestedbymost
organi
smsandt heref
oreper si
stswhenot herpl antfeatur
esaredestr
oyed,andthe
si
ze,shape,patt
ernofcel lwall
sisoftentaxonspeci f
ic.Inaddit
iont
ocellwall
s,may
plant
spossessuni quecel lt
ypes,suchast hescl er
eidsofpearsorspecies-
speci
fi
c
tr
ichomes,whichareusefulinident
if
yingbotanicalmateri
al.

Post
mor
tem BoneDat
ing

Root
s aref r
equent l
yf ound wi
th exposed or shal
lowl
y bur
ied bodi
es.
Quatr
ehommeet .
al.outl
inedt hreewaysinwhi chther
ootscanbeusedt odatet
he
remai
nsorother
wisechar acter
izethebur
ialsi
te:

a. Exami nerootdevelopmentaf
teri
thasbeendamaged.Whenagr aveisdugor
thegroundwasdi stur
bed,root
scanbedamagedbutst i
llconti
nuegr owing.Ifthe
merist
emati
czonei sdamaged,nosecondaryxyl
em cel
lscanbepr oduced,leavi
nga
permanentl
esi
on.Thenumberofgr owthringsl
aiddownafterthelesi
oni ndi
catethe
numberofyearssi
ncet hedamageoccur
red.

116
b. Exami neroot
sindir
ectcontactwit
htheremai
ns.Theroot
smustbegr
owi
ngt
o
cl
othi
ngandbonesi
norderthatt
heinter
pret
ati
onwil
lbeval
id.

c. Exami nebranchgrowth.Ti
meframei
sdeterminedfr
om t
hel
engt
hoft
her
oot
fr
om i
tspoi
ntofcont
actwit
htheremai
nstoi
tsdi
stalend.

St
omachCont
ent
s

Character
ist
iccel
ltypesfr
om foodplantscanbeusedt oi
dent
if
yvi
cti
m’slast
meal;knowledgeaboutwhichcanbeusedt oident
if
ythevi
cti
m’sl
astwher
eabout
sor
act
ionspri
ortodeath.Someofthesecellt
ypesincl
ude:

a. Scl
erei
ds(pear
s)

b. St
archgr
ains(pot
atoesandot
hert
uber
s)

c. Raphi
decr
yst
als(
pineappl
e)

d. Dr
usecr
yst
als(ci
tr
us,
beet
s,spi
nach)

e. Si
li
cabodi
es(cear
ealgr
assesandbamboos)

Timesi ncedeat
hcanbeappr oximat
edbythestat
eofdigest
ionofthestomach
cont
ents.Itnormall
ytakesatleastcoupleofhour
sforfoodtopassf r
om stomachto
smalli
ntesti
ne;amealst i
lll
argel
yint hest
omachindi
catesdeat
hshortlyaf
tereat
ing,
whil
eanempt yornearl
yempt ystomachsuggestalongerti
meperiodbetweeneati
ng
anddeath.

Tr
eeRi
ngs

Dendr
ochr
onol
ogyi
sthest
udyoft
reer
ings.I
tisani
mpor
tantt
echni
quei
na
numberofdi
sci
pli
nes,incl
udi
ng,andecology.For
ensicappl
icat
ionsconcer
tthedati
ng
ofwooden obj
ects and matchi
ng objects wi
th cr
imes scenes usi
ng the wood’
s
morphol
ogi
calf
eatur
es.

Ar
tFr
aud

Theri
nganal
ysisisacommont echniquef ordat
ingmast er
wor
ksbyEuropean
paint
ers,manyofwhichwerepoi
nteddi
rectl
yonwood.Anal ystcanpi
npoi
ntt
heexact
yearwhenthetr
eefrom whi
chthewoodwast aken,wascutdown.

117
 Dendr
ochr
onol
ogy t
echni
ques ar
e usef
uli
n det
ermi
ning t
he pr
ovenance of
woodenar
tobj
ect
sandmusi
cali
nst
rument
s.

Mol
ecul
arBi
ology

Molecul
armethodshavebeenusedi ndruginvest
igat
ions,pat
entcases,and
havepl
ayedkeyrol
einatleastoneMar
icopahomici
decasediscussedbel
ow.

Randoml
yAmpl
if
iedPol
ymor
phi
cDNA(RAPD)i
sbasedonpol
ymer
asechai
nreact
ion
(PCR).WherePCRusesgeneticpri
merstot
argetandampl i
fyspecif
icsequencesof
DNA,RAPDusesnumer ousshor
tprimer
s(10basepairs)toampl i
fythegenomei n
vari
ousrandom l
ocat
ions.Theresul
tisuni
que“genet
icfinger
pri
nt”ofthesampl ed
organi
sm.

Mar
icopaCase

TheMar i
copacasemar kedt hefir
sttimepl antDNA hasbeenadmi t
tedto
evidencenacr i
mi nalcourti
nUS.I nMayof1992,awomanwasmur deredandher
bodywasdumped i n an abandoned f
actoryin Mar i
copa County,Arizona,US.A
suspectwasappr ehendedbutdeniedeverhavingbeenatt hesi
tewheret hebodywas
found.Seedpodsf rom thePaloVerdetree,severalofwhi chgrew neart hefact
ory,
wer erecover
edfrom thebackoft hesuspect’
struck.Thr oughDNAt ypingandRAPD
Analysis,t
heseedpodf oundinthesuspect’
st r
uckmat chedwiththeseedpodf rom
thePal oVerdetreeneart hecrimescene.Theevi dencewasst r
ongenought obe
admi t
tedincour
t.

Ampl
if
iedFr
agmentLengt
hPol
ymor
phi
sm (
AFLP)
.Li
keRAPD,t
hisi
sal
sobasedon
PCRbutmor esensi
ti
veandreproduci
ble.Thet echni
queisusef
uli
nsituat
ionswher
e
l
argenumbersofpolymorphi
cmar ker
sar erequiredt
odisti
ngui
shspeci
esandwhere
fewtaxon-
speci
fi
cpri
mersareavail
abl
e.

Tr
aceAl
kal
oidsandSt
abl
e-I
sot
opeRat
ios

Thevar
iat
ionsofisot
opesfrom r
egi
ontoregi
oncanbeusefult
opredictthe
nat
urali
sot
opi
cvar i
ati
onincrops.St
abl
eisot
opeandtr
aceal
kal
oiddatai
sf easi
ble

118
meansint
racki
ngcocai
net
raf
fi
cki
ngr
out
esandi
dent
if
yingexi
sti
ngandnew coca-
pr
oduci
ngr
egions.

Pl
antFor
ensi
cToxi
col
ogy

Mur
derbyPoi
sonanAnci
entAr
t

Useofpoi
sonsgreat
lyi
ncr
easedascivi
li
zati
ondevel
oped.I
twasfi
rstdoneby
Sumeri
ansofMesopotamia,i
nthemiddleage;itdevel
opedint
oacultandi n19th
cent
urybecamet
he“gol
denage”ofpoi
soni
ng.

Cr
imeofPassi
onandPoi
son

OnJanuar
y17,1910,awomanthr
eat
eningtol
eavehercheat
inghusbandwas
mur
der
edbythesamethr
oughHyosci
nef
rom HENBANE.

Deadl
yami
noaci
ds,
pept
ides,
andpr
otei
ns

Manyplant
sar epoisonous,f
orexample,beanscanhavet oxi
cami
noaci
ds,
cert
ainblue-
greenalagaecanhavet oxi
cpeptidesandcastorbeancanhavet
oxic
prot
einsknownasricinwherelesst
han1mill
igr
am isfat
al.

TheCaseofBul
gar
ianUmbr
ell
a

1978Bulgari
anexi l
e,GeorgiMar kovwasat tackedinLondonwithadevi
ce
di
sguisedasanumbr el
la.Thedeviceinj
ectedat inypelletwi
thr
ici
ntoxi
nint
ohi
sleg
whil
ehewaswai t
ingforabus.Hedi edseveraldayslater.

119
 Chapt
erXI
X
FORENSI
CENTOMOLOGY

120
TheSci
enceofFor
ensi
cEnt
omol
ogy

For
ensi
c Ent
omol
ogy i
s t
he sci
ence of usi
ng evi
dence t
o uncover
cir
cumst ancesofi nterestt othelaw,oft
enr el
atedtoacr ime,( Amer i
canBoar dof
ForensicEnt omology) .ForensicEntomol
ogyi st
heuseofi nsect
s,andt hei
rarthropod
rel
ativest hatinhabitdecomposi ngremai
nst oaidlegalinvest
igations.Thet imeof
death,f orexample,canusual l
ybedeterminedusinginsectevidencegat heredf r
om
and ar ound acor pse,pr ovi
ded theevi
dencei sproperl
ycol l
ected,pr eser
ved and
analysedbyanappr opr iatel
yeducatedforensi
centomologist
.( htt
p://
www. forensic-
entomol ogy.com)

Thr
eeAr
easofFor
ensi
cEnt
omol
ogy

Thebroadf
iel
doff
orensi
cent
omol
ogyi
scommonl
ybr
okendownt
othr
ee
gener
alar
eas.

1.MedicocriminalEnt omology.Itf ocuseson t hecar ri

on feeding insectst hat
i
nfest human r emains. Iti s somet imes r efer
red as “ f
orensic medi cal
entomology,”andinr eali
ty“ medicocri
minalent omology”becauseofi tsfocus
onviolentcri
me.Thi salsorelatesprimari
lytoa)det erminati
onoft imeofdeat h
(post
-mortem intervalorPMI )orsi t
e ofhuman deat h,b)cases i nvolving
possibl
esuddendeat h,c)traff
icaccidentswit
hnoi mmedi atel
yobvi ouscause,
d)possiblecri
minal misuseofinsects(Lecrecq1969)

2.UrbanEnt omology.I
tisthebranchoffor
ensi
cent omologythatdeal
swithlegal
proceedingsthatinvol
vinginsect
sandr el
atedanimalst hataff
ectmanmade
str
ucturesandot heraspectsofhumanenvi ronment.Thisareahasbot hthe
cri
minalandci vi
lcomponentsasur banpest
smayf eedonbot htheli
vingand
thedead.

3.Stored ProductI nsects.They are commonl

yf ound infoodst uff
s and t he
forensicentomologistsmayser veasanexper twitnessduringbot hcr i
mi nal
andci vi
lproceedingsinvolvedfoodcontami
nati
on.I tdeal
swi thpr oceedings
i
nvol vi
ng insectsinfesti
ng stor
ed commodit
ies such as cereals and other
kit
chenpr oducts.

Di
ver
seAppl
icat
ionsofFor
ensi
cEnt
omol
ogy

121
 Thedi
verseappl
icati
onsf orensi
centomologyincludest
hedetect
ionofpubl
ic
abusei
nchil
drenandneglectofelders,
sol
vingcarorplaneacci
dent
sorcrashes.

ScopeofMedi
co-
cri
minalent
omol
ogy

As pract
iced,deals mainl
y wi t
hi nferences made afterexaminat
ion.And
i
dent
if
icati
onofarthropodscol
lect
edf r
om orneart hecorpse.I
denti
fyi
ngart
hropodsi
s
t
hepri
ncipalrol
eplayedbythemedi co-
cri
mi nalentomologi
sts.

Ear
lyHi
stor
yofFor
ensi
cEnt
omol
ogy

For
ensi
cEntomologywasfi
rstreport
edtohavebeenusedin13thCenturyChina
t
h t
h
andwasusedspor adi
cal
lyi
nthe19 Cent uryandtheearlypartofthe20 cent ury,
playi
ngapar tinsomever ymajorcases.However ,i
nt helast15year s,for
ensic
entomologyhasbecomemoreandmor ecommoninpoli
ceinvesti
gat
ions.

Appl
icat
ionofFor
ensi
cEnt
omol
ogyi
nDeat
hSceneI
nvest
igat
ion

Deat
hSceneI
nvest
igat
ion

Forensicentomologist
saremostcommonl ycall
edupont odet erminethepost-
mortem i
ntervalortimeofdeathinhomi ci
deinvesti
gations.Mostcasest hatinvol
vea
for
ensicentomologistarethr
eedaysor72hour sormor eold.Withi
nt hreedaysaf t
er
death,
otherforensicmethodsareequall
yormor eaccur atethanforensicentomology.
Howeveraf terthree days,for
ensic entomology is of t
en the mostaccur ate and
sometimestheonl ymethodofdeter
miningelapsedt i
mesi ncedeath.

Ther
ear
etwomai
nwaysofusi
ngi
nsect
stodet
ermi
neel
apsedt
imesi
ncedeat
h:

a) Usi ngsuccessi
onalwavesofinsect
s-usedwhent
hecor
psehasbeendeadf
or
bet
weenamonthupt oayearormore.

b) Usingmaggotageanddevel
opment
-usedwhendeat
hoccur
redl
esst
hana
mont
hpr
iort
odi
scover
y.

Ent
omol
ogi
calEvi
dencecanshowAt
temptt
oConcealorMovi
ngt
heBody

Thebodymayhavebeenmovedaf
terdeat
hfr
om t
hesceneoft
heki
ll
ingt
oa

122
hidi
ngplace.Someoftheinsectsonthebodymaybenati
vetothefir
sthabit
atandnot
thesecond.Thiswil
lshow thatnotonl
ythebodywasmoved,buti twil
lalsogivean
i
ndicat
ionofthetypeofar
eawher ethemurderact
ual
lyt
ookplace.(
Anderson1998)

Ent
omol
ogi
calEvi
dencecanshowt
heEnvi
ronment
alTemper
atur
eorCondi
ti
on

Fr
eezi
ng orwr appi
ng ofthebodymaybei
ndi
cat
ed byan al
ter
ed speci
es
successi
onofinsect
sont hebody.

Ent
omol
ogi
calEvi
dencecanshowi
fVi
cti
m waspoi
sonedbef
oreDeat
h

Thei
nsect
srecoveredfr
om t
hedecomposi
nghumanr
emai
nscanbeaval
uabl
e
t
oolf
ortoxi
col
ogi
calanalysi
s.

Entomol
ogicalEvi
dencecanhel
precoverandi
dent
if
ytheBl
oodMeal
stakenbyBl
ood
Feedi
ngInsects

TheDNAofhumanbloodcanber
ecover
edf
rom t
hedi
gest
ivet
ractofani
nsect
t
hathasfedonani
ndi
vidual
.

For
ensi
cEnt
omol
ogyandOt
herCr
imes

 SexualAssaultandRape.Fecalanduri
nesoakeddressi
ngsmayat tr
act
speci
esoff l
iesthatmayyi
eldmanycluesastothecir
cumstancesofthe
cri
me.

 Chil
dAbuseorNeglect
.Ifabodyi
snotcl
eaned,i
tmayat
tr
acthousef
li
es
thatmayl
ayeggs.

 AbuseoftheEl
der
ly.Somei
nsect
swi
llcol
oni
zewoundsoruncl
eanar
eason
ali
vingper
son.

Col
lect
ion,
Preser
vat
ion,
andPackagi
ngEnt
omol
ogi
calEvi
dence

 SceneObser
vat
ionandWeat
herDat
a

 Col
lect
ionofI
nsect
sfr
om t
heBodyoft
heScene

123
  Col
lect
ionofI
nsect
sfr
om Sceneaf
terBodyRemoval

Li
mit
ati
onsofFor
ensi
cEnt
omol
ogy

 Temper
ature.Thetemperat
ureofdeathi
sobvi
ouslyaveryimport
antfact
or,
butf
ewcriminalsaret
houghtf
ulenought
okil
lthei
rvi
cti
mr i
ghtunder
neatha
weat
herstati
on.

 Resul
tsar
enoti
mmedi
ate,
asi
ttakest
imet
oreart
hei
nsect
s.

 Thebodymayhavebeendi
sposedofi
nawayt
hatexcl
udesi
nsect
se.
g.
fr
eezi
ng,
bur
ial
,wr
apped

 Dr
ugs.Thepr
esenceofdr
ugsmayaf
fectt
hedevel
opmentofi
nsect
s.

Chapt
erXX
124
 FORENSI
CENGI
NEERI
NG

For
ensi
cEngi
neer
ingi
stheappl
icat
ionoft
hear
tandsci
enceofengi
neer
ingi
n
the juri
spr udence system,r equiri
ng the services ofl egal
ly quali
fi
ed professional
engineers.For ensicengineeringmayi ncl
udei nvesti
gat i
onoft hephysicalcausesof
accidents and ot hersour ces ofcl ai
ms and l i
ti
gati
on,pr eparat
ion ofengi neering
reports,t
est i
monyathear i
ngsandt ri
alsinadmi nistr
ativeorjudici
alproceedi
ngs,and
therenditionofadvi soryopinionst oassistt
her esol
utionofdisputesaf f
ecti
ngl if
eor
property.Inshor t
,ForensicEngineer i
ngi stheappl i
cat i
onoft hear tandsci enceof
engineeringi nmat t
erswhichar ein,ormaypossi bl
yrelatetothejuri
sprudencesyst em,
i
nclusiveofal t
ernati
vedisputeresoluti
on.

For ensicengi neer i

ngi sthei nvesti
gat i
onofmat eri
als,product s,structuresor
component st hatf ai
lordonotoper ate/
funct i
onasi ntended.A cr imi nalaspecti s
possi
bleinanyi nvest i
gat i
onbuti snotal wayst hecase;ci vilcasesar emuchmor e
common.Gener all
y,t hepur poseofaf or
ensi cengi neer i
ngi nvesti
gat ioni stol ocat e
causeorcausesoff ailurewi thavi ewt oimpr oveper f
ormanceorl ifeofacomponent .
Itcanalsoi nvolvei nvest i
gat i
onofi ntel
lectualproper tyclaims,especi all
ypat ents.
Methodsusedi nf orensi ci nvesti
gationsi ncluder ever seengi neeri
ng,i nspectionof
wit
nessst atement s,awor kingknowl edgeofcur rentst andards, aswel lasexami nat i
on
ofthefai
ledcomponenti tself.Thefracturesur f
aceofaf ail
edpr oductcanr evealmuch
i
nformati
ononhowt hei tem f ail
edandt hel oadingpat ternpriortofailure.

For
ensicengi neer
ingisver yimpor tanttoforensi
ci nvesti
gat
ioninli
newi t
h
acci
dentr
econst r
ucti
on,i
njuri
esresult
ingfrom tr
ansportat
ionaccident
s,f
ir
eandarson,
and ot
herr el
ated areas where knowledge ofengineering isrequi
red i
nforensi
c
i
nvesti
gat
ion.

For
ensi
cEngi
neer
ingandFor
ensi
cInvest
igat
ion

Therei
ssomecommongr oundbetweenf orensi
cscienceandengi neer
ing,such
assceneofcrimeandsceneofacci dentanalysis,int
egri
tyoft heevidenceandcour t
appear
ances.For
ensi
cengineeringhasamuchl owerpr ofi
lethanf or
ensicscience:it
s
workisnormall
yassociat
edwi thcivi
lcourtsatal l.Thecur rentstr
andsoff orensi
c
engi
neeri
ngcanbetracedfrom companylaboratoriesthattradit
ional
lyhavedealtwi t
h

125
i
n-ser
vicef
ail
ures,fir
einvest
igat
orsandadhocbackgroundinvest
igat
ioni
ntohi
gh
pr
ofil
eacci
dents,suchasthecoll
apseofabui
ldi
ngorabr
idge.

ThePr
act
iceofFor
ensi
cEngi
neer
ing

Thepract
iceoff or ensicengineeringistheobj ect
iveinvest i
gati
onofconditi
ons
rel
atedtomat er
ial
,equi pmentorconst r
uct i
onfail
uresandacci dents,i
ncl
udingthose
i
nvolvi
nghumanf actorsorcat astrophicevent s,thet echnicalevaluati
onoft hose
condit
ionsandt heappl icationofengi neer i
ngprinci
plest oFor ensicEngi
neeri
ngcan
i
ncludet hepreparat
ionofengi neeringr eport
sandser viceasanexper twitnessin
matter
sofl i
ti
gati
on.Somear easoff orensicengineeri
ngi ncl
ude:

a. Cr
ashi
nvest
igat
ionandr
econst
ruct
ion

b. Componentdesi
gnandf
ail
ureanal
ysi
s

c. Fi
reandexpl
osi
oncauseandor
igi
n(ar
son)

d. I
njur
ycausat
ion

e. Humanf
act
orsengi
neer
ing

f
. Hazar
dousmat
eri
alsmanagement

g. Emi
ssi
ons,
airt
ranspor
t,andchemi
str
ymedi
caldevi
ces

h. Bi
omechani
cs

i
. Aer
ialphot
ogr
aphy

j
. Ot
her
s

Pr
inci
palMet
hodsi
nFor
ensi
cEngi
neer
ing

a. Past
.Thepr
inci
palmet
hodsusedi
near
lyf
orensi
cengi
neer
ingi
ncl
uded:

i
. Thecar
efulanal
ysi
soft
heser
vicer
ecor
doft
hecomponent

i
i. Ther
evi
ewoft
hel
oadscar
ri
ed

i
ii
. Recor
doft
emper
atur
essuf
fer
ed

i
v. Anal
ysi
soft
hemi
crost
ruct
ureoft
hemat
eri
alused

126
v. Assessmentofwi
tnessevi
dence

b. Pr esent
.Thetaskoftheengi
neerhasbeenai
dedbyt
hei
ntr
oduct
ionofcer
tai
n
keyconceptsandmethodssuchas:

i
. Fr
act
uremechani
cs–t
heanal
ysi
sofl
oadsappl
iedt
obodi
escont
aini
ngcr
acks.

i
i. Scanning el
ect
ron micr
oscopes – f r
actur
e sur
faces can be anal
yzed at
magni
ficati
onsofthousandstodeter
mi nemodesoff ai
lur
easwel lasthechemical
composit
ionofkeycomponentsofmicrost
ruct
ure.

i
ii
. Fi nit
e el
ementanalysis– the det
ermi
nati
on by numer
icalmat
hematics of
st
resses,t
emperatur
esatallposi
ti
onswit
hinabody,r
athert
hant
heanal
yti
calsolut
ion
ofsi
mpl i
fi
edshapes.

i
v. Comput at
ionalf
luiddynami cs–thi
susesnumer i
calmathemati
cstodet
ermine
eff
ect
sofflui
ds(gasesorsolids)oncomponent
sorst r
uctur
es.Iti
sbasedonbreaki
ng
upacomponentorst ructur
ei nt
oasetofcontrolvolumes.Foreachcontr
olvolume
equat
ionswil
lbesetuptodescr i
bethefl
owoffl
uid(l
iquidorgas).

v. I mpactdynamics–theuseofnumer i
calandanal
yti
calcodesandmodel
sto
det
ermi
nethebehavi
orofst
ruct
ureswhenhi
tbyfast
-movi
ngproj
ecti
les.

Acci
dentReconst
ruct
ion

Alt
houghthesemoder ntechni
quesofengi
neeri
nganalysisar
ever
yimpor
tant
t
her
eissti
llapl
aceforcar
efulexper
iment
ati
onandreconst
ruct
ion.

Analysi
sofwitnessevidenceremainsakeydutyofexper
tscall
edbythecourt.This
i
ncludes t
he eye-wi
tnesses ofan accidentas wel
las otherexpert
s.I tcovers
stat
ementsandr eport
smadebef oret
ri
al,aswellasdir
ectandcross-exami
nation
beforet
hecourt.

For
ensi
cEngi
neer
sasI
nvest
igat
ors

Iftheanal
ysisofmajorf
ailur
esisconsidered,manypossibl
emodesoff ai
lur
e
wouldhavebeenr evi
ewedinthesaf et
yassessment smadewhent hest r
uct
urewas
bui
lt
.Thus,engineeri
ngconsul
tanci
escarryi
ngoutsuchsaf et
yanalysi
sareli
kel
yto
per
form muchforensi
cengi
neeri
ngasapar toftheirdut
ies.

127
Chapt
erXXI
128
 FI
REARMS

Afir
earmisaweaponthatf
ir
eseit
hersi
ngleormulti
plepr
oject
il
espropel
ledat
hi
ghveloci
tybyt
hegasespr
oducedthr
oughrapi
d,conf
inedburni
ngofapropell
ant.

Gunsar
etechni
cal
lydi
ff
erentf
rom Fi
rear
msorSmal
lar
ms

Guni sof t
enusedassynonym f rom f
irearm,butspeci alistuseitinar est
ri
cted
sense-
referringonl yanar t
il
lerypi
ecewi t
har elati
velyhi ghmuzzl eveloci
tyanda
rel
ati
velyflattraject
ory, suchasaf i
eldgun,at ankgun, anant i-
tankgun,oragunused
i
nt hedeliveryofnavalgunf i
re.Gunsar edi
stinctf rom howi tzersandmor t
ars,which
havelowermuzzl evel ocit
iesandhi ghertr
ajector i
es.Hand- heldfir
earms,likerif
les,
carbi
nes,pi stolsandot hersmal lfi
rearmsar er arelycalled“ guns”i nther est
ri
cted
senseamongspeci alists.Firearmsaresomet imesr efer
redt oassmal larms.Smal l
armsar efir
ear mswhi chcanbecar ri
edbyasi nglei ndivi
dual .

TypesofFi
rear
ms

1. HandgunorPistol
-thesmal
lestofal
lsmal
lar
msi
sthehandgun,
whi
chi
smor
e
commonl
ycal
ledapi
stol
.

Thr
eecommont
ypesofHandgun

a. Si
ngl
e-shotpi
stol
s(mor
ecommonhi
stor
ical
ly)

b. Revol
ver
s-haveanumberoff
ir
ingchamber
sinar
evol
vingcyl
inder
.

c. Semi -
automati
c pi
stol
s-have a si
nglefi
xed f
ir
ing chamberand a r
emoval
magazi
nesotheycanbeusedtof
iresever
alshot
s.

CommonPi
stol
sint
hePhi
li
ppi
nes:

a. Revol
ver

b. Semi
-Aut
omat
icPi
stol

129
c. Pal
ti
k-i
nFi
li
pinomeanshomemadegun

d. Sumpak-iscrudelymadegun which usesa st

eelpi
peasa bar
rel
.Mor
e
commonl
yasumpakusesashot
gunshel
l.

e. Machi nePistols-afi
rearm desi
gnedt
obef
ir
ewi
thonehand,andcapabl
eof
ful
lyaut
omat
icorselecti
vef
ire.

2. LongGuns-mostmoder
nlonggunsar
eei
therr
if
lesorshot
guns.

3. MachineGuns-i
saf
ull
yaut
omat
icf
ir
ear
m usedal
mostexcl
usi
vel
ybyt
he
mil
it
ary.

Car
tri
dgeorRound

Packagesthebul
let
,gunpowderandpri
merintoasingl
emet
all
iccasepr
ecisel
y
madetof i
tthef
ir
ingchamberofafir
earm.Ontheotherhand,
ammuniti
onisageneri
c
mi
li
tar
yt er
m meaningaproject
il
eandit
spropel
lant
.

Par
tsoft
heCar
tri
dge:

1. Bullet
-isasoli
dpr
oject
il
epr
opel
ledbyaf
ir
ear
m andi
snor
mal
lymadef
rom
met
al(
usual
lyl
ead)
.

2. Casing-ispar
tofacar
tri
dget
hatcont
ainst
hegunpowderchar
ge,t
hepr
imer
andt
hebul
let
.

3. Gunpowder -isasubst
ancet
hatbur
nsver
yrapi
dly,
rel
easi
nggasest
hatactasa
pr
opel
lanti
nfi
rear
ms.

4. Per cussi
oncaporpri
mer
-wast
hecr
uci
ali
nvent
ionneededt
omakef
ir
e-ar
ms
thatcoul
dfir
einanyweat
her
.

TypesofBul
let
:

130
1. Ful lMetalJacket
-isabul
letencasedi
nacopperal
loysuchasgi
ldi
ngmet
al,
cupr
oni
ckel
,orasteelal
l
oyshel
l.

2. Hal l
ow Poi
ntBull
et-i
sabulletthathasapit
,orhol
lowedoutshape,i
nit
sti
p,
gener
all
yint
endedtocausethebul
lett
oexpanduponent
eri
ngasoftt
arget.

3. 0. 338Lapua-i
saspeci
ali
zedr
iml
esscent
erf
ir
ecar
tri
dgedevel
opedf
orsni
per
ri
fl
es.

Magazi
ne

Magazi
nealsocall
edmagor ,commonlybutcorr
ect
ly,acl
ipisanammuni
ti
on
storageandfeedi
ngdevicewi
thi
norat t
achedtoafi
rearm.Magazi
nemaybeint
egral
(f
ixed)tothef
ir
earm orr
emovabl
e(detachabl
e).

Physi
csofFi
rear
ms

From thevi
ewpointofphysi
cs,af
irearm,asformostweapons,
isasyst
em for
del
iver
ingmaximum destr
ucti
veenergyt
ot hetar
getwit
hmi ni
mum deli
ver
yofener
gy
ontheshooter.

a. For ce-assumingthegunandshoot
erarearest
,thef
orceonthebul
leti
sequal
tothatonthegun-shoot
er.Thi
sisduetot hel
aw ofconservat
ionofmomentum.
(MV=m)

b. Vel ocit
y-f r
om equat i
on(1)wecanwr iteforthevel
ocit
yofthegun/ shoot
er:
V=mv/ M.Thisshowst hatdespi
tethehi
ghvelocit
yofthebull
et,t
hesmallbull
et-
mass
to shoot
er-
massr at
ior esul
tsi
nal ow r
ecoilveloci
ty(V)alt
hough t
hef orceand
moment um areequal.

c. Ki neti
cEnergy-However,t
hesmal l
ermassoft
hebul
let
,compar
edthatofthe
gun-shoot
ersyst
em, al
lowssi
gnif
icant
lymoreener
gyt
obeimpart
edtot
hebull
etthan
totheshooter
.

d. Tr ansf
erofEnergy-whent hebull
etsst
ri
kes,i
tshi
ghvel
ocit
yandsmallf
ront
al
cross-
sect
ionmeansthatitwi
llexertlar
gestr
essesinanyobj
ecti
thi
ts.Thi
susual
ly
resul
tsini
tpenet
rat
inganysof
tobj ect
,suchasfl
esh.

131
Ter
minalBal
li
sti
cs

Asub- fieldofbal l
isti
csandi sthest
udyoft hebehavi
ourofaprojecti
lewhenit
hi
tsitstarget.Itisof t
enr eferr
edt oasstoppingpowerwhendeal ingwi t
hhumanor
ot
herlivi
ngt argets.Termi nalball
ist
icsi
sasr elevantf
orbothsmallcal
ibreproj
ecti
les
asforlar
gecal ibreprojecti
les.

132
 Chapt
erXXI
I
FORENSI
CBALLI
STI
CS

Fi
rearm inj
uri
es caused by cri
me i nclude those caused by i
nter
personal
vi
olenceregardl
essofwhetherornotthevicti
m wast heintendedtar
get
.Suchi nj
uries
canbef atal(
homici
de/murder)ornonf
atal(physicali
njur
ies)

Ast othepar af f
int estt owhi cht heappel l
antwassubj ect edt ot her isesthe
question,undert hesi xthassi gneder ror,thatitwasnotconduct edi nthepr esenceof
hislawyer .Thisrightisaf fordedt oanyper sonunderi nvestigati
onf orthecommi ssi
on
ofanof fensewhoseconf essionoradmi ssionmaynotbet akenunl esshei si nformed
ofhi srighttor emainsi lentandt ohavecompet entandi ndependentcounselofhi s
ownchoi ce.Hisr i
ghtagai nstself-i
ncriminationisnotviolatedbyt het aki
ngofpar af
fi
n
testonhi shands.t hisconst i
tuti
onalr i
ghtext endsonlyt othet est i
moni alcompul si
on
andnotwhent hebodyoft heaccusedi spr oposedt obeexami nedasi nt hiscase.
Indeed,thepar affi
nt estpr ovedposi tivel
yt hathej ustrecent l
yfiredagun.Agai nthi
s
kind ofevi dencebut tr
essest hecaseofpr osecuti
on. Peopl eoft hePhi li
ppines,
Plainti
ff
-Appellee,vs.JohnGabr ielGamboa[ G.R.No.91374.Febr uar y25, 1991] .

Bal
li
sti
cs

Bal
li
sti
csr
efert
othesci
enceoft
het
ravelofapr
oject
il
einf
li
ght
;andt
hef
li
ght
pathofabul l
etincludesthetraveldownt hebarr
el,t
hepat hthr
oughtheai r
,andthe
paththroughthet arget
.I ti
st hesciencethatdealswi t
hthemot i
on,behavior
,and
eff
ectsofproject
il
e,especial
lybullet
s,gravi
tybombs,rocket
s,totheli
ke;thesci
ence
orartofdesi
gningandhur l
ingprojecti
lessoastoachieveadesir
edperfor
mance.

133
For
ensi
csBal
li
sti
cs

I
nthefi
eldofforensicsci
ence,forensi
cball
ist
icsisthescienceofanal
yzi
ng
fi
rear
ms usage in cr
imes.Itinvolves anal
ysi
s ofbullet
s and bull
etsi
mpactsto
deter
minethet
ypeandcal i
berofthefir
earmfir
ed.

Ar
easofBal
li
sti
cs

1.Int
ernalBall
ist
ics.Aret
heact i
onsoftheproj
ecti
lewithi
nthegun.Iti
sthestudy
oftheprocessor igi
nal
lyaccel
erati
ngtheproj
ecti
le,f
orexamplethepassageof
abullett
hrought hebar
relofarif
le.

2.Tr
ansit
ionBall
ist
ics.Somet
imescall
ed"i
nter
mediatebal
li
sti
cs"thest
udyoft
he
pr
oject
il
e'
sbehavi orwhenitleavesthebarrelandthepr essur
ebehi
ndthe
pr
oject
il
eisequali
zed.

3.Exter
nalBall
ist
ics.I
tistheacti
onsofthepr
ojecti
lei
ntheai
r.I
tist
hest
udyof
thepassageoftheproject
il
ethr
oughspaceortheair
;and

4.TerminalBalli
sti
cs.Iti
st heactionoft hepr oj
ecti
leonthetarget
.Iti
st hest udy
ofthei nt
eracti
onofapr oject
il
ewi thi t
st arget,whet
herthatbef l
esh( fora
hunti
ng bullet)
,steel(foran ant i
-tankr ound),oreven furnaceslag (
foran
i
ndustri
alslagdi sr
uptor).(Wiki
pedia).Abal l
isti
cmissil
eisami ssi
ledesigned
tooperateprimaryinaccordancewi tht helawsofballi
sti
cs.

Gunpowder

Isthefor
cebehindt hebull
etwhichaccel
erat
esitforwar
d,andt hequanti
tyand
typeofgunpowderaffect
st heini
ti
alenergyoft
hepr oj
ecti
le.Thebulletsthemsel
ves
arecomposedprimaril
yoflead;butvar
yingamountsofothermetalsmakeupt hefinal
formul
ati
onofabulletdependingonthedesir
edfi
nalharnessoftheproject
il
e.

Bul
let
s

Ther eareseveralmodif
icati
onswhichcanbemadetobul
let
swhichbecomes
i
mport
antwhent ransferr
ingenergytoatarget
.Someofthesei
ncl
udeful
lorpart
ial
met
aljacketi
ng,part
ialmetalj
acketingwi
thacavit
yatt
hetipal
soknownashollow

134
pointammuniti
on,alumi
num bull
etswhi
chhaveacont r
oll
edexpansi
on,bul
let
swhich
are eit
herscored ormade from bonded met
al,those whi
ch combined mul
ti
ple
project
il
esi
ntoonecar t
ri
dge,andbull
etswhi
chalsoaddanexpl osi
vechargewi
thin
them.

Pel
let
sforShot
gunShel
l

Therear eacoupleofpel
let-containi
ngcar t
ridges,t
heofwhi chiscall
edashot
shel
l,i
nwhi chshotisimmedi
atelyr el
easeduponl eavi
ngt hebarrelanditspreadslike
ami nishotgun.Thesecondi scal ledtheGl azersafetyslug,whichactuall
yacopper
j
acketedt i
pcl osedwit
hahardplast icorTeflonplug.Thepel l
etsarecontai
nedwi thin
thebulletunti
litst
ri
kesthet
arget,atwhi chti
met heyar ereleasedcausingmor eti
ssue
damage.( Evans2014)

Revi
ewofTypesofFi
rear
ms

Firearmst hemselvesareclassi
fi
edasei t
hersmal larmsorar t
il
ler
y,dependi ng
onthesi zeoft heprojecti
lewhi
cht heyfi
re.Smallarmsi ncl
udeshandguns, r
if
les,and
machine guns. These weapons,as wel las t he proj
ecti
les which they fi
re,ar e
measur edi ntermsofcal i
berwhi
chi sdefi
nedast hediameteroft heboreofthebar rel
.
Iti
smeasur edineit
herdecimalfracti
onsofani nchorbyut ili
zingthemet ri
csyst em
usi
ngmi ll
imeterssuchasi ncommonexampl esofthe.45and. 38caliberhandgunsas
wellast he9mm pi stol
.(Evans2004)

Mechani
sm ofGunshot

Whathappenswhenonepul lsatri
gger ?Fir
stofal
l,t
hehammeri sr eleased,and
thefiri
ngpinst r
ikest hecart
ri
dgewhi chi gnit
esthepr i
mer. Ani ntensef l
amei s
producedwhi chgoesont oigni
tethel agerpowderchar geinthecar tr
idge. This
producesal argeamountofgasandheatupt o5200degreeswhi chsubsequent l
y
producesintensepr essur
e.Thesepressuresar ewhatar
eusedtoej ectt hebul l
etfr
om
thebar r
el.Ascanbeseeni nthisschemat ic,whentheri
ggerispul ledt hehammer
cocksback,st riki
ngt hepri
merinthecartr
idgeandcausingami niexplosi oninsidethe
cart
ridgesendi ngt hebull
etdownthebarrel.

135
GunshotResi
due

GunshotResi
dueEvi
dence

Af i
rearmisdesignedt oexpelapr ojectil
edowni t
sbar relandt owardsit
st arget
.
Duringt heprocessoff i
ring,af iringpinst r
ikestheprimercausi ngasmal lexplosion
whichi nt urnsignit
esthepr opel
lant .Thecont rol
ledexplosionwi thi
nt heshellcasing
andt hechamberpr opelt hebul l
etatt het ipofthecar t
ridgef orwardandoutoft he
barrel. However ,notallpr opellantbur nscompl etel
ywheni gni
ted,someunbor nor
partiall
ybur ntpropel
lantejectedf rom thebar r
elalongwiththesmokel eavinggunshot
residues.Thi sevidencei sGunshotResi due.Residuefrom t hepr oductsoft hegun
beingdi scharged.Residuepat t
er nscant ellalotabouthowaf ir
earm wasused.The
distanceaper sonoranobj ectisf rom gunwheni twasf i
redwi l
ldeterminewhet heror
notr esiduefrom thebarrelwi l
lbedeposi ted, andwi t
hpattern.

GunshotResi
duei
saPhysi
calEvi
dence

GunshotResi due( GSR)i sconsi deredphysi calevidence. Mor especi

fical
ly,
GSRi sconsideredtraceevi dencethatcanbeexami nedinal aborat
ory.GSRevidence
canal sobeconsider edassoci at
iveevidencei ftheel ement srecoveredonasuspect
match thechemi calmakeup ofammuni t
ion thatwasknown t o havecaused the
i
ncident.Associat
iveevidencei sconsideredt r
ansf erofevidence,orthatwhichi
sbot h
l
eftatt hesceneandcar riedawaybyt hecr i
mi nal.Furthermore,GSR canal sobe
consideredasbodyexami nati
onevidencei nt hatt heskinoft hesuspectandvi ct
im
canbet estedfort
raceelement sofgunshotr esi
due.

Cont
ent
sofGSREvi
dencecont
ain

Thefi
ri
ngoft hebull
etissetoffbypr imer.Thispri
mercontai
nsami xtureof
cert
ainel
ements,"l
ead,bari
um,ant i
mony,cal ci
um,sili
con,andsulf
ur,i
ncasesof
ammuniti
onofrecentmanuf act
urer
,togetherwit
ht r
acesofi r
onfr
om theer osionof
theboreandcopperandzincvaporizedfrom thepri
mercupandt hecartr
idgecase.
Todaythetr
endingunpowderi smanuf actureofasmokel esspowderwit
hasi ngl
e
basepowder-
nit
rocel
lul
oseasamai ni ngredi
ents,aDoublebasedpowder ed-which

136
cont
ainsnit
rocel
lul
oseandni
tr
ogl
ycer
inasbase,andsomeTr
ipl
epowder
sar
eal
so
avai
labl
e.

Wher
eGSREvi
dencei
sfound

Asaf i
rearmi sdischar
ged,acl oudofGSRi sexpell
edf r
om t
hef r
ameoft he
fi
r earm withlargestquanti
tybeingexpelledoutofthebarrelalongwi
ththebull
et.GSR
travelsoutt ypicall
ythreetofeetfr
om t hebarrelofmostf ir
earm.Avastmaj orit
yof
theseGSRpar ti
clesarelocat
edont hehands, t
hef ace,
thehair,andt
heclothi
ngoft he
per sonfir
ingt heweapon.

Col
lect
ionofGSREvi
dence

Anoldertestfort hepresenceoftheGSRwast hepar af

fi
nwast estinwhi ch
wasappl i
edtot hehandsoft hesuspectandlateranalyzed.Thistesti snol onger
usedandi snotconsideredcredibl
e.(
Genge2000).Onemoder nmet hodsofcol l
ection
i
st hroughtheuseof“ non-
wovencot t
onclothswabspr ewett
edwi t
hami xt
ureof
i
sopropanolandwat er.Aver ycommoncol l
ect
ionmet hoduset odayist hr
oughpr e-
packedkit
susedt ocollectsamplesmainl
yfrom t
hehandsoft hesuspects.

Pr
ocedur
esUsedt
oDet
ectandEval
uat
eGSREvi
dence

Overthepastsever alyears,testdesignatedt odet ectGSRonasuspect 'shand

havebecomemor esensit
iveandsophi sti
cated,abl et odet ectmi nutetracesoft he
compoundsf oundi nGSR,suchasant imony,bar i
um,andl ead.Unf ort
unatel
y,what
hasbeensacr i
fi
cedi stheabi l
it
yt omapt hepat ternofdi stributi
on.I ti
spossi bleto
detectont hebackoft hef i
ri
nghandofi ndi
vidual s,whohaddi schargedaweapon,
tr
acesoft hemet alsbari
um,ant i
mony,andl ead,or iginati
ngf rom thepr imeroft he
cartr
idge.Cottont i
ppedswabsmoi st
enedwi thei ther10% hydr ochlori
caci dor5%
nit
ricacidar eusedt orecoverr esi
duesf oranal ysisbyf l
amel essat omicabsor pt
ion
spectrometry(FAAS)andneut ronact i
vati
onanal ysis( NAA).Adhesi vemat er
ial
sar e
usedt orecoverresi
duesforanal ysi
susi ngscanni ngel ectr
onmi cr
oscopyandEDAX.

Par
aff
int
esti
sNoLongerUsedAbr
oad

Theor
igi
nalGSRt
estf
orhandsusedpar
aff
in.I
nvest
igat
orscastt
hesuspect
's

137
handsinthehotwax,whi
ch,whencooled,wascutopenandspr
ayedwi thareagent.
Theproblem wasthatot
hersubstances,suchasuri
neandcigar
ettes,causedt he
samereacti
on.Becauset
hetestr
esult
swer etooambi
guousi
twasdisusedinthelate
1950'
s.

Det
ect
ionofPr
imerResi
due

Themaj ormethodsf ordetecti

on ofpr i
merr esiduesareneur on acti
vat
ion
anal
ysi
s(NAA),aut
omaticabsorpti
onspectrophotometry(AAS),andscanningelect
ron
micr
oscopywithener
gydi sper
siveanalysi
s( SEM-EDA) .Forthismet hods,samples
mustbeobtai
nedfr
om theskinsurfaceofthevict
im atthescene.

Pr
obl
emst
obeawar
eofi
nPr
imerResi
dueTest

1. Allt
hreemetal
s( l
ead,bar
ium,andant
imony)ar
enotnecessar
il
ypr
esenti
n
somerimfi
repri
mers.

2. Neut
ronacti
vati
ononl
ydetectsanti
monyandbar
ium,andmustbeusedi
n
conj
unct
ionwit
hFAAStodetectl
ead.

3. NAAandFAASar ebothquant
it
ati
veel
ementalanal
yti
calmethodswhichdo
notdisti
ngui
sht
hesourceofthemetal
s. Falseposi
tivesaretheor
eti
cal
ly
possi
ble.

4. AlthoughSEM withEDAXcanpot ent

iall
yabsol
utelyidenti
fyinggunshotresi
due,
oftentheresul
tistypi
cal
lybutnotunique.Inpracti
ce,residuesaredetachabl
e
i
n90%ofper sonswhohavef i
redhandguns,butonly50%ofper sonswhohave
fi
redrifl
esandshotguns.

5. The quanti
ty and distr
ibut
ion oft
he three metal
s can be descr
ibed as
consi
stentornotconsist
entwit
hgunshotresi
dueandthusfi
ri
ngaweapon.

6. Resi
dues on t
he pal
m ofthe hands mayindi
cate a def
ense gest
ures,or
al
ter
nati
vel
ythehandl
ingofapr
eviousl
yfi
redweapon.

7. I
nsui
cide,resi
duesareoft
endet
ect
edont
henon-
fi
ri
nghandusedt
ost
eady
t
hemuzzledagainstt
hebody.

8. Resi
duesofbar
ium al
onemaybet
her
esul
tofcont
ami
nat
ionwi
thbar
ium r
ich
soi
l.

138
GunshotResi
dueTestKi
t

Testkits,whicht estforthechemi cal

sassociat
edwi t
hgunshotr esidue,are
commer ci
all
yavail
ablef r
om severalmanufact
urer
.Thekitsconsi
stofcott
onswabs, a
chemicalagentand col l
ecti
on tubes. The skinis swabbed with cotton swab
moist
enedwi thchemi calagentandpl acedi
nthecol
lecti
ontube.Thetubei slabeled
andsendtolaboratoryforexamination.

Conf
ir
mat
oryGSRTest

Ther
earetwotest
sforgunshotresi
due,oneusingat
omi
cabsor
pti
onanal
ysi
s
(
AA)andoneusi
ngt
hescanningel
ectr
onmi cr
oscope(SEM).

Chemi
calMet
hod

Therearesubsequentmet hodsthatar eusedpr i

maril
ytot estinanimateobj ects
forthepresenceofaGSR.Thi sisaccompl ishedt hroughthethreesteps, thefir
sbeing
a visualand mi croscopicinspecti
on oft hesur f
aceoft heobj ectt hathad been
contactedbyt heGSR.Thenextt wot estarechemi calinnat ure. Thef i
rstist he
modi f
iedGr i
essTestwhi chisaccompl ishedbyt heusedofdesensi t
izedphot ographic
papert hathasbeenchemi call
yt r
eatedandi susedt oextractevi denceofni t
rate
resi
duesf rom thesampl e.Thesecondchemi caltestistheSodi um Rhodi zoratetest
thatisusedt odetermineifl
eadr esi
duesar epr esentintheexhibits.

Fal
sePosi
ti
veandNegat
iveGSRTest

Itshouldber ememberedthatanyhandorbodypar tthatwasclosetot hef

ir
ed
weapon mayhaver esi
dueappeari
ngconsi st
entwithhavingf i
retheweapon.False
posi
ti
ves may be caused by cont aminat
ion ortransferofGSR t ot he body by
mishandl
ing,orwhent hebodyisheavi
lycontaminat
edbyGSRf rom pr
eviousshooti
ng.
Fal
senegat i
vesr esult
sfrom washingthehands( whent hi
sar eaissampl es)orby
vi
cti
m wearinggloves.Ar i
fl
eorshotgunmaynotdeposi tGSRonhands.

Fact
sorCi
rcumst
ancedoest
heevi
dencepr
oveordi
spr
ove

139
 Theaf
orementionedt
estar
einst
rumentalinshowi
ngaf i
ndi
ngofGSRel ements
onasuspect. Butjustwhatdoesthisresul
ttendt oproveordispr
ove?Typical
ly,
fi
ndi
ngitonasuspectusual
lymeansoneofthreethi
ngs;

a)Mayi
ndi
cat
ethatt
hesuspecthadr
ecent
lyf
ir
edaweapon

b)May indi
cat
ethatt
he suspectwas pr
esentwhen a f
ir
ear
m was r
ecent
ly
di
scharge

c)Mayi
ndi
cat
ethatt
hesuspecthadhandl
edar
ecent
lyf
ir
edweapon

Apositi
veGSRtesthol
dsthemostvalueonasubjectwhocl
aimsnottobeon
t
heenvi
ronmentofar
ecent
lyf
iredweaponandthet
estr
esult
sshowsthatt
heyhad.

Asecondimport
antcluei
sthedeterminat
ionoft hedi
stanceofthatweapon
wasfir
edfrom andthethi
rdisf
indi
ngunusualel ementcont
ainedintheGSRasa
di
sti
nct
ivei
ngredi
entmi
xedbymanufact
urerformonitor
ingpur
poses.

I
mpor
tantPoi
ntsaboutGSR

Inphysicalexaminationofthesceneorbodyf ortheevi
dence ofgunshot
resi
due,itmustber emember edthattheleadresiduesmaymi micgunshotresidue.
Leadr esi
duesmaybef oundupt o30f eetf
rom themuzzle,
andareal
wayspr esenton
theoppositesideofapenet rat
edtarget.Suchasi t
uati
onhasbeenreport
edwhenan
i
ntermediatetargetwaspr esent.Thought heamountofr esi
duedeposit
edt endsto
decreasewithincreasi
ngr angeoffir
e,theactualdeposi
tcanbehighl
yvariablefrom
rangesupt o20cm.

Bar
relMar
kings

Itis also helpfulto know t he var

ious types ofbarrelmar ki
ngs and the
i
nformati
onf orensicsanalystscangl eanfrom them. Moder nr i
fl
esandhandguns
havespiralmarkingsont hei nsideofthebarrelt
hatar ecreat
eddur i
ngmanuf act
ure
andint
endedt oimpr oveaccur acy.Thesemar ki
ngsar eknownasl andsandgrooves.
Thetwististhedirecti
onoft hesespiralmarki
ngs.Thenumberofl andsandgr ooves
andthedirect
ionoft hetwi
star euniquetoeachmanuf actur
erandmodeloffir
ear m.

AmmoCol
lect
ions

140
 Bull
etsr
ecoveredf r
om acr i
mesceneshoul donl ybecol l
ectedaf tertheirexact
l
ocati
onhasbeenr ecorded. Oncet hi sisdone,t hebul l
etsorcasi ngsshoul dbe
markedi nsuchawayast ol eavethest ri
ation and/ orri
fl
ingmar kedunt ouched.
Saperstei
nsuggestasyst em ofmar ki
ngsbul letsbyplacingthei nvestigator'
si ni
ti
als
onthenoseorbase, andanumberr epresenti
ngt heorderofretri
eval.Fi r
ingpi nsleave
di
sti
nct i
vemarkingssocar eshouldbet akennottodisturbthestri
kear eaont hebullet
.
Shel
lcasi ngcanbel abeledont heinsider i
m oft hemout h.Shot gunshel lscanbe
markedont hebrassont hesideoftheshel l
.

Somemar kingshave" cl
assChar act
eri
sti
cs"i
ndi
cat i
veofthemakeandmodeloft he
fi
rear
m.Ot hermar ki
ngshave" i
ndivi
dualchar
act
eristi
cs"whichrefl
ect
simper
fect
ions
pecul
iart
oapar t
icularfi
rear
m andmayal l
owitspecifi
cident
ifi
cati
on.

Bul
letCl
assChar
act
eri
sti
cs:

1. Numberofl
andsandgr
ooves(
usual
ly4t
o6butr
angef
rom 2t
o22)

2. Di
amet
erofl
andsandgr
ooves

3. Wi
dthofl
andsandgr
ooves

4. Dept
hofgr
ooves

5. Degr
eeoft
wist

6. Di
rect
ionofr
if
li
ngt
wist

Bul
letI
ndi
vidualChar
act
eri
sti
cs:

a)I
mper
fect
ionsofgr
ooves

b)i
mper
fect
ionofl
ands

Marki
ngshavi
ngclassandindi
vidualchar
acter
ist
icsar
eal
sof
oundont
he
car
tri
dgecasepr
imer
.Thesechar
act
eri
sti
csincl
ude:

1. Typeofbr
eechbl
ockmar
king

2. Si
ze,
shapeandl
ocat
ionofext
ract
ormar
ks

141
3. Si
ze,
shapeandl
ocat
ionofej
ect
ormar
ks

4. Size,shapeandlocat
ionoff
ir
ingpi
nmar
ks(
themosti
mpor
tanti
dent
if
ying
mar
ksi
nrimfir
ecar
tri
dgecases)

Finger
pri
ntsar
erar
elyr
ecover
edf
rom f
ir
ear
msbutmaybeobt
ainedf
rom car
tri
dge
cases.

WeaponsRecover
y

Whenf i
rearmisrecovered,i
tshoul
dbepickedupbythetr
iggerguar
d.However
,
i
fevidencesuchasbl oodort i
ssueisonthet
riggerguar
d,theweaponcanbepicked
upbyt hegr i
p.Thoser ecover
ingtheweapon arecauti
oned t
oal waysweargl
oves
andremindedt oneverst ickanythi
ngtothebarreloft
hegunasi tmaydamaget he
str
iat
ionsinsi
det hebarrel
.

I
nvestigatorsshouldremoveallli
veammuni ti
onfr om t
heweaponandpackage
i
tinei t
herpl asticvial
sorappr opri
atepaperenvelopes.Labeli
ngont hecontai
ners
shouldal soindicatethatthelatentpri
ntsmaybepr esentand test
ingisrequir
ed.
Semi-automat i
cweaponsshoul dhavet hechambercl earedandthecli
pr emoved.
Bull
etsint heclipandchambermayhavef i
nger
printsont hem.Cli
pscanbepackage
asawhol e.

Make note ofthe posi

ti
on oft he weapon'
s saf
ety,chamberand hammer.
Commerci
all
yavail
abl
efir
earmsr ecoveryf
ormsar eagoodwayt orecor
dthedetai
ls
oft
her
ecoveredi
tems.

Ot
herExami
nat
ion

Someti
mest hequesti
onofwhetherthevict
im washoldi
ngt hef
ir
earm ari
sesin
i
nvesti
gat
ion.Lee(1986)hasdescri
bedani mprovedmet hodf
orthedetecti
onofiron
t
racesonthehandsbyt heuseofaf er
rozinespray.Pr i
ortot
his,ahydroxygui
nol
ine
t
estwasempl oyed,
butrequi
resf
luor
escentphotography.

142
Packagi
ngandShi
ppi
ng

Al
lammuni t
ionandfi
rear
msshouldbepackedi nseparat
econtainer
s.Spent
bull
etsshouldbepackedi
nsuchawayast oreduceanyjostl
ingorf
ri
ctionthatmight
damaget hestri
ati
ons.Careshoul
dtaketor
educet heri
skofexposuret omoistur
e,
whichcancausebul l
etst
ooxidi
ze.Liveammuniti
onshouldbepackedi ncardboard
contai
ners.

Exami
nat
ionofWhol
eBul
leti
nCr
imeLabor
ator
y

i
fbull
etisrecoveredfrom thesceneorfrom t
hebody,itmaybecompar edtothe
bull
etsobtai
nedbyt est-f
ir
ingt hesuspect
edweapon.Testf i
ringisdoneusi ngsimil
ar
ammuni ti
on.Bul l
etsaremar kedont henoseatthe12o'cl
ockbar relposit
ion(cal
led
"i
ndex,"wit
ness,"
orr ef
erencemar ks"
).Consecuti
vetestbull
etsaret henfiredint
oa
watertank,r
ecovered,andj uxtaposedwit
hacompar isonmicroscopet ocomparetest
bull
etswiththerecoveredevidence.

Pat
ter
nsofSt
ri
aeonBul
let
s

Asyst
em hasal
sobeendescr
ibedf
ori
dent
if
icat
ionofj
acket
edspor
ti
ngr
if
le
bul
let
susi
ngtwel
vepar
amet
ers:

a)I
dent
if
icat
ionnumber

b)Manuf
act
urer

c)Wei
ght

d)Di
amet
er

e)Car
tri
dge

f
) Basedesi
gn

g)Lengt
hofbear
ingsur
face

h)Col
or

143
 i
) Shape

j
) Locat
ionofdescr
ipt
ionofcr
impi
ngcannel
ure

k)Locat
ionofdescr
ipt
ionofot
hercannel
ure

l
) Mi
scel
laneousnot
es

Suchpar ameter
smayai di nnarr
owingthesearchforsuspectedweaponsor
ammuni t
ion. Ther
ear ethreeresul
tsofcomparisonident
if
icat
ion. TestFi
redand
recoveredbull
etscan:(1)berel
atedtot
hesameweapon;( 2)beunrel
atedtothesame
weapon;( 3)notbecompar edwi
ththi
stypeofexaminat
ion.

Exami
nat
ionofBul
letFr
agment
sorBul
letComposi
ti
on

Inmanycases,r ecoveredbul l
etswil
lbetoodeformedforcompar i
sonst udies.
A met hodhasbeendescr i
bedf ordi f
fer
enti
ati
onofbullet
sbyspar ksourcemass
spectrometry(SSMS). Thi smet hodmakesuset hefactthatthe" l
ead"ofbul l
et s
actuall
ymaycont ai
n up t o 26 common el ements,ofwhich 12 can beused f or
diff
erenti
ati
on.Oneoft hecommonestoft hisisant
imony(1to2%).Unf ort
unately,
the
studyalsofoundthatbul l
etswithinaboxorl otdonothaveuniform composit
ion,but
theremaybet woorthreedisti
nctgr oupsofbull
etwi
thinabox.

Bull
etparti
clesmayal sobedet ectedinbonef ragmentsf r
om skeletalremains
whennosof ttissuer emains. Afterdeterminingthatradiopaquepar ti
clescanbe
exposebycut ti
ng.Thesur facescant henbeanal yzedbySEM- EDAandbyel ect
ron
probemi cr
oanalysi
st oidenti
fyleadandant i
mony.Theel ect
ronpr obetechniqueaids
i
ndi f
ferent
iat
ingant i
monyf rom abundantcalcium bone.Detecti
onofbul l
etleadshas
alsobeencar ri
edoutwi t
hpr oton-
inducedX-rayemi ssi
on( PIXE)analysis,evenina
vi
ctim buri
edforseveralyears.

144
145
 Chapt
erXXI
II
GUNSHOTWOUNDANDBALLI
STI
CJURI
SPRUDENCE

Animportantcaseinthef i
eldofforensicexaminati
onofgunshotwoundand
for
ensi
cballi
sti
ci sthecaseofCust odi
ovs.Cour tofAppeal s,pennedbyJust ice
Reynat
oPunooft heSupremeCour tofthePhil
ippi
nesonMar ch08,2005.Thiscaseis
aboutaMot i
ont oRe-OpenCasewi t
hLeaveofCour tfi
ledbypet i
ti
onerswhower e
convi
ctedandsentencedtoreclusi
onper pet
uabyt heSandiganbayanf orthedouble
murderofSenat
orBenignoAquino,Jr.andRolandoGalmanonAugust21, 1983.

BRI
G.GEN.LUTERA.CUSTODI
Oet
.al

vs.

SANDI
GANBAYANandPEOPLEoft
hePHI
LIPPI
NES

(
G.R.Nos.96027-
28.Mar
ch08,
2005)

FACTS:

Peti
ti
oner
swer emember
softhemil
it
arywhoactedasSenat
orAqui
no’
ssecuri
tydet
ail
uponhisarr
ivali
nManil
afr
om hi
sthreeyearsoj
ourni
ntheUnit
edStat
es.Theywere

146
charged, together wi t
h sever al ot
her member s of the mi l
it
ary, befor
e t he
Sandiganbayanf ort hekil
lingofSenat orAquinowhowasf atall
yshotashewas
comingdownf r
om t heaircraf
tofChinaAirl
inesattheMani l
aI nt
ernat
ionalAirport
.
Peti
tioner
swer eal soindi
ctedforthekil
li
ngofRolandoGalmanwhowasal sogunned
downatt heairporttarmac.

OnDecember2,1985,theSandi
ganbayanr
enderedadeci
sionacquit
ti
ngallt
he
accused.However
,theproceedi
ngsbefor
etheSandi
ganbayanwerelaterf
oundbythe
SupremeCourttobeasham t ri
alandwasthusnul
li
fi
edandorderedthere-t
ri
aloft
he
cases.

I
nitsdecisi
ondat edSept ember28,1990,t heSandiganbayan,whi l
eacqui
tt
ing
theotheraccused,foundt hepetit
ionersguilt
yaspr i
ncipal
soft hecr i
meofmur der
sentenci
ngthem toreclusionperpet ua.Thejudgmentbecamef inalaf
tertheSupr
eme
Courtdeniedpeti
ti
oners’pet i
ti
onforr evi
ewoft heSandiganbayandecisionaswellas
thei
rsubsequentmotionf orreconsiderati
on.

OnAugust4,2004,pet
it
ioner
sfil
edbeforet
heSupr
emeCour taMoti
onToRe-
OpenCaseWithLeaveofCourtont hegroundsoft
heexi
stenceofnewl
ydiscover
ed
evi
dence.

I
SSUES:

1.Whet
herornottherevi
ew bythefor
ensi
cgroupoft hephysicalevi
dencein
thedoublemurdercaseconstit
utesnewl
ydiscover
edevidencewhi chwoul denti
tl
e
peti
ti
oners’
toanewtri
alunderRule121oft
he2000RulesofCr i
minalProcedure.

2.Whetherornott
herewasseri
ousmisappr
ehensi
onoffactsonthepar
tof
Sandi
ganBayanbasedonf
orensi
cevi
dencewhi
chwouldenti
tl
epet
it
ioner
stoar
e-t
ri
al

RULI
NG:

147
 1.No,ther eview byt hef orensicgr oupoft hephysi calevidenceinthedoubl e
mur dercasedoesnotconst i
tuteasnewl ydiscover edevi dencewhi chwoul dent i
tl
e
them t oanew t r
ial.Bef or
eanew t rialmaybegr anted,itmustbeshownt hatthe
evidence was di scover ed af tert ri
al,thatsuch evi dence coul d nothave been
discoveredandpr oducedatt het r
ialevenwi tht heexer ci
seofr easonablediligence,
thati tismat erialandnotmer elycumul ati
ve,cor roborati
ve,ori mpeachingandt he
evidencei sofsuchwei ghtthati twouldpr obabl ychanget hej udgmentifadmitted.The
repor tofthefor ensicgr oupmaynotbeconsi der edasnewl ydi
scoveredevidenceas
pet i
ti
onersf ai
ledt oshow t hati twasi mpossi blefort hem t osecureani ndependent
forensicstudyoft hephysi calevidencedur ingt het r
ialoft hedoublemur dercase.I t
appear sf rom t heirr eportt hatt he f or
ensi c group used t he same physicaland
testimonialevi dencepr offered dur i
ng thet r
ial,butmadet hei
rown anal ysisand
i
nt erpret
ationofsai devidence.

2.No,t here was no ser ious mi sappr ehensi

on off act
s on t he par tof
Sandiganbayanbasedonf orensicevi dence.Basi ctothequest i
onist het rajectoryof
thesinglebul l
ett hatpenetratedt heheadandcausedt hedeat hofSenat orBeni gno
AquinoJr .Basedont heaut opsyr eport, t
hewoundofent rancehavi ngbeenl ocat edat
themast oidregion, l
eft
,belowt heext ernalaudi torymeatus, andt heexi twoundhavi ng
beenatt heant eriorporti
onoft hemandi ble,sot hatthetraj ectoryoft hegunshotwas
“for
war d,downwar d,mediall
y.”Thewoundent r
ancehavi ngbeenatahi gherelevat i
on
thanthewoundofexi t
,asevi dencedbyt hewoundofent ranceappear edoval oidand
ther
ei sacont usi oncollarwhi chiswi destatt hesuper i
orpor t i
on,indicatingt hatthe
muzzleoft hef atalgunwasatal evelhi ghert hant hatoft hepoi ntofent r
yoft hef atal
bull
et,therecanbenoot herconcl usi onbutt hatt het rajectorywasdownwar das
opposedt ot hepet i
ti
onersindependentf orensicgr oupt hatt hebul letwaspr ojected
upwards.

Thefindi
ngt hatthef atalbulletwhichkil
ledSen.BenignoAquino,Jr.was
direct
eddownwar dssustai
nst heallegati
onofprosecut
ioneyewit
nessest
ot heef
fect
thatSen.BenignoAquino,Jr.wasshotbyami l
it
arysoldi
eratthebri
dgestair
swhile
hewasbei ngbroughtdownf r
om t heplane.

I
NVI
EW WHEREOF,
thepet
it
ioner
s’mot
iont
ore-
opencasewi
thl
eaveofcour
tis
DENI
ED.

148
149
 Chapt
erXXI
V
POLYGRAPHTEST

Pol
ygr
aphorLi
eDet
ect
orTest

Aninst
rumentusedt
omeasurephysi
ologyresponsesi
nhumanswhent
heyar
e
quest
ionedi
nordert
odeter
minei
fthei
ransweraretrut
hful
.

Support
ers 
of 
the scient
if
ic 
val i
dit
y of 
the 
polygr
aph 
clai
m  t
hat 
resul
ts 
are
appr
oximatel
y90 per centaccur ate.Formuch oft hetwentiet
h century,however,
pol
ygraphevi
dencewasi nadmissibleincriminalcasesont
hegr oundsofunr el
iabi
li
ty

Polygraph 
evi
dence 
was 
admissi
ble 
in 
civi
l 
cases,
 
however
, 
and 
it
 was 
also 
used 
widel
y 
in l
aw enfor
cement,
 
gover
nment,
 and 
industr
y.

A l
ie det
ect
or devi
ce, 
fr
om Greek 
for 
"many"
 (
poly)
 "
message" (
graph)
 si
nce
numer
ous physi
ological
 r
esponses 
are 
test
ed 
when quest
ions 
are 
answered.

Par
tofaPol
ygr
aphExami
nat
ion

150
 1.Pre-
Test-Int
hepre-
testphase,t
hepolygraphexami
nerwi
llcompl
eter
equi
red
paperwor
kanddi
scussthetestquest
ions

2.In-
Test-The" i
n-t
est"orchartcol
lect
ionphasetakespl
aceinaqui etr
oom wi t
h
nooneel sepresenttodi st
racttheexaminee.Thepolygraphexami nerwill
att
achsensor stothepersonandaskyesornoquest i
onsthathavepreviousl
y
beendiscussed.

3.Post-
Test— Fol lowingthetest,theexaminerwi
llanalyzethechart
sandr ender
anopi nionast ot hetr
uthf
ulnessoft hepersontakingthetest.Theexami ner
,
when appr opr
iate, wil
l offer the examinee an oppor tuni
ty to explain
physiologi
calreact i
onsinrelati
ontooneormor equest i
onsaskedduringt he
test
.

UsesofPol
ygr
aphExami
nat
ion

Polygraphtestsascur r
entlyusedhaveval uei ndistingui shing t
ruthfulfrom
decept iveindivi
duals.However,theyarefarfr
om perfecti
nt hatcont ext
,andi mportant
unanswer edquestionsr emainaboutpolygraphaccuracyinot heri mportantcontexts.
No al ternati
ve techniques are avail
abl
et hatperform bet t
er ,t hough some show
promi sef orthel
ongt erm.Thelimitedevi
denceonscr eeni
ngpol ygraphssuggest sthat
theiraccur acyinfiel
dusei sli
kelytobesomewhatl owert hant hatofspeci f
ic-i
ncident
polygraphs.

Rel
iabi
li
tyandAccur
acyofPol
ygr
aphExams

Whil
et hepolygraphtechni
quei snotinfal
li
ble,resear
chclearl
yindi
cat
esthat
whenadminister
edbyacompet entexaminer
,thepol ygr
aphtesti
st hemostaccur
ate
meansavai
labletodetermi
net r
uthanddeception.

151
I
nconcl
usi
ve(
noopi
nion)Pol
ygr
aphExami
nat
ionResul
t

Ani nconcl
usiveor" noopinion"resul
tsimpl ymeanst hatinsuffi
cientdatai s
avail
ablefortheexami nertorenderadef i
nit
iveopinionofdecepti
onornodecept ion.
Insuchcases,asecondexami nat
ionisusual l
yconduct ed.Thecl assi
fi
cationofa
polygraphexami nat
ionas" i
nconcl
usive"protect
st heexami neefrom bei ngf al
sely
i
dent i
fi
edasdecept ivewheni nadequatedataiscol l
ected.Oft
en,cri
ticsofpol ygr
aph
wronglyclassif
yinconclusi
ve

Fal
sePosi
ti
ve,
Fal
seNegat
ivePol
ygr
aphExami
nat
ionResul
t

Whi lethepolygr aphtechni queishighlyaccur ate,i

tisnotinfalli
bleander rorsdo
occur.Polygr apherr orsmaybecausedbyt heexami ner'
sf ai
lur
et opr oper l
ypr epare
theexami neef ortheexami nation,orbyami sreadingoft hephysi ologicaldat aont he
polygr
aph char ts.Er r
orsar eusual lyreferred to asei therfalseposi t
ivesorf alse
negatves.A f
i alseposi t
ive occurwhen a t r
uthfulexami neei sr eported asbei ng
deceptive;af alsenegat ivewhenadecept iveexami neeisreportedast ruthful.Some
resear
chi ndicatest hatf al
senegat ivesoccurmor ef r
equentlyt hanf alseposi ti
ves,
otherresear chstudiesshowt heopposi t
econcl usion.

ScopeofTestQuest
ionsandDi
ssemi
nat
ionofTestResul
tsPr
ohi
bit
iveI
nqui
ri
es

Personaland int
rusi
ve quest
ions have no pl
ace in a properl
y conducted
pol
ygraphexaminat
ion.Noexami nershouldinqui
reint
oanyoft hef ol
lowi
ngar eas
dur
ingpre-empl
oymentorperiodi
cemploymentexaminati
ons:

 r
eli
giousbel
ief
soraf
fi
li
ati
ons

 bel
ief
soropi
nionsr
egar
dingr
aci
almat
ter
s

 pol
it
icalbel
ief
soraf
fi
li
ati
ons

 bel
ief
s,af
fi
li
ati
onsorl
awf
ulact
ivi
ti
esr
egar
dinguni
onsorl
aboror
gani
zat
ions

 sexualpr
efer
encesoract
ivi
ti
es

152
 Inal aw enf orcementpr e-employmentpol ygraphexami nation,thequestions
focuson such j ob r elat
ed i nquiri
esast hetheftofmoneyormer chandi
sef r
om
previousempl oyers,f al
sif
icationofi nformati
onont hejobapplications,theuseof
i
llegaldrugsdur ingwor kinghour sandcr i
minalact ivi
ti
es.Thet estquest i
onsar e
l
imi t
edi nthet i
mespant heycover ,andal larer eviewedanddi scussedwi t
ht he
exami needuringapr e-t
esti nter
view beforeanypol ygraphtest
ingi sdone.Therear e
nosur pri
seort ri
ckquest i
ons.I naspeci fi
cissuepol ygraphexami nationtherel
evant
quest i
onsfocusont heparticularactunderinvesti
gat i
on.

Admi
ssi
bil
it
yofPol
ygr
aphExamsi
nmostJur
isdi
cti
ons

Polygraphresult
sar eadmissibl
einsomef ederalcir
cui
tsandsomest ates.
Mor eoften,such evidenceisadmi ssi
blewherethe part
ieshaveagr eed tot heir
admissibili
ty.Somej uri
sdi
cti
onshaveabsolutebansonadmi ssi
bil
it
yofpol ygraph
resul
tsasevi denceandevent hesuggesti
ont
hatapolygraphexaminati
onisinvolved
i
ssuf f
ici
entt ocausearetri
al.

153
 Chapt
erXXV
FORENSI
CPSYCHOLOGYANDPSYCHI
ATRY

For
ensi
cPsychol
ogyi
sdef
inedast
heappl
icat
ionoft
hesci
enceandpr
ofessi
on
ofpsychol
ogyt
oquest
ionandi
ssuedr
elat
ingt
olawandl
egalsyst
em.

Thewor
d“For
ensi
c”comesf
rom t
heLat
inwor
d“f
orensi
c”meani
ng“
oft
he
f
orum”
.

I
nst
anceswher
eFor
ensi
cPsychol
ogycanbeappl
ied

1. Chi
lddi
sput
e

2. Chi
ldAbuseofanEmot
ional
,physi
cal
,andsexualnat
ure

3. Assessi
ngone’
sper
sonal
it
ytomanageone’
saf
fai
rs

4. Mat
ter
sofcompet
encyt
ost
andt
ri
al

5. Cr
imi
nalr
esponsi
bil
it
yandper
sonali
njur
y

6. Advi
singj
udgesi
nmat
ter
srel
ati
ngt
osent
enci
ngr
egar
dingvar
iousmi
ti
gant
s

154
andt
heact
uar
ialassessmentoff
utur
eri
sk.

For
ensi
cPsychol
ogi
sts

I
tisdevot
edtopsychol
ogicalaspect
soflegalprocessincourt
.Theter
mis
al
soof
tenusedtoref
ert
oinvest
igat
iveandcri
minol
ogicalpsychol
ogysuchus’

1. Appl
yingpsychol
ogi
calt
heor
ytocr
imi
nali
nvest
igat
ion

2. Under
standi
ngpsychol
ogi
calpr
obl
emsassoci
atedwi
thcr
imi
nalbehavi
or

3. Thet
reat
mentofcr
imi
nal
s

For
ensi
cPsychi
atr
y

Isasubspeci
alt
yofpsychi
atr
y.I
tencompassest
hei
nter
facebet
weenl
aw
andpsychi
atr
y.

For
ensi
cPsychi
atr
ist
s

For
ensi
c psychiat
ri
st work wit
h court
si n eval
uati
ng an i
ndi
vidual
’
s
compet
encyt
ostandt
rialdef
ensesbasedonmentaldi
seasesordef
ect
s.

Maj
orAr
easi
nCr
imi
nalEval
uat
ionsofFor
ensi
cPsychi
atr
y:

1. Compet
encyt
oSt
andTr
ial(
CST)

Made a deter
minat
ion t
hatthe defendanthas t
he mentalcapaci
tyto
underst
andthechargesandassisthi
satt
orneywhi chi
sconst
it
uti
onal
lygrant
edby
ourconsti
tut
ions.

2. AsanExper
tWi
tness

155
 Forensi
cpsychiat
ri
sti
soft
encall
edtotheexper
twitnessinbot
hcr
imi
naland
ci
vilpr
oceedingsbygi
vingexper
topi
nionr
elat
edinspeci
fi
cissue/s.

3. Ment
alSt
ateOpi
nion

Givesthecour
tanopini
on,
andonlyanopini
on,
aswhet
hert
hedef
endantwas
abl
eatt
hetimeofthecr
ime,
tounderst
andwhathewasdoi
ng.

APPLI
CATI
ONOFFORENSI
CPSYCHOLOGYANDPSYCHI
ATRY

FAMI
LYCOURT

1.Toassesst besti
he“ nter
est
”ofchi
ldr
enwhosepar
ent
sar
edi
vor
cing.

2.Chil
dcustodymediat
ions,serveasmediatorbetweendivorcedpar
ent
swho
remaini
ndisput
eabouttheneedsandi
nter
estofthei
rchi
ldren.

3.Appoint
edas“Specialmaster
s”byt
hecourt
,andar
echargedwithmaki
ngboth
recommendat
ion and ordersfort
he car
e ofchil
dren i
n di
sput
ed cust
ody
sit
uati
ons.

4.Chi
ldCust
odyEval
uat
ions

5.Vi
sit
ati
onsRi
skAssessment
s,

6.Gr
andpar
entVi
sit
ati
onEval
uat
ions

7.Medi
ati
onofpar
ent
alconf
li
ctsaboutchi
l
dren

8.Chi
ldAbuseEval
uat
ions

9.Adopt
ionsReadi
nessEval
uat
ions

10.
Devel
opmentofFami
lyReuni
fi
cat
ionPl
ans

11.
Eval
uat
ionst
oAssessTer
minat
ionofPar
ent
alRi
ght
s

Psychot
her
apyandCounsel
ingt
oFami
li
esr
efer
redbyt
heCour
t:

1.Par
ent
-Chi
ldf
ami
lycounsel
ing

2.Ther
apeut
icsuper
visedvi
sit
ati
on

156
 3.Par
ent
alski
ll
trai
ning

4.Angermanagement

5.Di
vor
ceadj
ust
mentcounsel
ingf
orchi
ldr
enand/
oradul
ts

6.Par
ent
alcommuni
cat
ionski
ll
str
aini
ng

CI
VILCOURT

 Of
tenpr
ovi
deassessmentofwhet
hersomeonehasbeenhar
medbyt
heevent
.

 Assesstheemot
ionali
njur
iessuf
fer
edbysomeonewhohasbeeni
njur
edi
nan
acci
dentorwhowit
nessedat r
aumati
cevent
.

 Cal
led t
otest
if
yi n sexualharassmentsui
tst
o descr
ibet
hei
mpactoft
he
har
assmentonthepurportedvi
cti
m.

 In generalsense,t
hepsychol
ogistmightber equi
red to pr
ovi
det
reat
ment
recommendat i
onsortoanal
yzethespecifi
ctreatmentneedsofanindi
vidual
,
andmi ghtbeasktodet
ermi
nethepotent
ialcostofsuchtreat
ment.

In Ci
vil Cour
t Cases, t
he Psychologi
st or Psychiat
ri
st al
so pr
ovi
de
Psychot
her
apyandCounsel
ingtoI
ndi
vidual
sforthef
oll
owingprobl
ems:

Post
-t
raumat
icSt
ressDi
sor
der

 Anxi
ety

 Depr
essi
on

 Phobi
asRel
atedt
oTr
aumat
icEvent
s

 Psychol
ogi
calFact
orsi
nChr
oni
cPai
n

 AngerManagement

 Adj
ust
mentCounsel
ingf
oll
owi
ngt
rauma

157
  Coupl
eCounsel
ingr
egar
dingt
hei
mpactoft
het
raumaont
her
elat
ionshi
p

 Desensi
ti
zat
ion

Inthear
enaofWor
ker
sCompensat
ionLaw,aFor
ensi
cPsychol
ogi
stmi
ghbecal
led
upon:

1.To descri
be how work pl
ace st
ress f
act
orsi
mpact
ed t
he psychol
ogi
cal
funct
ioni
ngofacl
aimant
.

2.Todet
erminewhet
hert
hepur
por
tedwor
kpl
acest
resshadanyef
fectont
he
wor
keratal
l.

I
NCRI
MINALCOURT

 Per
hapsmostcommonl
yrecogni
zedf
ort
hei
rinvol
vementi
nthepr
ocessi
ngof
a cr i
mescene.

 Provi
decourtswi
thanal
ysi
srel
evantt
oquest
ionsofcr
imi
nali
nsani
tyandt
ri
al
competence.

 Hel
pcour
tsdeci
dewhet
hersexof
fender
sar
eli
kel
ytor
e-of
fendorwhet
hert
hey
ar
e dangerous.

 They provi
de i
nformat
ion and recommendati
ons necessar
yf orsent
enci
ng
purposes, grantsofprobat
ion,
andt hef
ormulat
ionofcondi
ti
onsofpar
ole.

 Cal
led upon in deat
h penal
ty cases t
o provi
de anal
ysi
s oft
he i
ntent
ions,
motivat
ionsandpersonal
it
ycharacter
ist
icsoft
heaccused.

 Inthej
uvenil
ecourt
,theyoft
enar
easkedt
ohel
pdet
ermi
newhet
herayout
hful
off
endercanberehabi
li
tat
ed.

 Theyassistprosecutor
s,def
ender
s,andlawenforcementofthei
nvest
igat
orsi
n
under
standingar angeofnormalandcri
minalbehavior
s,someti
messervi
ngas
“cr
imi
nalprofi
lers”.

 Eval
uat
ionsofJuveni
lesaccusedofcr
imi
nalact
s

 Juveni
lePr
e-sent
enci
ngEval
uat
ions

158
  Juveni
lePr
obat
ionsEval
uat
ions

 Juveni
leWai
verEval
uat
ions

 Eval
uat
ingt
heCr
edi
bil
it
yofChi
ldWi
tnesses

 AssessmentofJuveni
leandAdul
tSexualOf
fender
s

 Compet
encyandDi
mini
shedCapaci
tyEval
uat
ions

 Adul
tPr
e-sent
enci
ngEval
uat
ions

Psychol
ogistandPsychi
atr
istalsoprovi
deCounseli
ngandPsychother
apySer
vicest
o
I
ndivi
dualsinvol
vedi
nCriminalCourt
.Theissuesaddressedi
ncl
ude:

1.Counsel
ingi
ndi
vidual
svi
olat
erest
rai
ningor
der
s

2.Counsel
ingj
uveni
lesonpr
obat
ions

3.Suppor
ti
vecounsel
ingf
ort
hevi
cti
msofcr
imes

4.Counsel
ingi
ndi
vidualawai
ti
ngt
ri
al

5.Counsel
ingadul
tsonpr
obat
ions

6.Angermanagementski
ll
str
aini
ngf
orvi
olentof
fender
s

7.Counsel
ingandpsychot
her
apyf
orsexualof
fender
s

DIAGNOSTI
C AND STATI
STI
CAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DI
SORDERS,FOURTH
EDITI
ONS(DSM-
IV)

Publ
ishedbyt heAmer i
canPsychiatr
icAssoci
ationandcover sal
lmental
health disor
derf orbot h chi
ldr
en and adul
ts.Italso l
istknown causesoft hese
disorders,st
ati
sticsintermsofgender,agesatonset,andpr ognosi
saswellassome
researchconcer ningtheoptimaltr
eatmentprocess.I
tassessFi ve(5)di
mensi
onsas
describebelow:

 Axi
sI:Cl
ini
calSyndr
omes-Thi
siswhatwet
ypi
cal
lyt
hinkofdi
agnosi
s.

 Axi
sII
:Devel
opment
alDi
sor
derandPer
sonal
it
yDi
sor
der
s–I
ncl
udeaut
ism and

159
 ment
alr
etar
dat
ions,
disor
der
swhi
char
etypi
cal
lyf
ir
stevi
denti
nchi
ldhood.

 AxisIII
:PhysicalCondi
tions – Whi
ch pl
ay a rol
eint
he devel
opment
,
cont
inuance,
orexacer
bat
ionofAxi
sIandI
IDisor
der
s.

 AxisIV:Severi
tyofPsychologicalSt
ressor
s–Event sinaperson’
sli
fe,
suchus
deathofal ovedone,starti
nganew j ob,col
lege,unempl
oyment,andeven
marri
agecani mpactthedisordersli
sti
nAxisIandI I
.

 AxisV:Highestleveloff
unctioni
ng–Thi shel
pst
hecli
nici
anunderst
andhow
theabovefouraxesareaffect
ingtheper
sonandwhatt
ypeofchangescoul
dbe
expect
ed.

DSM-IV-
TR–Thi sisexpectedtobeouton2010orlater
.Thi
si sarevi
sedt
ext
ofDSM- I
Vtoincl
udenew researchinfor
mati
onthathadbeendevelopedsincef
ir
st
publ
icat
ioni
n1994.Theessencesofthechangesar
ethefol
lowi
ngs:

A.Per
sonal
it
ychangeduet
oGener
alMedi
calCondi
ti
onsnow al
lowedi
npat
ient
whohasdementi
a.

B.Touret
te’
sDi sor
derandalltheTi
cDisor
der
snol
ongerr
equi
ret
hatsympt
oms
causedist
ressorimpai
rfuncti
oni
ng.

C.SeveraloftheParaphi
li
a’scanbedi
agnosei
ftheyar
eact
edupon,event
hough
theymaynotcauset hepersonwhosebehaviori
sinquest
ionorimpai
red
funct
ioningasaresult
.

160
 Chapt
erXXVI
PERSONALI
TYDI
SORDERS

Per sonal
it
ydisorder
sform aclassofmentaldi
sor
der
sthatar
echar
act
eri
zedby
l
ong-l
astingr i
gidpatter
nsoft houghtandbehavior
.Becauseofthei
nfl
exi
bil
it
yand
per
vasivenessoft hesepatt
erns,theycancauseseri
ouspr
obl
emsandimpair
mentof

161
f
unct
ioni
ngf
ort
heper
sonswhoar
eaf
fl
ict
edwi
tht
hesedi
sor
der
s.

Per
sonali
tydisordersar eseenbypr of
essional
sandr esearchersasanendur i
ng
patter
nofinnerexperienceandbehavi orthatdeviat
esmar kedlyfrom theexpect
ati
ons
oft hecult
ureoft hei ndivi
dualwhoexhi bi
tsit. Thesepat ternsar einfl
exi
bleand
pervasi
veacrossmanysi t
uations.Theonsetoft hepatt
erncanbet r
acedbackatleast
tothebeginni
ngofadul thood.Tobedi agnosedasaper sonalit
ydi sorder
,abehavi
oral
patter
n mustcausesi gnifi
cantdi st
ressori mpairmenti n personal,soci
al,and/or
occupati
onalsit
uati
ons.( Ng,Po, 2007)

Thesedi sorder stypicall

yar enotdiagnosedunt i
lanindi vi
duali
sayoungadul t,
oftennotunt i
ltheir20soreven30s.Mosti ndi
vidual swithper sonal
it
ydisordersl ead
prettynor mallivesandof t
enonl yseekpsychot herapeutictreatmentduringt i
mesof
i
ncr easedst ressorsoci aldemands. Mostpeopl ecanr elatetosomeoral loft he
personal it
ytraitslisted;t hedifferenceisthatitdoesnotaf fectmostpeopl e’sdai l
y
functioning tot he same degr ee itmi ghtsomeone di agnosed wi t
h one oft hese
disorder s.Personal i
tydi sorderstendt obeani ntegralpartofaper son,andther efore,
aredifficultt
otr eator“ cure”.(
Gr ohol,2003)

Thegeneraldi
agnost
iccr
iter
iaf
oraper
sonali
tydisor
dert
hatmustbesati
sfi
ed
i
nadditi
ontospecif
iccr
it
eri
ali
stedundert
hei
ndi
vidual
lynamedpersonal
it
ydi
sor
ders
ar
ethefoll
owi
ng:

1.Exper
ienceandbehavi orthatdeviat
esmarkedl
yf r
om theexpect
ati
onsoft he
i
ndivi
dual’scult
uremanifestedinoneormoreofthefol
lowi
ngareas:cogni
ti
on,
aff
ect
, i
nterper
sonalf
unctioning,
andimpul
secontr
ol.

2.The endur
ing patt
ernisi nf
lexi
ble and per
vasi
ve acr
oss a br
oad r
ange of
per
sonalandsocialsi
tuat
ions.

3.Theenduringpatterleadstocl
ini
cal
lysigni
fi
cantdist
ressori
mpai
rmenti
n
soci
al,
occupat
ional,
orotheri
mport
antar
easoffunct
ioni
ng.

4.Thepatt
ernisstabl
eandofl ongdurat
ionandi
tsonsetcanbet
racedbackat
l
eastt
oadolescenceorear
lyadult
hood.

5.The enduri
ng patt
ernis notbetteraccount
ed f
oras a mani
fest
ati
on or
consequenceofanot
hermentaldi
sorder
.

6.The endur
ing pat
ter
nis notdue tothe di
rectphysi
ologi
calef
fect
s ofa
subst
anceorgeneral
medi
calcondi
ti
onsuchasheadinj
ury.

162
 Peopl
eunder18yearsoldwhofi
tthecr i
ter
iaofapersonal
it
ydisor
derare
usuall
ynotdiagnosedwi
thsuchadi
sor
der,al
thoughtheymaybediagnosedwit
ha
rel
ateddisor
der
.

DI
FFERENTTYPESOFPERSONALI
TYDI
SORDER

A.Anti
socialPersonalit
y Di sor
der. Thisis charact
eri
zed by a l
ong-
standi
ng
pat
ternofadi sregardf orotherpeopl
e’
sr ightsoft
encr ossi
ngtheli
neand
vi
olat
ingthoserights.Itconsist
softhemajorit
yofthesesymptoms:

a.Fai
lur
etoconf
ormt
osoci
alnor
ms

b.Decei
tf
ulness

c.I
mpul
sivi
ty

d.I
rr
it
abi
li
tyandaggr
essi
veness

e.Reckl
essdi
sregar
dforsaf
etyofsel
forot
her
s

f
. Consi
stenti
rr
esponsi
bil
it
y

g.Lackofr
emor
se

B.AvoidantPer
sonalit
yDisorder. Thisischar acterizedbyal ong-
standi
ngand
complexpatter
noff eel
ingsofi nadequacy,ext remesensi t
ivit
ytowhatot her
peoplethi
nkaboutthem,andsocialinhi
bit
ion.I ttypicalmani
festsit
selfbyear
ly
adul
thoodandincludesamaj or
it
yoft hefoll
owingsympt oms:

a.Avoi
ds occupat
ionalacti
vit
ies thatinvol
ve si
gnifi
cantinter
per
sonal
cont
act
,becauseoffear
sofcr i
ti
cisms,
disappr
ovalorrej
ect
ion

b.I
sunwi
ll
ingt
ogeti
nvol
vedwi
thpeopl
eunl
esscer
tai
nofbei
ngl
iked

c.Showsrest
rai
ntwithi
nint
imat
erel
ati
onshi
psbecauseoft
hef
earofbei
ng
shamedorri
dicul
ed

d.I
spr
eoccupi
edwi
thbei
ngcr
it
ici
zedorr
eject
edi
nsoci
alsi
tuat
ions

163
 e.I
si nhi
bit
ed i
n new i
nter
per
sonalsi
tuat
ions because off
eel
ings of
i
nadequacy

f
. Vi
ewssel
fassoci
all
yinept
,per
sonal
lyunappeal
ing,
ori
nfer
iort
oot
her
s.

g.Isunusual
lyrel
uct
antt
otakeper
sonalri
sksortoengagei
nanynew
act
ivi
ti
esbecauset
heymaypr
oveembarr
assi
ng.

C.Borderl
ine Per sonali
ty Disorder
. Or i
ginall
y,thi
st erm was used when the
cli
nici
anwasunsur eoft hecor r
ectdiagnosisbecausethecli
entmanifest
eda
mixtur
eofneur oti
candpsychot icsympt oms. Manycl ini
ciansthoughtof
theseclientsasbei ngont heborderbetweenneuroticandpsychoti
c,andthus
theter
m“ borderl
ine”camei nt
ouse.

Themai nf
eatureofborder
li
nedisor
deri
spervasi
vepatt
ernofi
nst
abi
li
ty
i
ni nt
erper
sonalr
elat
ionshi
ps,sel
f-i
mageandemot i
ons.Peoplewit
hBPDar e
usual
lyveryi
mpulsi
veanditoccursinmostbyear
lyadul
thood.

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
eissympt
t oms:

a.Fr
ant
icef
for
tst
oavoi
drealori
magi
nedabandonment

b.A pat ter

n of unst
able and i
ntense i
nter
per
sonal relat
ionshi
ps
character
izedbyalt
ernat
ingbet
weenextremesofi deal
izati
onand
devaluati
on

c.Ident
it
ydist
urbance:mar
kedl
yandper
sist
ent
lyunst
abl
esel
f-
imageor
senseofsel
f

d.I
mpul si
vit
yi natleasttwoar easthatarepot
ent
ial
tysel
f-
damagi
ng
(
e.g.spending,
sex,substanceabuse,et
c.)

e.Recurr
entsui
cidalbehavi
or,gest
ures,ort
hreat
s,orsel
f-
mut
il
ati
ng
behavi
or

f
. Af
fect
ivei
nst
abi
li
tyduet
oamar
kedr
eact
ivi
tyofmood

g.Chr
oni
cfeel
ingsofempt
iness

h.I
nappr
opr
iat
e,i
ntenseangerordi
ff
icul
tycont
rol
li
nganger

i
. Transi
ent
,st
ress-
rel
ated par
anoi
dideat
ion orsever
e di
ssoci
ati
ve
symptoms

164
D.DependentPersonali
tyDisorder
.Thi sischaract
erizedbyalong-standi
ngneed
forthepersontobet akencareofandaf earofbeingabandonedorsepar at
ed
from i
mpor t
anti
ndivi
dualsinhis/herli
fe.Thispervasivef
earleadsto“cli
ngi
ng
behavior
”andusuallymanifestsit
selfbyearl
yadulthood.Iti
ncludesamaj or
it
y
ofthesesymptoms:

a.Hasdiff
icul
tymakingever
ydaydecisi
onswi
thoutanexcessi
veamount
ofadvi
ceandreassur
ancefrom ot
hers

b.Needsot
her
stoassumer
esponsi
bil
it
yformostmaj
orar
easofhi
sorher
l
if
e

c.Hasdif
fi
cult
yexpr essi
ngdisagr
eementwi
thot
her
sbecauseoff
earof
l
ossofsupportorapproval

d.Hasdi
ff
icul
tyi
nit
iat
ingpr
oject
sordoi
ngt
hingsonhi
sorherown

e.Goest
oexcessi
vel
engt
hst
oobt
ainnur
tur
anceandsuppor
tfr
om ot
her
s

f
. Feel
suncomfort
abl
eorhelpl
esswhenalonebecauseofexagger
ated
fear
sofbei
ngunabl
etocar
eforhi
msel
forher
sel
f

g.Ur
gent
lyseeksanotherrel
ati
onshi
pasasour
ceofcar
eandsuppor
t
whenacl
oserel
ati
onshi
pends

h.Isunreal
ist
ical
lypreoccupi
edwi
thf
ear
sofbei
ngl
eftt
otakecar
eof
himsel
forhersel
f.

E.Hist
ri
onicPer sonal
it
yDisorder.Apervasi
vepatternofexcessi
veemoti
onali
ty
andattenti
onseeking,beginni
ngbyearl
yadulthoodandpresentinavar
iet
yof
cont
exts,asindicat
edbyfiveormoreofthefol
lowing:

a.Isuncomfor
tabl
einsi
tuat
ionsi
nwhi
chheorshei
snott
hecent
erof
att
ent
ion

b.Int
eract
ionwit
hothersisoftenchar
act
eri
zedbyi
nappr
opr
iat
esexual
ly
seducti
veorpr
ovocat
ivebehavi
or

c.Di
spl
aysr
api
dlyshi
ft
ingandshal
lowexpr
essi
onofemot
ions

d.Consi
stent
lyusesphysi
calappear
ancet
odr
awat
tent
iont
osel
f

165
 e.Hasastyl
eofspeecht
hati
sexcessi
vel
yimpr
essi
oni
sti
cbutl
acki
ngi
n
det
ail
.

f
. Showssel
f-
dramat
izat
ion,t
heat
ri
cal
it
y,andexagger
atedexpr
essi
onof
emoti
on

g.I
ssuggest
ibl
e

h.Consi
der
srel
ati
onshi
pst
obemor
eint
imat
ethant
heyact
ual
lyar
e

F.Dissoci
ati
veIdent
it
yDi sorder
.Thepresenceoft woormoredisti
ncti
dent
iti
es
orpersonal
it
ystat
es( eachwithi
tsownrel
ati
velyendur
ingpat
ter
nofpercei
ving,
rel
ati
ngto,andthi
nkingabouttheenvi
ronmentandself
).

Atleastt
wooftheseident
it
iesorper
sonal
it
yst
atesr
ecur
rent
lyt
ake
cont
roloft
heper
son’
sbehavi
or.

I
nabil
it
ytorecal
limport
antpersonali
nfor
mat
iont
hati
stooext
ensi
vet
o
beexpl
ainedbyor
dinar
yforget
ful
ness.

The di
stur
bance i
s notdue tothe di
rectphysi
ologi
calef
fect
s ofa
subst
anceorageneralmedi
calcondi
ti
on.

G.Narci
ssi
sti
cPer sonali
tyDisorder.Apervasi
vepat
ter
nofgr andi
osi
ty,needfor
admir
ati
on,andl ackofempat hy,begi
nni
ngbyearl
yadulthoodandpresenti
na
var
iet
yofcontexts,asindi
catedbyf i
veormoreoft
hefol
lowing:

a.Hasagr
andi
osesenseofsel
f-
impor
tance

b.Ispreoccupiedwithf
ant
asi
esofunl
imi
tedsuccess,power
,br
il
li
ance,
beautyorideall
ove

c.Beli
eves t
hathe orshe i
s“speci
al”and uni
que and can onl
y be
underst
oodby,orshoul
dassoci
atewit
h,otherspeci
alorhigh-
stat
us
people

d.Requi
resexcessi
veadmi
rat
ion

e.Hasasenseofent
it
lement

f
.Isi
nter
per
sonal
lyexpl
oit
ati
ve

166
 g.Lacksempat
hy

h.Isoft
enenvi
ousofot
her
sorbel
ievest
hatot
her
sar
eenvi
ousofhi
m or
her

i
. Showsar
rogant
,haught
ybehavi
orsorat
ti
tudes

H.Obsessive-Compulsive Personal
ity Disorder. A per vasive patter
n of
preoccupationwithorder
li
ness,perfect
ionism andament alandi nt
erper
sonal
control
,attheexpenseofflexi
bil
it
y,openness,andeff
iciency,beginni
ngbyearly
adult
hoodandpr esenti
navar iet
yofcont ext
s,asindicatedbyf ourormor eof
thefoll
owing:

a.I
spreoccupiedwithdet
ail
s,r
ules,l
ists,or
der,or
gani
zat
ion,orschedul
es
t
otheextentthatt
hemajorpoi
ntoft heacti
vit
yisl
ost

b.Showsper
fect
ioni
sm t
hati
nter
fer
eswi
tht
askcompl
eti
on

c.I
s excessi
vel
ydevoted t
o workand pr
oduct
ivi
tyt
othe excl
usi
on of
l
eisur
eacti
vit
iesandf
ri
endshi
ps

d.I
s overconsci
ent
ious,scr
upul
ous,and i
nfl
exi
ble aboutmat
ter
s of
mor
ali
ty,
ethi
cs,
orvalues

e.Isunabl
etodi
scardwor
n-outorwor
thl
essobj
ect
sevenwhent
heyhave
nosenti
ment
alval
ue

f
.I srel
uct
antt
odelegat
etasksortoworkwi
thot
her
sunl
esst
heysubmi
tto
exact
lyhi
sorherwayofdoingthi
ngs

g.Adopt
sami
ser
lyspendi
ngst
ylet
owar
dbot
hsel
fandot
her
s

h.Showsr
igi
dit
yandst
ubbor
nness

. Par
I anoid Per
sonali
tyDisorder
.A per vasi
ve di
str
ustand suspi ci
ousness of
otherssuchthatt
heirmotivesareint
erpret
edasmal evolent,
begi
nningbyearly
adult
hoodandpr esenti
navar iet
yofcont ext
s,asindicatedbyfourormoreof
thefoll
owing:

a.Suspects,wi
thoutsuff
ici
entbasi
s,t
hatot
her
sar
eexpl
oit
ing,har
ming,or
decei
vinghim orher

167
 b.I
s pr eoccupied wit
h unjusti
fi
ed doubt
s about t
he l
oyal
ty or
t
rust
wor t
hinessoff
ri
endsorassoci
ates

c.I
sr el
uct
anttoconfi
deinother
sbecauseofunwarrant
edf
eart
hatt
he
i
nformat
ionwi
llbeusedmal
ici
ousl
yagai
nsthi
m orher

d.Readshiddendemeani
ngort
hreat
eni
ngmeani
ngsi
ntobeni
gnr
emar
ks
orevent
s

e.Per
sist
ent
lybear
sgr
udges

f
. Percei
vesatt
ackson hi
sorhercharact
erorreput
ati
on thatarenot
apparentt
oot
hersandi
squi
ckt
oreactangr
il
yort
ocounter
attack

g.Asrecurrentsuspici
ons,
wit
houtj
ust
if
icat
ion,
regar
dingf
idel
it
yofspouse
orsexualpartner
.

J.SchizoidPersonali
tyDisor
der.Aper vasi
vepatternofdet
achmentfrom soci al
rel
ationshi
psandar est
ri
ctedrangeofexpressi
onofemotionsinint
erpersonal
sett
ings,beginni
ngbyear l
yadul t
hoodandpr esenti
navar i
etyofcontexts,as
i
ndicatedbyf ourormoreofthefoll
owing:

a.Nei
therdesi
resnorenj
oyscl
oser
elat
ionshi
ps,i
ncl
udi
ngbei
ngpar
tofa
f
amily

b.Al
mostal
wayschoosessol
it
aryact
ivi
ti
es

c.Hasli
tt
le,i
fany,i
nter
esti
n havi
ng sexualexper
ienceswi
th anot
her
per
son

d.Takespl
easur
einf
ew,
ifany,
act
ivi
ti
es

e.Lackscl
osef
ri
endsorconf
idant
sot
hert
hanf
ir
st-
degr
eer
elat
ives

f
. Appear
sindi
ff
erentt
othepr
aiseorcr
it
ici
sm ofot
her
s

g.Showsemot
ionalcol
dness,
det
achment
,orf
lat
tenedaf
fect
ivi
ty

K.Schizotypal Personal
it
y Disor
der. A per vasi
ve patt
ern of soci al and
i
nterpersonaldefici
tsmarkedbyacutediscomf or
twit
h,andr educedcapaci t
y
for,closer el
ati
onshipsaswellasbycogni t
iveorperceptualdistor
ti
onsand
eccentri
cit
iesofbehavior,
begi
nningbyearl
yadul t
hoodandpr esentinavariet
y

168
ofcont
ext
s,asi
ndi
cat
edbyf
iveormor
eoft
hef
oll
owi
ng:

a.I
deasofr
efer
ence

b.Odd bel
iefs or magicalt hi
nki
ng t
hat i
nfl
uences behavi
or and i
s
i
nconsi
stentwit
hsubcultur
alnorms

c.Unusualper
cept
ualexper
iences,
incl
udi
ngbodi
lyi
ll
usi
ons

d.Oddt
hinki
ngandspeech

e.Suspi
ciousnessorpar
anoi
dideat
ion

f
.Inappr
opr
iat
eorconst
ri
ctedaf
fect

g.Behavi
ororappear
ancest
hati
sodd,
eccent
ri
c,orpecul
iar

h.Lackofcl
osef
ri
endsorconf
idant
sot
hert
hanf
ir
st-
degr
eer
elat
ives

i
. Excessi
vesocialanxi
etyt
hatdoesnotdiminishwi
thfamil
iar
it
yandtends
tobeassoci
atedwi t
hparanoi
dfear
sratherthannegat
ivej
udgmentabout
sel
f.

Chapt
erXXVI
I
MENTALDI
SORDERS

169
 A mentalil
lnessisanabnormalmentalcondi
ti
onordisor
derassoci
atedwith
si
gnifi
cantdist
ress and/or dysf
uncti
on.This can i
nvol
ve cogni
ti
ve,emotional
,
behavi
oralandi
nterper
sonali
mpairments.

Speci
fi
cdisor
dersoft
endescr
ibedasmentali
ll
nessesincl
udemaj
ordepr
essi
on,
gener
ali
zedanxi
etydi
sorder
,bi
pol
ardisor
der
,andschizophr
enia.

Adj
ust
mentDi
sor
der

Anadjustmentdi
sorderischaracter
izedbyt hedevel opmentofemotionalor
behavi
oralsymptoms I
nr esponse to an ident
if
iabl
e stressor
,occurri
ng wit
hin3
monthsoftheonsetofthestr
essor,andoncet hestressorhasended,thesymptoms
donotpersi
stformor
ethan6mont hs.

Astressorisanyt
hingthatcausesagr
eatdealofst
ressintheperson’
sli
fe,
whi
chcouldbeaposi ti
veevent,l
ikeaweddi
ng,oranegativeevent
,li
keaf amil
y
member
’sdeath.

Anxi
etyDi
sor
der

Acut
eSt
ressDi
sor
der– mostof
tendi
agnosedwhenani
ndi
vidualhasbeenexposed
t
oat
raumat
iceventi
nwhi
chbot
hoft
hef
oll
owi
ngwer
epr
esent
:

1.Thepersonexper i
enced,wi t
nessed,orwasconfront
edwithaneventor
event
sthatinvol
vedact ualorthr
eat
eneddeat
horseri
ousi
njur
y,ort
hreatt
o
physi
cali
ntegri
tyofselforothers

2.Theper
son’
sresponsei
nvol
vedi
ntensef
earhel
plessness,
orhor
ror
.

Whi
leexper
ienci
ngoraf
terexper
ienci
ngt
heevent
,thei
ndi
vidualmayhavet
he
f
oll
owi
ngsymptoms:

1.A subj
ect
ive sense ofnumbi
ng,det
achment
,orabsence ofemot
ional
r
esponsi
veness

2.Ar
educt
ioni
nawar
enessofhi
sorhersur
roundi
ngs

170
 3.Der
eal
izat
ion

4.Deper
sonal
izat
ion

5.Di
ssoci
ati
veamnesi
a

Pani
cDi
sor
der– peopl
ewhohavet
hisdi
sor
derhavef
eel
ingsoft
err
ort
hatst
ri
ke
suddenlyandrepeatedl
ywithnowar ni
ng.Theycannotpredi
ctwhenanat t
ackwi
ll
occur,andmanydevelopint
enseanxi
etybet
weenepisodes,
worryi
ngwhenandwher
e
thenextonewil
lst
rike.

Speci
fi
csympt
omsofPani
cDi
sor
der
:

1.Per
sist
entconcer
nabouthavi
ngaddi
ti
onalat
tacks

2.Wor
ryaboutt
hei
mpl
icat
ionsoft
heat
tackori
tsconsequences

3.Asi
gni
fi
cantchangei
nbehavi
orr
elat
edt
otheat
tacks

4.Agor
aphobi
amayal
sobepr
esent

Obsessi
ve-
Compul
siveDi
sor
der–char
act
eri
zedbyei
therobsessi
onsorcompul
sions.

a)Obsessi
ons

1.Recurrent and persi

stent t
houghts,impulses,or i
mages t
hat ar
e
experi
enced as int
rusi
ve and inappr
opri
ate,and t
hatcause mar
ked
anxiet
yordistr
ess

2.Thet hought
s,i
mpulses,ori
magesar
enotsi
mpl
yexcessi
vewor
ri
es
aboutreall
if
epr
obl
ems

3.Theper
sonatt
emptstoignor
eorsuppr
esssucht hought
s,impul
ses,or
i
mages,ort
oneut
ral
izet
hem wit
hsomeothert
houghtoracti
on

4.The per
son recogni
zes t
hatthe obsessi
onalt
hought
s,i
mpul
ses,or
i
magesar epr
oductofhi
sorherownmi nd

b)Compul
sions

1.Repeti
ti
ve behavior
s ormentalactsthatt he per
son f
eel
s dr
iven t
o
perf
orminr esponsetoanobsessi
on,oraccordi
ngtorul
esthatmustbe
appl
iedri
gidly

171
 2.The behavi
ors ormentalacts ar
e aimed atprevent
ing orr
educi
ng
di
str
essorprevent
ingsomedreadedeventorsi
tuat
ion

Post
-Tr
aumat
icSt
ressDi
sor
der(
PTSD)– i
sadebi
li
tat
ingcondi
ti
ont
hatf
oll
owsa
ter
rif
ying event
.Theeventt hattr
igger
sitmaybesomet
hing t
hatt
hreat
ened t
he
person’sl
ifeorl
ifeofsomeonecl
osetohim orher
.

Speci
fi
csympt
omsofPTSD:

1.Recur
rentandi
ntr
usi
vedi
str
essi
ngr
ecol
lect
ionsoft
heevent

2.Recur
rentdi
str
essi
ngdr
eamsoft
heevent

3.Act
ingorf
eel
ingasi
fthet
raumat
iceventi
srecur
ri
ng

4.I
ntensepsychol
ogicaldi
str
essatexposuret
oint
ernalorext
ernalcues
t
hatsymboli
zeorresembleanaspectoft
hetr
aumati
cevent

5.Physi
ologi
calr
eact
ivi
tyuponexposur
etot
hei
nter
nalorext
ernalcues

Gener
ali
zedAnxi
etyDi
sor
der(
GAD)–i
smor
ethannor
malanxi
etypeopl
eexper
ience
daytoday.I
tischroni
candexagger
atedwor
ryandt
ensi
on,event
houghnot
hing
seemst
oprovokei
t.

Speci
fi
csympt
omsofGAD:

1.Excessi
veanxi
etyanwor
ry

2.Theper
sonf
indsi
tdi
ff
icul
ttocont
rolt
hewor
ry

3.Theanxi
etyorwor
ryar
eassoci
atedwi
tht
hreeoft
hef
oll
owi
ngsympt
oms:

a.Rest
lessness

b.Bei
ngeasi
lyf
ati
gued

c.Di
ff
icul
tyconcent
rat
ing

d.I
rr
it
abi
li
ty

e.Muscl
etensi
on

f
. Sl
eepdi
stur
bance

172
Chi
ldhoodDi
sor
der
s

1.At
tent
ion-
Def
ici
tHyper
act
ivi
tyDi
sor
der(
ADHD)

2.Asper
ger
’sdi
sor
der

3.Aut
ist
icDi
sor
der

4.ConductDi
sor
der

5.Opposi
ti
onalDef
iantDi
sor
der

6.Separ
ati
onAnxi
etyDi
sor
der

7.Tour
ett
e’sDi
sor
der

Eat
ingDi
sor
der
s

1.AnorexiaNervosa–aper sontypical
lyr
efusestomaintainabodywei ghtwhich
i
sconsi st
entwitht
heirbuil
d,ageandheight.Theindi
vidualusual
lyexperi
ences
anintenseandoverwhelmingfearofgai
ningweightorbecomi ngf
at.

TypesofAnor
exi
aNer
vosa:

a)Rest
ri
cti
ngType–t heper
sonrest
ri
ctsthei
rfoodi
ntakeont
hei
rown,
and
doesnotengagei
nbinge-
eat
ingorpurgi
ngbehavi
or.

b)Bi
nge-
Eat
ing orPurgi
ng Type– t heper
son sel
f-
inducesvomi
ti
ng or
mi
susesl
axati
ves,
diur
eti
cs,orenemas

2.Bul
imiaNervosa– peopl
ewi t
ht hi
sdisorderconsumelar
geamountsoff ood
andthenri
dthei
rbodi
esoftheexcesscaloriesbyvomi
ti
ng,abusi
ngl
axat
ivesot
di
ureti
cs,
taki
ngenemas,orexerci
singobsessivel
y.

3.Bi
nge-
Eat
ing–i ti
ssti
llbei
ngdebat
edastowaysindet
ermini
ngwhohast
his
ki
ndofdi
sorder
,butmostpeopl
ewhohast
hisdi
sor
derhave:

173
 a.Fr
equentepi
sodesofeat
ingwhatot
her
swoul
dconsi
deranabnor
mal
ly
l
argeamount

b.Frequentf
eel
ingsofbei
ngunabl
etocont
rolwhatorhowmuchi
sbei
ng
eaten

MoodDi
sor
der
s

1.MajorDepr
essi
veDisorder– haveadepressedmoodoral
ossofi
nter
estor
pl
easur
eindail
yact
ivi
ti
esforatleasta2weekper
iod

2.Bi
pol
arDi
sor
der(
Mani
cDepr
essi
on)

3.Cyclothymi
cDi sor
der–peopl ewit
hthisdisor
derhave,f
oratl
east2years,the
presence ofnumer ous per
iods wit
h hypomanic symptoms and numerous
peri
odswi thdepressi
vesympt omst hatdonotmeett hecri
teri
aforaMaj or
DepressedEpisode

4.Dysthymi
c Disorder– also known as dyst
hymia,is char
act
eri
zed by an
overwhel
mingyetchroni
cst at
eofdepressi
on,exhi
bit
edbyadepressedmood
formostofthedays,f
oratleast2year
s

5.Tr
ichot
il
lomani
a–r
ecur
rentpul
li
ngoutofone’
shai
rresul
ti
ngi
nnot
iceabl
ehai
r
l
oss

Cogni
ti
veDi
sor
der
s

1.Del
ir
ium

2.Mul
ti
-I
nfr
actDement
ia

3.Dement
iaAssoci
atedwi
thAl
cohol
ism

4.Dement
iaoft
heAl
zhei
mer
’sType

5.Dement
ia

174
Schi
zophr
eni
a

Ischar
act
eri
zedbyatl
eastt
wooft
hef
oll
owi
ngsympt
oms,f
oratl
eastone
mont
h:

1.Del
usi
ons

2.Hal
luci
nat
ions

3.Di
sor
gani
zedspeech

4.Gr ydi
ossl sor
gani
zedorcat
at cbehavi
oni or

5.Negat
ivesympt
oms

Di
ff
erentTypesofSchi
zophr
eni
a:

 Paranoi
d Schizophreni
a -a per
son feel
s extr
emel
ysuspici
ous,per
secut
ed,
grandi
ose,orexperi
encesacombinat
ionofthoseemot
ions.

 Disorgani
zedSchi
zophr
eni
a–aper
soni
sof
teni
ncoher
entbutmaynothave
delusions

 Catat
oni
csSchi
zophreni
a– apersoni
swi
thdr
awn,mut
e,negat
iveandof
ten
assumesver
yunusualpost
ures

175
Chapt
erXXVI
II
176
 CRI
MINALPROFI
LING

Cr
imi
nalPr
ofi
li
ng,al
so known as Of
fenderPr
ofi
li
ng,i
s a behavi
oraland
i
nvesti
gati
vetoolthati
sint
endedt
ohelpinvest
igat
orstoaccurat
elypredi
ctandprofi
le
thecharacter
ist
icsofunknown cri
minalsubject
s( unsub orunknown subject
)or
off
enders.

FBI
’sCr
imeSceneAnal
ysi
s

St
epsorSt
agesi
nCr
imi
nalPr
ofi
lng:
i

1.Profi
li
ngInputs.I
nvol
vest
hecol
lect
ionandassessmentofal
lmat
eri
alsr
elat
ing
tothespeci
ficcase.

2.Deci
sion Pr
ocessModels.Simplyi
nvolvesarrangi
ng allofthei
nfor
mat
ion
gat
heredinthepr
evi
ousstagei
ntoal
ogicalandcoherentpat
ter
n.

3.Cri
meAssessment
.Typi
call
yinvol
vesthereconstruct
ionofthesequenceof
event
sandt
hespeci
fi
cbehavi
orsofbot
hthevict
im andtheper
petr
ator
.

4.TheCr i
mi nalpr
ofi
le.Thisisthepr ocessofprovi
dingali
stofbackgr
ound,
physi
cal,andbehavior
alchar
acter
ist
icsoftheper
pet
rator
.

5.TheInvesti
gati
on.Theactualprofi
lei
spr
ovi
dedt
orequest
ingagenci
esand
i
ncor
poratedintot
hei
rinvest
igat
ion.

6.TheApprehensi
on.Cr
osschecktheprof
il
epr
oducedwi
tht
hechar
act
eri
sti
csof
theof
fenderoncet
heyar
eapprehended.

7.I
nter
personalCoherence.Ref
erstowhetheravari
ati
onincri
minalacti
vit
ywill
r
elat
etovariat
ionsinthewayt hei
nwhichtheoff
enderdeal
swithotherpeopl
e
i
nnon-cri
minalsit
uati
ons.

8.TheSigni
ficanceofTi
meandPl ace.Mayprovi
detheanalystwit
hinfor
mati
on
aboutoff
endermobili
ty,andt
her
eforegui
deinf
erencesaboutli
kel
yresi
dent
ial
l
ocati
on.

177
 9.Cri
mi nalCharacter
ist
ics.Usedtoallow resear
cher
stodevelopsubsyst
emsf or
the classif
icat
ion of of f
ender groups,whi ch may be used t o pr
ovi
de
characteri
sti
cs toi nvesti
gator
st hatar el i
kel
yt o be possessed by t
he
perpetrat
orinthecurrentcri
me.

Cr
10. i
minalCar
eer.Anassessmentthatismadetodeter
minewhet
hert
heoffender
mayhaveengagedincr i
minalacti
vit
yinthepastandwhatki
ndofact
ivi
tythis
ismostli
kel
ytohavebeen.

For
11. ensi
c Awareness.Inst
ances when off
enderhas knowl
edge ofpol
ice
techni
quesandprocedur
esrel
ati
ngtoevi
dencecol
lect
ion.

St
epsi
nBehavi
oralEvi
denceAnal
ysi
s(BEA)

1.EquivocalFor
ensi
cAnalysi
s.Equi
vocalinthesensethatt
heint
erpr
etat
ionof
theevidencecoul
dhave,or
ethanonemeani ng,andt
hepur
poseofthi
sstepis
toassessthemostli
kel
ymeaningoftheevi
dence

2.Vi
cti
mol
ogy.I
nvol
vest
hei
ndept
hassessmentoft
hevi
cti
m.

3.Cr
ime Scene Char
act
eri
sti
cs.Di
sti
ngui
shi
ng f
eat
ures ofa cr
ime scene as
evi
dencedbyanof f
ender
’sbehavi
oraldeci
sionsr
egar
dingt
hevi
cti
m andt
he
off
enselocat
ion.

4.Of
fenderChar
act
eri
sti
cs.St
epwhi
chwi
llcont
aint
heof
fender
’sbehavi
oraland
personal
it
ycharact
eri
sti
cst
hatar
eder
ivedf
rom,andi
nfor
medby,t
het
hree
precedi
ngsteps.

178
 Chapt
erXXI
X
FORENSI
CTOXI
COLOGY

For
ensi
cToxi
col
ogy

Thestudyandpract
iceoft
heappli
cati
onoft oxi
cologytothepur
poseoft
helaw,
ori
stheuseoftoxicol
ogytoaidmedico-
legalinvest
igati
onofdeathandpoisoning.
Manytoxi
csubst
ancesdonotproducecharact
erist
icslesi
ons,soifat
oxicr
eacti
oni s

179
suspected,vi
suali
nvest
igat
ionmaynotsuff
ice.Afor
ensi
ct oxi
col
ogi
stmustconsi
der
i
npar t
icularanyphysi
calsymptomsr
ecorded,andanyevidencecol
lect
edatacri
me
scenethatmaynarrowthesearch.

In determini
ng t
hesubst anceingested isoften compl i
cated byt hebody’s
naturalprocess,asitisrareforachemicaltor emaininitsor i
ginalform onceinthe
body.Thesubst ancemayal sohavebeendi l
utedbyi t
sdi spersalthroughthebody,
whileapi llorotherregulat
eddoseofadr ugmayhavegr amsormi ll
igr
amsoft he
acti
ve const it
uent,an indi
vidualsample underi nvesti
gation may onl y cont
ains
microgramsornanogr ams.

Obj
ect
ivesofFor
ensi
cToxi
col
ogy

Forensic Toxi
cologisthas a “dualobj ecti
ve ofidentif
ying quali
tat
ivel
yand
determiningquantit
ati
vely”poisonoussubstancei nspeci
esofhumanor igi
n, andmust
“inter
pretresult
sinawayt hatmaximalamountofi nfor
mat i
onmaybeder ivedfrom
them.I nessence,thepur poseofforensi
ctoxicology,i
stoobt ai
nedanal yt
icaldataon
poisonsandt oapplythei nfor
mationobtai
nedt ot heunderst
andi ngofanepi sodeof
i
nt oxi
cati
on.

Br
anchesofFor
ensi
cToxi
col
ogy

1.Post-
mor t
em ForensicToxicology– determinestheabsenceorpresenceof
drugs and t
heirmet abol
ites forchemicals and eval
uat
es t
heirrol
e as a
deter
minantofcontr
ibutor
yf actori
nthecauseandmannerofdeath.

2.Human- Per
formance Forensi
c Toxicol
ogy – det
ermines t
he absence and
presence ofdrugs and chemi cal
si n bl
ood,br
eath,orot herappropri
ate
specimens,andeval
uatesthei
rrolei
nthehumanperfor
manceorbehavior.

3.Forensi
cUrineDrugTesti
ng–deter
minesabsenceorpresenceofdr
ugsand
thei
rmetaboli
tesi
ntheur
inet
odemonst
rat
eprioruseorabuse.

Sampl
esf
orToxi
col
ogi
calExami
nat
ion

180
a) Ur
ine

b) Bl
ood

c) Hai
rsampl
e

d) Or
gani
sms

e) Ot
her
sbodi
lyf
lui
dsandor
gans

Det
ect
ionandCl
assi
fi
cat
ion

 GasChr
omat
ography–isuseinexamini
nggases,orsubst
ancest
hatcanbe
heat
edt
opr
oduceagas.Vol
ati
leor
gani
ccompoundsfal
lint
othi
scat
egory.

 Det
ectionofMet al–compoundssuspectedofcontai
ningamet ali
sseparated
bythedest r
ucti
onoftheor gani
cmatr
ixbychemicalorther
maloxidati
on.This
l
eavest hemetaltobeidenti
fi
edandquant
if
iedi
ntheorganicresi
due,anditcan
bedetectedusi
ngt heReinschTest
.

 Nonvol
ati
leOrgani
cSubstances–Screeni
ngmet hodi
sappl
iedincl
udi
ngt
hin-
l
ayerchr
omatography,
gasli
quidchr
omatographyandi
mmunoassay.

 Venoms and otherToxic Mi

xtur
es – venoms and ot
hertoxi
c mi
xtur
es of
prot
einsoruncharact
eri
zedconsti
tuent
saredi
ff
icul
ttodetect
.Immunoassay
maybet hemostpract
icalmet
hodtouse.

Fut
ureofFor
ensi
cToxi
col
ogy

Thefutureholdsthechangesi nthescienceoff orensictoxicol

ogy.Thedemand
bythelegalprofessi
onf orforensi
cexpert
si ncludest oxi
cologists.Thisdemandhas
beenandwillbeintensi
fi
edbyt heprobl
emsofenvi ronment ali
ndust r
ialcont
aminat
ion
andthemanyl awsuitsbroughtagainsti
ndi
vidualsandcor poration.

Forensi
cToxi
cologist
,usingadvancedanalyt
icalt
echni
ques,wi
llbecomemuch
moreadeptatgatheri
nganal yti
caldat
aoncompl exchemicalsubst
ancesandt hei
r
metabol
it
es.Theyi
sfirstandf or
emostandanalyst,andthei
runi
queskill
swillal
ways
havefor
emostandapplicabi
li
tyinourchemicalworl
d.

181
 Chapt
erXXX
POI
SONI
NG

Toxi
nandPoi
son

Atoxi
nisanymater
ialexert
ingal
ifet
hreateni
ngeff
ectuponal
ivi
ngorgani
sm.
Poisonsareasubgroupoft oxi
nsandgenerall
yenterthebodyinasingl
emassive
dose,oraccumul
atet
oamassi vedoseovert
ime.

CommonPoi
sonsandt
hei
rSympt
oms:

Aci
ds Bur
nsar
oundmot
h,l
ipsandnose

Ani
li
ne Ski
noff
aceandneckqui
tedar
k

Ar
seni
c Sever
e,unexpl
aineddi
arr
hea

Atr
opine, Pupi
lofeyedi
lat
ed
Scopolami
ne

Bases ur
nsar
oundmot
h,l
ipsandnose

Car
bol
icaci
d Odorofdi
sinf
ect
ant

Car
bonmonoxi
de Ski
nisbr
ightcher
ryr
ed

182
 Cyani
de Qui
ckdeat
h,r
edski
n,odorofpeach

Foodpoi
soni
ng Vomi
ti
ng,
abdomi
nalpai
n

Met
all
iccompounds Di
arr
hea,
vomi
ti
ng,
abdomi
nalpai
n

Ni
cot
ine Convul
sion

Opi
ates Pupi
lofeyecont
ract
ed

Oxal
icaci
d Odorofgar
li
c

Sodi
um f
luor
ide Convul
sion

St
rychni
ne Convul
sion,
dar
kfaceandneck

Poi
soni
ng

Thedamagingoft i
ssuesbyachemi calagent
,whichisapoi son.Di
ff
erent
peopl
ehavedi
ff
erentsensi
ti
vit
yandr
esi
stancetoapart
icul
arsubst
ance.

Si
gnsandSympt
omsofPoi
soni
ng

1.Suddenvomi
ti
nganddi
arr
hea

2.Unexpl
ainedcomai
nchi
ldr
enandadul
tsknownt
ohavedepr
essi
vei
ll
ness

3.Rapi
donsetofaper
ipher
alneur
opat
hy

4.Rapidonsetodneurol
ogi
calorgast
roi
ntest
inali
ll
nessi
nper
sonsoccupat
ional
ly
exposedtochemical
s

Sampl
es

1.Bl
ood–shoul
dbeobt
ainedf
rom bl
oodvessel
s,notf
rom bodycavi
ti
es

2.Ur
ine–upt
o30mlt
akenf
rom t
hebl
addert
hruani
nci
sion

3.Bil
e–subst ancesconcentr
atedbythel
iverandexcr
etedi
ntot
hegal
lbl
adder
,
andiscol
lecteddi
rect
lyint
oabottl
e

4.St
omachcont
ent
s–t
hest
omachi
sopenedf
ullandanyr
emai
ningr
esi
dueof

183
 t
hepoi
soni
scol
lect
ed

5.Int
esti
nalcontents–int
actguti
ssentt
othel
abor
ator
yincaseofsuspect
ed
heavymetalspoisoni
ng

6.Bodyt
issues–whent
het
oxi
csubst
ancewasi
nject
edi
ntot
hemuscl
e

CommonPoi
sonsandDr
ugs

1.Medi
cinalsubst
ances

a.Anal
gesi
cs–incaseofover
doset
hesympt
omsar
efai
ntness,
sweat
ing,
andri
ngi
ngi
ntheears

b.Par
acetamol– act
sbydamagi ngt heliverbutiflar
gequanti
ti
esar
e
swal
lowedthi
scanalsoaf
fectbr
ainstem thatmaycausedeat
h

c.Insul
in–causeshypogl
ycemi
a,whi
chi
fpr
olongedcausesbr
aindamage
anddeath

2.Cor
rosi
vePoi
sons

3.HeavyMet
als

a.Ar
seni
c

i
.Acut eAr seni
calPoi
soning–mimicschol
era,
wit
hsignsofgast
ro-
enteri
tiswithabdominalpai
n,vomit
inganddiarr
hea,andoft
en
blood-str
eaked

i
i.Chr
oni
cAr seni
calPoisoni
ng– maycauselossofappet
it
eand
wei
ght
,anemia,nauseaandski
nchanges.

b.Thal
li
um –i
sar
atpoi
sonandanot
ori
ouspoi
soner
.

c.Mer
cur
y

d.I
ron

4.Non-
Met
all
icI
rr
it
ant
s

a.Or
gani
cPhosphat
es

184
 b.Cyani
des

Dr
ugsDependence

1.Opiat
edr ugs(
her
oin)–arecommonl yusedandt hei
rlet
halef
fectisusuall
ya
consequenceofanoverdoseorhypersensit
ivi
ty.Thesignsofopi oi
dt oxi
cit
y
i
ncludesweati
ng,
pinpoi
ntpupi
ls,
slowbreathi
ngandl owbloodpressure.

2.Amphet ami nes(ecstasy)– haveast r

ongst
imulat
ingeffectbutcanleadto
hyperpyrexiaandhyper tensi
onthatmaypr
eci
pit
ateacerebralhemor
rhageand
cardi
acar rhythmias.

3.Cocai
ne–pr oduceshypert
ension,di
lat
edpupi
lsandhyperpyr
exi
a.Thedeat
h
mayoccurasaresultofr
espir
atorydepr
essi
onorar
rhyt
hmia.

185
 Chapt
erXXXI
FORENSI
CDRUGTESTI
NG

Subst
ance-
Rel
atedDi
sor
der
s

a)Al
coholDependence

b)Amphet
ami
neDependence

c)Cannabi
sDependence

d)Cocai
neDependence

e)Hal
luci
nogenDependence

f
)Inhal
antDependence

g)Ni
cot
ineDependence

h)Opi
oidDependence

i
) Phencycl
idi
neDependence

186
 j
) Sedat
iveDependence

AbuseofAl
coholoraSubst
ance

General
lycharacteri
zedbyamaladapti
vepatt
ernofal
coholorsubst
anceuse
l
eadi
ngt oasi gni
fi
canti mpair
mentordi
str
ess,occur
ri
ngwit
hina1yearper i
od,as
mani
festedbyanyoft hefoll
owing:

a)Recur
rentsubst
anceuser
esul
ti
ngi
naf
ail
uret
oful
fi
llmaj
orr
oleobl
igat
ionsat
work,
school,
orhome

b)Recur
rental
coholorsubst
ance use i
n si
tuat
ions i
n whi
ch i
tis physi
cal
ly
hazar
dous

c)Recur
rental
coholorsubst
ance-
rel
atedl
egalpr
obl
ems

d)Conti
nued al
coholorsubstanceusedespi
tehavi
ng per
sist
entorrecur
rent
soci
alorint
erper
sonalpr
obl
emscauseorexacer
bat
edbytheeffect
sofal
cohol
orsubst
anceuse

Sympt
oms

1.Tol
erance

a.Aneedformar kedlyi
ncreasedamountsoft
heal
coholorsubst
ancet
o
achi
evei
ntoxi
cationordesir
edeff
ect
.

b.Mar
kedlydiminishedeffectwi
thcont
inueduseoft
hesameamountof
t
healcoholorsubstance

2.Wi
thdr
awal

a.Twoormor
eoft
hef
oll
owi
ng:

i
.Sweat
ingorr
api
dpul
se

i
i.I
ncr
easedhandt
remor

i
ii
.Insomni
a

i
v.Nauseaorvomi
ti
ng

187
 v.Physi
cal
agi
tat
ion

vi
.Anxi
ety

vi
i.Tr
ansi
entvi
sual
,tact
il
e,oraudi
tor
yhal
luci
nat
ionsori
ll
usi
ons

3.Thesubst
anceoralcoholi
sof
tent
akeni
nlar
geramount
soroveral
onger
per
iodt
hanwasint
ended

4.Per
sist
entdesir
eorunsuccessf
ulef
for
tst
ocutdownorcont
roluseoft
he
al
coholorsubst
ance

5.A greatdealoft
imei
sspenti
nact
ivi
ti
esnecessar
ytoobt
ainal
coholort
he
substance

6.Import
antsocial
,occupat
ional
,orrecr
eati
onalact
ivi
ti
esar
egi
venuporr
educed
becauseoftheconti
nuedalcoholorsubst
anceuse

7.Thesubst
anceoral
coholusei
scont
inueddespi
teknowl
edgeofi
tsef
fect
s

Dr
ugTest

Adrugtesti
saprocesstodet
ermi
nedr
uguseort
her
eispr
esenceofal
coholor
asubst
anceinaperson’
ssystem.

Dr
ugt
est
scanbedi
videdi
nto,

1.Thet ypeoft
est
ingt
hatinvolvest
hedonorgivi
ngasampleofsomebodil
y
fl
uidorhairtoanemployer,doct
or,l
aw enf
orcementof
fi
cial
,orat
est
ing
center.

2.Onsi
tescr
eens,
suchasor
aldi
edorsal
ivat
est
s

Det
ect
ionPer
iodsf
orDi
ff
erentSubst
ances

1.Al
cohol

a.Uri
ne.3- 5 daysvi
a Et
hylGl
uconor
idemet
abol
it
eor10-
12 hour
svi
a
t
radit
ionalmeans

188
 b.Hai
r.

c.Bl
ood.
12hour
s

2.Cannabi
s

a.Ur
ine.1t
o30days

b.Hai
r.Upt
o360days

c.Bl
ood.2days

3.Cocai
ne

a.Ur
ine.2t
o5days

b.Hai
r.Upt
o90days

c.Bl
ood.24hour
s

4.Mor
phi
ne

a.Ur
ine.2t
o3days

b.Hai
r.Upt
o90days

c.Bl
ood.
6hour
s

5.Her
oin

a.Ur
ine.2t
o3days

b.Hai
r.Upt
o90days

c.Bl
ood.6hour
s

CommonTypesofDr
ugTest
s

1.Ur
ineDr
ugTest
.Al
soknownasur
inal
ysi
s,t
hust
hepr
ocedur
erequi
rest
haton
pr
ovi
deasampl
eofur
ine.

2.Hai
rDr
ugScr
een.Hai
rfol
li
clet
est
ingi
squi
teaccur
ateandcangoback6

189
 mont
hsorl
onger
,showi
ngacont
rol
ledsubst
ancesusedi
nasor
toft
imel
ine

3.Sali
vaDrugScr een/OralFl ui
d-BasedDrugScreen.Cangener
all
ydetectuse
duri
ngthepreviousfew days.Thiskindsoft
estarebecomingmor epreval
ent
becauseoft
heirconveni
enceandt hefactt
hatt
heycannotneadult
erat
ed

4.SweatDrugScreen.Sweattest
sar
epat
chesat
tachedt
otheski
ntocol
lect
sweatoveral
ongperi
odofti
me.

TypesofTest
ing

1.Pre-
EmploymentDr
ugTest i
ng.Themostcommont
ypeusedbybusi
nesses
becauseofi
tbei
ngi
nexpensive.

2.Random Dr ugTest i
ng.Themostcontroversialtypeoftest
ingr
egi
men,wher e
thepointofthistestisdet
err
encesi
ncet het hreatorr
ateofdet
ect
ionismuch
higher.Thegoaloft hi
stestistodiscour agedr uguseamongempl oyees,
i
nmat es,orstudentsbynottel
li
nganyoneinadvance,whoorwhent heyareto
betested

3.Post -
Inci
dentDr ugTesti
ng.Notcommonl yadmi nist
eredtestcomparedt othe
othertwo.Thepoi ntoft
histestisnotnecessari
lyfortheemployeetolosehisor
herj ob,butrathertoprotectthecompanyf r
om l i
abil
it
yi ntheeventthatthe
i
ndividualisundertheinfl
uenceatt heti
meheorshei sinvol
vedinanaccident
duringhiswor k

Dat
eRapeDr
ugs

Ther
ear
emanypopul
arst
reetdr
ugswhicharebeingusedt
oincapaci
tat
erape
vi
cti
ms.Somet
imest
hesedr
ugsarecaledal
l phabetdrugsli
ke“Ef
orEcstasy”and“K

190
f
orKet
ami
neorSpeci
alK”
.

Theuseofthesedr ugsispopularontheRAVEpar ty/cl

ubscene,wherethe
perpet
rat
orsli
p’sthe dr
ug int
ot he vi
cti
m’s dri
nk.Fur
thermorethei
reffect
s are
magnifi
edwhenusedwi t
halcohol
,whichalsogreat
lyi
ncr
easesthechancesofdeath
occurr
ingfr
om t
hedrug.

Anyonewhoisdruggedandthenrapedmusthaveherbloodorur
inet
estedas
soonaspossibl
e,t
ocoll
ectsamplessi
nceafteracer
tai
nperi
odoftimethet
racesof
thedr
uginthesyst
em di
sappear
s.

Rohypnolor“
Roof
ies”

Ast r
ongsedativewhichissimil
art
othedr
ugValium, butist
enti
messt r
onger.
Theeff
ectsoft hi
sdrugareenhanceswhenmixedwit
hal cohol
,causi
ngsedat
ion,loss
ofaninhibiti
on,rel
axati
on,blackout
sandamnesia.Itmayal socauserespir
atory
depr
ession,comaandevendeat h.

191
 Chapt
erXXXI
I
ALCOHOLABUSE

Al
coholi
sagr
oupofor
gani
cli
qui
dswhi
chhaveapar
ti
cul
archemi
calgr
oupi
ng,
andi
tsmoder
ateusei
sadvi
sed,
sincei
tisal
soanaddi
cti
vedr
ug.

Alcoholabuseeff
ectsareamaj ormedicalandsocialpr
obl
em,fur
thermore
al
coholcanbet oxi
candvehicul
aracci
dent
sbecausethedr
iveri
sundert
heinf
luence
ofal
cohol.

Spect
rum ofAl
coholUseorAbuse

 Soci
alDr i
nker
.Dr
inks al
cohol
ic bever
age occasi
onal
ly or r
egul
arl
yin
moderat
ion

 HeavyDr
inker
.Dr
inksr
egul
arl
yandheavi
ly

 Bi
ngeDr
inker
.Dr
inksi
rr
egul
arl
yandheavi
ly

 Al
coholi
cAbuser(Pr
oblem Drinker
).Cont
inuestodrinki
nspi
teofdevel
opi
ng
di
ff
icul
ti
es,
butcr
it
eri
aforalcoholi
cdependencearenotmet

 DependentorAddi
ctedDr
inker(
Alcohol
ic)
.Havesubj
ect
ivecompul
siont
odr
ink,

o Exhi
bit
spr
omi
nentdr
ink-
seeki
ngbehavi
or

o Becomest
oler
antt
oal
cohol

o Obvi
ousphysi
cal
,psychol
ogi
calandsoci
alpr
obl
ems

192
Absor
pti
onofAl
cohol

Absorpti
oniswhenal coholisabsorbedfr
om thestomachandsmal li
ntest
ine
by passi
ve dif
fusion and proceeds as l
ong as t
he alcoholconcent
rat
ion i
nt he
gast
roint
est
inaltr
actexceedst hati
ntheblood.

Di
str
ibut
ionandEqui
li
bri
um

Onceabsor
bed,al
coholdissol
vesi
nthebloodandi
sdist
ri
but
edbythebl
ood
stream tot
heti
ssues.Ti
ssuesr
ichinwatert
akeupmoreal
coholf
rom t
hebl
oodt
han
thoserichi
nfat
.

El
imi
nat
ionofAl
cohol

Alcoholi
sel
imi
natedthroughal
lbodi
lyrout
esofexcret
ion,5%i
nthebr
eat
h,5%
i
ntheur
inewhil
e90%isbrokendowninthebody–mostlyintheli
ver.

TheEf
fect
sofAl
coholont
heBody(
Pat
hophysi
ology)

Cl
ini
calFeat
uresofAl
coholI
ntake

1.Acut
eAlcoholI
ntoxi
cat
ion.Thi
sisat
ransi
entcondi
ti
onduet
oacut
eingest
ion
ofal
cohol

2.Pat
hol
ogi
calI
ntoxi
cat
ion.

3.Al
coholAbuse

St
agesofI
ntoxi
cat
ion

 Exci
tement
.Hasat endencyt
ol oseemoti
onalr
estrai
nt,t
of orgetani
mosi
ti
es,
conver
sewithabandon,t
obelesscri
ti
calandtolosecontroloverone’
smoral
i
ntegri
ty

 Conf
usi
on.Tendency t
o come t
o gr
iefoverl
ongerwor
ds owi
ng t
o sl
ight

193
 i
ncoor
dinat
ion

 Stupor.Thedeaddrunkst
agef
rom whi
cht
hesubj
ectcanonl
ybear
ousedi
n
responsetost
rongsti
mul
i.

Compl
icat
ionsofExcessi
veAl
coholI
ntake

1.Physi
cal

a.Gastr
o-i
ntest
inalt
ract– alcoholisadi
recti
rr
it
antt
othmucosaoft
he
esophagusstomach,smallint
esti
ne

b.Li
ver–f
att
yli
ver
,al
cohol
ichepat
it
is

c.Car
diovascul
arsyst
em -hyper
tensi
on

d.Cent
ral Ner
vous Syst
em – cer
ebel
lar degener
ati
on, per
ipher
al
neur
opat
hy

e.Metabol
iceff
ects–imbalanceofmet
abol
ism ofmanybodi
lycompounds
suchasglucose,ur
icaci
d

f
. Endocr
ineef
fect
s–mal
eimpot
ence,
femal
einf
ert
il
iy

g.Ot
her
s

2.Psychol
ogi
cal–anxi
ety,
depr
essi
on,
highsui
cider
isk

3.Soci
al–mar
it
alandf
ami
lypr
obl
ems

CausesofDeat
hinChr
oni
cAl
cohol
ic

1.Tr
auma

2.Hypot
her
mia

194
3.I
nci
dent
alNat
uralDi
sease

4.Al
coholr
elat
edDi
sease

5.Acut
eInt
oxi
cat
ion

6.“
Obscur
e”CauseofDeat
h

195
196