 Methods:

1.Use of control rods:

 Control rods provide the ability to change the amount of neutron
absorption.
 The control rods are operated by control-rod drives that can move
them in and out of the core around a power equilibrium position
which is usually a partially inserted position.

2.Use of chemical shim in addition to control rods:

 Chemical shim is the use of a soluble absorber, usually boric acid
(H3BO3), in the moderator coolant.
 Boric acid strongly absorbs neutrons in proportion to the number of
boron (B) atoms and thus inhibits neutron multiplication.
 The concentration of this absorber in the moderator coolant is
decreased slowly during the core lifetime to overcome the effect of
fuel depletion.

3.Use of reflectors:
 These are mechanically operated devices, situated just outside the
core.
 The reflectors are swung away or toward or are axially moved with
respect to the core to increase or decrease power.

4.Use of movable fuel rods.

 waste disposal:

Q. How waste is disposed off in a nuclear power

station? What are main difficulties in handling
radioactive waste?
 One of the major problems in nuclear power plant is the
disposal of waste products that are highly radioactive.
 They emit large quantities of --- rays & these high-energy --- rays
destroy all living matter through which they pass.
 Wastes require strong control to ensure that radioactivity is not
released into the atmosphere to avoid atmospheric
pollution.

 Wastes form: 1) Liquid

2) Gas
3) Solid

Liquid wastes:

 Ways of disposal:-
1) Dilution:
 Liquid wastes are diluted with large quantities of water and then
released into the ground.
 This method suffers from the drawback that there is a chance of
contamination of underground water if the dilution factor is
not adequate.

2) Concentration to small volumes & storage:

 When the dilution of radioactive liquid wastes is not desirable due to
amount or nature of isotopes, the liquid wastes are concentrated to
small volumes & stored in underground tanks.

3) Freezing:
 Disposing off liquid waste by freezing is an easy & economical
method.

 Gaseous wastes:
 Gaseous wastes like strontium, caesium & iodine can most easily
result in atmospheric pollution.
 Strontium & iodine are absorbed by the plants & they enter into the
human body through food.
 Caesium is absorbed in muscle & strontium is absorbed in bones
resulting in paralyses of the body.
 Generally, radioactive gases are collected & stored in a tank buried
in the ground & disposed off to the atmosphere through high stacks
when radioactivity level is sufficiently low.

 Solid wastes:
 Solid wastes consist of scrap material or discarded objects
contaminated with radioactive matter.
 These wastes if combustible are burnt & the radioactive matter is
mixed with concrete, drummed & shipped for burial.
 Non-combustible solid wastes, are always buried deep in the ground.
Q. what is the function of pressurizer in a pressurized water reactor?
OR, Differentiate between vapor pressurizer & gas pressurizer.
OR, How vapor pressurizer works?
 Pressurizer:
 In PWR primary loops, the coolant is maintained at a pressure
around 155 bar greater than saturation pressure corresponding to
the maximum coolant tem𝑝𝑟 in the reactor.
 This avoids bulk boiling of the coolant & keeps it in the liquid phase
throughout the loop.
 Because liquids are incompressible, small changes of vo𝑙 𝑚 caused by
changes in coolant tem𝑝𝑟 𝑠 because of normal load changes cause
severe or oscillatory pressure changes.
 These may be quite unsafe when the pressures increase.
 They cause flashing into steam & consequent disruption of the
reactor nuclear characteristics & possible burnout of the reactor fuel
elements.
 They cause cavitation when pressures decrease.
 For these reasons it is necessary to provide a surge chamber that will
accommodate coolant vo𝑙 𝑚 changes while maintaining pressure
within acceptable limits.
 Such a chamber is called a pressurizer.

 Vapor pressurizer:
 A small boiler.
 Liquid in pressurizer is the same as primary coolant.
 It is maintained by controlled electrical heating at a constant tem𝑝𝑟
& consequently a constant vapor pressure above its full surface.
 The pressure in pressurizer is same as that of primary coolant at the
junction be𝑡 𝑛 pressurizer & hot leg of the primary loop.
 The pressurizer tem𝑝𝑟 is higher than primary coolant tem𝑝𝑟 .
 The heaters are of electric immersion type, located in lower section
of the pressurizer vessel.
 The bottom of pressurizer is connected to the hot leg of the primary
coolant system.
 Under normal full-power operation, the pressurizer is about half full
of water.
 The top half is full of vapor.
