CHARACTERISATION AND JENS

NYBERG
CONTROL OF THE ZINC
ROASTING PROCESS Faculty of Technology,
Department of Process and
Environmental Engineering,
Systems Engineering Laboratory,

University of Oulu

OULU 2004
JENS NYBERG

CHARACTERISATION AND
CONTROL OF THE ZINC
ROASTING PROCESS

Academic Dissertation to be presented with the assent of

the Faculty of Technology, University of Oulu, for public
discussion in Kuusamonsali (Auditorium YB210),
Linnanmaa, on December 17th, 2004, at 12 noon.

O U L U N Y L I O P I S TO, O U L U 2 0 0 4
Copyright © 2004
University of Oulu, 2004

Supervised by
Professor Urpo Kortela

Reviewed by
Professor Sirkka-Liisa Jämsä-Jounela
Professor Raimo Ylinen

ISBN 951-42-7609-4 (nid.)

ISBN 951-42-7610-8 (PDF) http://herkules.oulu.fi/isbn9514276108/
ISSN 0355-3213 http://herkules.oulu.fi/issn03553213/

OULU UNIVERSITY PRESS

OULU 2004
Nyberg, Jens, Characterisation and control of the zinc roasting process
Faculty of Technology, University of Oulu, P.O.Box 4000, FIN-90014 University of Oulu, Finland,
Department of Process and Environmental Engineering, Systems Engineering Laboratory,
University of Oulu, P.O.Box 4300, FIN-90014 University of Oulu, Finland
2004
Oulu, Finland

Abstract
Increasing efficiency is a necessary target for an industrial roaster nowadays. This thesis presents
some studies on efficiency improvement in the zinc roasting process - process characterisation,
control design, implementation and testing.
The thesis focuses on the roaster, i.e. on research regarding the phenomena in the roaster furnace.
By learning more about the roasting mechanism, particle size growth and dynamics of the furnace,
new control implementations have been developed. More measurements, analyses and calculated
variables have been added to give more information on the state of the furnace. New control variables
have been introduced to give the operators more opportunities to set the conditions so that they are
more suitable for the actual concentrate feed mixture. Equipment modifications have also been done.
In this research, both laboratory and plant experiments have been performed together with
thermodynamic evaluations and calculations. It has been necessary to make plant trials in order to
obtain information about the impacts of different variables on the process. Only full-scale
experiments give reliable results of the behaviour of an industrial furnace. The experiments with the
roaster furnace have emphasised the study of both the metallurgy and the dynamics of the roasting
process. The on-line calculated oxygen coefficient and its active control have proved important. The
particle size distribution analysis of the furnace calcine has been shown to be a significant source of
information for evaluating the state of the roasting furnace.
The main target is to improve the economic performance. The key is to be able to be flexible in
using different kinds of raw materials, because the main income is the treatment charge. The trend is
that concentrates are becoming finer, which increases the challenges for roaster furnace control. The
capability to use low-grade concentrates is also a major challenge and improves the economic result.
Research and development on the boiler and mercury removal has also been part of this work for
many reasons. Improved boiler performance and mercury removal gives more freedom in choosing
concentrates and operating the roaster furnace. The approach has been the same as in the roaster
furnace research and development work.
Control improvements based on existing knowledge, such as fuzzy control systems for controlling
the furnace temperature and mercury removal, did stabilize the process, but they did not solve all the
problems regarding process stability. The research and development concept of this thesis has
provided the extra knowledge needed for further improvement of process control. The results of the
process characterisation have led to the implementation of a new and effective control strategy.
The research and development carried out has improved performance in a number of ways:
increased running time of the furnace and boiler, in-depth knowledge of roasting phenomena which
led to new control methods and instructions for the operators, improved quality of sulphuric acid and
a method to control its quality, measurements and analyses that give valuable information of the state
of the process – all of which are now in use.
In the future, the emphasis will be placed on the research and development of roaster furnace
performance, which will be a great challenge. Control of the roaster furnace is the key to the economic
success of the roasting process and more information about these phenomena is needed for improving
and optimising control.

Keywords: control applications, control methods, process dynamics, roasting process

 Acknowledgements

The theme of this thesis is to improve zinc roaster efficiency. Characterisation of the pro-
cess has led to better control of the process. The process that has been developed is in use
at the zinc roaster of Boliden Kokkola Oy in Kokkola, Finland, now a part of the new
Boliden Group.
The work was supervised by Professor Urpo Kortela. I would like to thank him for his
advice, comments and support. He was the initiator of my postgraduate studies. I was also
made welcome by other postgraduate students and the personnel at the systems engineer-
ing laboratory at the University of Oulu. This period in my life has been challenging and
interesting in many ways. It has entailed a lot of work. To combine daily work with stud-
ies requires energy, however sometimes it can give energy too.
I wish to thank my boss, Mr. Kullervo Myllykoski, for the trust he showed during the
research and development period. The freedom to do full-scale plant experiments was
both challenging and necessary. Kullervo’s support was invaluable, because this kind of
development requires both time and money.
I would like to thank my colleagues for their dedication and encouragement during this
research and development process. I am especially grateful to Dr. Pekka Taskinen and
Mrs. Maija-Leena Metsärinta for this long-term research co-operation, their comments on
my work and their positive attitude. I would also like to thank other colleagues, such as
Dr. Antti Roine, Dr. Björn Saxén, Mr. Juha Järvi, Mrs. Heljä Peltola, Mr. Heikki Siirilä,
Ms. Aija Rytioja and Mr. Hannu Vainonen. Their contribution has been of great impor-
tance. Many other people have also contributed and special thanks goes to the whole per-
sonnel of the roaster department. The performance and attitude of the operators, both dur-
ing the testing periods and in implementing the results, was excellent. I am also grateful
for the support and encouragement of my friends and nearest and dearest.
For correcting the text I would like to thank Ms. Margaretha Niemi. The proofreading
of the text into correct English was done by Mr. Mike Jones and Ms. Sue Pearson at Pelc
Southbank Languages. I wish to thank Mike and Sue for their excellent work.
My son Daniel and my daughter Johanna have been in my thoughts during this period.

Kokkola, 21 November, 2004 Jens Nyberg

 List of abbreviations

ESP Electrostatic Precipitator

HR Human Resources
ISF Imperial Smelting Furnace
LME London Metal Exchange
ORC Outokumpu Research Centre
R&D Research and Development
SEM Scanning Electronic Microscope
SOM Self Organizing Maps
TC Treatment Charge
WHB Waste Heat Boiler
 List of figures

Fig. 1. Key elements in the development of the new control strategy. . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Fig. 2. High roasting performance can only be reached through broad
development. Many factors must be taken into consideration to
reach the targets, as shown in the diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Fig. 3. Roasting research and development procedure.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Fig. 4. Boiler research and development procedure has also been diverse. . . . . . . . 24
Fig. 5. Experimental apparatus of furnace and boiler (scale 1:20) built for
flow model testing.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Fig. 6. Thermodynamic equilibrium calculations were essential in the mercury
removal research and development procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Fig. 7. A block diagram of the Kokkola zinc process (Takala 1999).
Concentrates are fed both to the roasting process and
concentrate leaching, which increases flexibility. Concentrates
more suitable for roasting are fed to the roaster, while those more
suitable for leaching can be fed to concentrate leaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Fig. 8. Schematic diagram of a Lurgi type fluid bed roaster furnace
(Themelis & Freeman 1983/1984). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Fig. 9. The particle size distribution varies for different concentrates.. . . . . . . . . . . 34
Fig. 10. Microscope picture of Aznacollar concentrate. The pellets contain
mostly small particles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Fig. 11. Microscope picture of Trzebionka concentrate. The pellets also
contain large particles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Fig. 12. Schematic drawing of the reaction principle. The sulphide mineral
particle reacts with oxygen. The product is calcine (mostly ZnO).
During the reaction SO2 gas is formed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Fig. 13. Schematic drawing of a calcine agglomerate formed of many small
calcine particles. Bonds are formed between particles due to molten phases. 36
Fig. 14. Agglomerate from the furnace (November 2001) – origin Aznacollar
concentrate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Fig. 15. Agglomerate from the furnace (November 2001) – origin
Polaris concentrate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Fig. 16. Grain size distribution of concentrate versus calcines.
The formed calcine is coarser than the concentrate, especially
the overflow calcine from the furnace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Fig. 17. The Geldart classification of particles into their fluidisation behaviour
in air at ambient conditions (Geldart 1986). The density of calcine
in the fluidised bed gives the working area in the upper part of B. . . . . . . . . 40
Fig. 18. Fluidisation characteristic diagram, velocity versus particle diameter
(Geldart 1986). The diagram shows the working area for a fluidised bed. . . 41
Fig. 19. Basic and advanced measurements of the furnace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Fig. 20. The control of the furnace is a multivariable system. Many aspects
must be considered. Knowledge of the dynamics and the
thermodynamics of the process is essential. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Fig. 21. Control inputs of the different control levels for the furnace control. . . . . . 51
Fig. 22. The calculation scheme for the oxygen coefficient and its use for control.
This has been adopted and is now in use in the control of the
furnaces at the Kokkola roaster.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Fig. 23. A furnace control diagram is shown with advanced control and
measurements. It includes among others a fuzzy control loop,
the calculated oxygen coefficient, oxygen measuring from the gasline,
calculated calcine overflow amount and grain size distribution
analysis of the furnace calcine. The possibility of feeding water to
different spots and oxygen is also available. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Fig. 24. The drop in windbox pressure and the increased proportion of fine
calcine indicate an unstable bed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Fig. 25. Temperature drop indicates an unstable bed. Temperatures measured
from the sidewall fell while the temperature measured from the bottom
remained stable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Fig. 26. Sulphide level of the calcine (WHB, Cyclone and ESP) decreases
when the oxygen coefficient is high. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Fig. 27. Sulphide level of the WHB calcine is lower when the oxygen
coefficient is high. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Fig. 28. High oxygen coefficient increases the amount of sulphates.
Difference SO4 = the amount of sulphates minus PbSO4 and
CaSO4, which are always sulphates in roasting conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Fig. 29. High oxygen level in the WHB gas increases the sulphate amount. . . . . . . . 61
Fig. 30. High oxygen level in the WHB gas decreases the sulphide amount.. . . . . . . 61
Fig. 31. Oxygen feed versus fine and coarse particles in the bed. During
oxygen feeding the amount of fine particles decreased, while the
amount of coarse particles increased. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Fig. 32. The oxygen coefficient versus fine and coarse calcine in the bed.
Higher oxygen coefficient decreased the amount of fine particles
and increased the amount of coarse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Fig. 33. On-line gas measurement from the roaster bed on the feed side.
The O2 level in the bed is very low.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Fig. 34. On-line gas measurement from the roaster bed on the overflow side.
The O2 level is higher on the outlet side of the furnace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Fig. 35. High moisture of the concentrate mixture decreases the feed.
The water makes agglomerates and transfers the burning more
to the bed. The feed is reduced because otherwise the temperature
would rise in the furnace, due to the furnace temperature
control application.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Fig. 36. Water fed to the concentrate before the furnace decreases the
concentrate feed. In this case too, water makes agglomerates and
transfers the burning more to the bed. The feed is reduced because
otherwise the temperature would rise in the furnace, due to the furnace
temperature control application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Fig. 37. Water injection into the bed increases the feed. Water sprayed
(500 l/h) into the furnace bed cools the bed and more concentrate
has to be fed to keep the temperature in the furnace at the set point
value due to the furnace temperature control application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Fig. 38. Water fed into the concentrate before the furnace decreases the
sulphide level of the boiler and cyclone calcine. The feed decreases
due to the water feed and this increases the oxygen coefficient. . . . . . . . . . . 66
Fig. 39. Increasing the water feed (*1) before the day bins increases the
sulphate amount in the bed. (*1 = The concentrate feed rate to the
day bins is about 350 t/h and water is fed to this stream). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Fig. 40. SEM picture (left) of an overflow calcine 10.4.2002 (40 x).
The coating around the inner part (=ZnO) is PbSO4. The other
picture (right) shows that copper behaves differently to lead.
A Cu2S core is formed in a copper rich concentrate pellet in a
laboratory roasting experiment at 950°C. The coating around the
Cu2S core is ZnO. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Fig. 41. The Cu level of the feed versus the amount of calcine overflow of the
concentrate feed. The proportion of the overflow calcine has decreased
when the Cu level has increased. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Fig. 42. Oxygen coefficient versus the amount of calcine overflow of the
concentrate feed. The proportion of the overflow calcine has increased
when the oxygen coefficient has been increased. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Fig. 43. Bed temperatures and oxygen coefficient of roaster furnace
No. 2 in August, showing the effect of oxygen coefficient alterations
on stabilisation. By increasing the oxygen coefficient, the stabilisation
of the bed temperatures can be seen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Fig. 44. Oxygen coefficient and wind-box pressure in furnace No. 2
(September–October 2002). When the wind-box started to drop,
the oxygen coefficient was increased in order to raise the wind-box
pressure back to the normal level. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Fig. 45. Wind-box pressure and the total moistening water feed in roaster
furnace No. 2 (September–October 2002). Water feed correlates
with bed pressure, thus the wind-box pressure is low, i.e. unstable bed,
when the water feed is low. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Fig. 46. Oxygen coefficient and bed temperatures (# 4 & 5) of roaster
No. 1 (July–August 2002). The correlation is not so good, i.e.
the temperatures stay stable even if the oxygen coefficient drops. . . . . . . . . 71
Fig. 47. Water feed before the day bins and bed temperatures of roaster
No. 1 (July–August 2002). The temperature drops (Thermocouple
element No. 5) after the water feed is stopped. After the water is again
fed to the concentrate mixture, the temperature value returns back
to the normal level.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Fig. 48. Increasing the oxygen coefficient stabilized the bed temperatures
(the negative trend stopped). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Fig. 49. Changes of the oxygen coefficient were made by changing the feed rate.
This was done by changing the set point value of the furnace temperature.
The fuzzy controller then decreased or increased the feed rate. . . . . . . . . . . 72
Fig. 50. Increasing the oxygen coefficient stabilized the bed pressure.
The drop in bed pressure was stopped and a slight increase back to
the normal level can be seen. The period is the same as in Fig. 49. . . . . . . . 73
Fig. 51. Increasing the oxygen coefficient brought the bed pressure back to normal. 73
Fig. 52. The structure of the installed fuzzy control system (Rauma et al. 2000). . . . 74
Fig. 53. The scope of the simulator made for training start-up and shutdown situations.
A dynamic model for the furnace pressure was made (Toskala et al. 2001). 75
Fig. 54. Responses of gas temperature and bed temperatures, when water is
fed to the concentrate mixture before the table feeder. The temperature
rises in the bed when water is fed to the concentrate mixture.
At the beginning there is a slightly inverse reaction in the bed
temperatures. The top temperature decreases when water is fed to the
concentrate mixture.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Fig. 55. Water feed before the table feeder stabilises the bed, which can be
seen from the fact that the temperature measurements in the furnace
are closer to each other when more water is fed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Fig. 56. Response of water injection into the bed. The furnace temperature
decreases due to the cooling effect of the water injection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Fig. 57. Divergent effect of oxygen on bed temperature measurements.
The oxygen seems to have a divergent effect on the temperatures,
which could be explained by an increase of the reaction rate in
some parts of the furnace. Where there is a temperature drop, the
reaction rate decreases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Fig. 58. Tracer content in the furnace overflow calcine for two experiments.
The Ti-oxide tracer was fed as an impulse at time 0 h. A first order
model with a time constant of 20 h is shown for comparison
(Saxén et al. 2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Fig. 59. The tracer tests shows that the time constant in the gas line is very
short, i.e. the Ti-oxide tracer fed as an impulse to the furnace is almost
immediately detected in the calcine from the cyclone after the boiler. . . . . . 79
Fig. 60. The effect of the baffle wall on the boiler behaviour (radiation
section of the boiler) is shown here. The velocity vectors are shown.
 The Fluent model calculation was made by Foster Wheeler
(= the boiler manufacturer). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Fig. 61. The effect of the baffle wall on the boiler behaviour (radiation
section of the boiler) is shown in this figure. The temperature
gradients are shown. The Fluent model calculation was made
by Foster Wheeler (= the boiler manufacturer).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Fig. 62. The feed increases when the temperature is higher in the furnace.
The increased feed decreases the oxygen coefficient and the result
is that the sulphide level of the formed calcine is higher, as shown here
(Nyberg et al. 2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Fig. 63. By increasing the amount of air, the feed increases due to the cooling
effect of the air (graph on right). Due to the lower oxygen coefficient
the sulphide level of the calcine increases (graph on left).
The furnace temperature in the experiments was 950°C
(Nyberg et al. 2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Fig. 64. By using oxygen the feed increases, due to the cooling effect of
the oxygen. In the experiments with additional cooling (C and D),
more cooling coils had been added to the furnace. The furnace
temperature in the experiments was 950°C (Nyberg et al. 2000).. . . . . . . . . 88
Fig. 65. Higher top temperature increases the feed and due to the lower
oxygen coefficient the sulphate level of the formed calcine is lower,
thus the sulphate load on the WHB decreases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Fig. 66. In both cases the feeds and the oxygen coefficient are the same.
By injecting water, the temperature can be lowered in the furnace,
without decreasing the concentrate feed. In cases with high impurity
levels, a temperature level of about 900°C might be necessary. . . . . . . . . . . 89
Fig. 67. The operating range in the furnace is narrower if the concentrate
mixture contains high impurity levels. The temperature and the oxygen
coefficient are the main control variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Fig. 68. The figure shows the developed control strategy. The target is to
build a control application that maximizes the feed based on this
control strategy. The aim is to optimise the feed and the process
conditions (temperature and oxygen coefficient), based on metallurgical
knowledge and knowledge of the dynamics. Measurements, analyses, the
dynamic model and control variables are also key elements in the control
application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Fig. 69. In order to achieve sustainable results, the issues shown in the diagram
must be considered in the development process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
 Contents

Abstract
Acknowledgements
List of abbreviations
List of figures
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.1 Background of the research and development work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2 Research problem and asserted hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3 Content of the research and development work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3.1 Roasting research and development procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3.2 Boiler research and development procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.3.3 Mercury removal research and development procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.4 Contribution of the author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2 Process description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.1 Zinc process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 Roasting process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3 Gas cleaning and sulphuric acid production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4 Roasting and direct leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3 Main phenomena of the roasting process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1 Mineralogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2 Main reactions and thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2.1 Sulphates and molten phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2.2 The sulphide analysis of the formed calcine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3 Heat transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.4 Fluidisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.5 Gas cooling and dust handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.6 Gas cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.7 The dynamics of the process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4 Targets for control system development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5 Measurements and control of the fluidised bed furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.1 Measurements and analyses of the fluidised bed furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
 5.2 Control specification of the fluidised bed furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.3 Aspects relating to the boiler and mercury removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6 Results of the control strategy development for the Kokkola zinc roasting process 56
6.1 Furnace development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.1.1 Factors correlating to bed instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.1.2 Oxygen coefficient control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.1.3 Oxygen use to control bed quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.1.4 Bigger nozzles and oxygen measurements from the bed . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.1.5 Effects of water on the furnace behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.1.6 Control of the furnace when Pb and/or Cu is high . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.1.7 Controlling unstable situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.1.8 The dynamics of the roaster furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6.2 Boiler development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.3 Mercury removal development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.1 Summary of the results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.1.1 Summary of roasting development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
7.1.2 Summary of boiler development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
7.1.3 Summary of mercury removal development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
7.2 Control strategies and further research and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
7.2.1 Increasing the capacity of the furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.2.2 Example of flexible control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.2.3 Operation conditions for different feed mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
7.2.4 The developed furnace control strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
 1 Introduction
Roasting is an essential part of the electrowinning zinc process. A typical Zn process line
comprises the following sub-processes: roasting, leaching and purification,
electrowinning and the last step foundry (Kajiwara et al. 1995, Morris 2000). During the
last few decades, the direct leaching of concentrates, pressure or atmospheric, has been
introduced as a parallel and/or alternative process stage to roasting. Besides typical
electrowinning processes there are also other methods to produce zinc, with the ISF
(Imperial Smelting Furnace) being a method used by some plants (Bendieck et al. 2002,
Brook Hunt 2003, Canham & Charles 1981, James et al. 2000, Lee 2000).
Zinc concentrates from the mines are fed to and roasted in fluidised bed furnaces. The
most common roaster furnace in zinc roasting is the Lurgi furnace (Brook Hunt 2003).
The main reaction is ZnS + 1.5 O2 Æ ZnO + SO2. The main components of the roasting
process are: the furnace, waste heat boiler (WHB), cyclone, electrostatic precipitator
(ESP), Hg removal and sulphuric acid plant. Essential process equipment includes:
conveyors, bins, calcine cooler, ball mill, fans and steam handling equipment (Magoon et
al. 1990). The fluidised bed roaster furnace has been used on commercial scale since the
middle of the 1950s (Heino et al. 1970, Themelis & Freeman 1983/1984). The zinc
process and roasting process are more thoroughly described in chapter 2.
Zinc processes are continuously being developed and the trend is that they are
becoming bigger and more efficient. New possibilities like direct leaching of concentrates
is one trend in this development work. Roasters are also being developed and one reason
for this is that the concentrates are tending to become finer, which has an impact on
roasting behaviour. The capability of using impure concentrates is another objective for
development work.

1.1 Background of the research and development work

In this study the roasting process has been developed using intensive and extensive
research. The goal has been to improve the process control of the roasting process. The
aim is to understand the behaviour and to evaluate both details (micro level) and the
 18

entire roasting process (macro level) to reach the target of increasing the efficiency of the
process. To be able to do this many aspects must be considered. The focus in the thesis is
on the actual fluidised bed roaster furnace behaviour, but developments in the boiler and
mercury removal are also discussed to some extent. The roasting mechanism is a very
complex process and therefore requires knowledge of many fields. Matters like the
mineralogy of concentrates, thermodynamics, fluidisation, heat transfer and dynamics
must be studied to gain more knowledge. These are discussed in chapter 3. Normally the
feed to the furnace is a mixture of concentrates and every mixture behaves differently,
which increases the difficulty (Brown et al. 1995). Flexibility is required to be able to
handle different feeds. This flexibility means the possibility to run the process in optimal
conditions by having the control tools to change the operation conditions. The key to
reaching optimal conditions is to have a thorough knowledge of the process.
The behaviour of the roasting furnace is influenced by several parameters and the
complexity is vast. If, for instance, the impurity levels for certain elements exceed certain
limits or the process conditions are not suitable for the feed, this will lead to instability.
The boiler is closely connected to the roaster furnace and by making the boiler
performance effective, more freedom in roasting conditions is achieved and thus the
constraints due to the boiler are smaller. The same applies to mercury removal; more
efficiency gives more freedom when choosing concentrates.
The reasons for development work are the need to avoid disturbances in the furnace
(build-ups, defluidisation and instability), to increase the running time of the furnace and
boiler without cleaning and to avoid quality problems with the sulphuric acid (too high a
level of mercury).
The need to increase process knowledge was clear, as the problems could not be
handled merely by adopting stabilizing control applications like fuzzy system
applications. The fuzzy systems developed for temperature control in the furnace and for
controlling the acid concentration and temperature in mercury removal work well but they
do not solve problems caused by changes in concentrate mixtures. It is important to know
the optimum process conditions and to have measurements showing the state of the
process. It is also essential to have the necessary control tools.
The primary goal was to improve the economic result of the operation. Other major
goals were to decrease the environmental impact of the operation and to reduce safety
problems. An increase in feed capacity, running time and improved product quality were
the intermediate targets of the work. Achieving this would enable the primary goals to be
reached. The treatment charge (TC) is the major input and optimisation of this is the most
important factor. The greater quantity of concentrates treated, the higher the revenues
from the TC. This means that if concentrates with low Zn levels are used to produce a
certain amount of zinc metal, then the income is larger. Decreasing production costs was
another goal and maintenance costs also had to be optimised. The targets are discussed
more thoroughly in chapter 4.
Flexibility in using different types of concentrates along with the possibility and
capability of using impure concentrates is the key to success. Another major factor is the
ability to handle fine concentrates. The trend is that concentrates are becoming finer. The
basic platforms for reaching the goals include process knowledge, working skill, control
possibilities, and equipment performance.
 19

1.2 Research problem and asserted hypothesis

The roasting process of zinc sulphides is very complex. In order to improve the efficiency
of an industrial roaster many aspects must be considered and characterisation of the
process performed. More metallurgical knowledge is needed, e.g. about the roasting
mechanism, calcine particle size growth and the effects of impurities. More knowledge
must also be gained about the state of the process and the dynamics of the furnace.
Knowledge about the optimum process conditions is required. New measurements,
equipment modifications and control variables are needed. The impacts of changes must
be studied and experiments have to be performed to provide the necessary information.
Both laboratory and full-scale plant experiments are necessary. Besides knowledge
about the dynamics knowledge in process metallurgy is also essential. Knowledge about
the state of the process requires measurements (both new and old), but also understanding
of process phenomena. The effects of control variables must also be studied. Adding more
control variables and equipment modifications has also been a part of this development.
These additions make it possible to create optimal conditions and increase the flexibility
of the control. The chosen procedure has been to proceed step by step.
In order to reach the goal, i.e. increased efficiency in the control of the roasting
process, a new control strategy has been developed. Essential parts of the new control
strategy are process characterisation, dynamic models, new analyses and new
measurements, new control variables and equipment modifications. The key elements of
the basis for the new control strategy are shown in Fig. 1.

Plant experiments Process Charac- Control Strategy

terisation

Process
Knowledge Control
Emphasis
- Limits Variables
on
Process - Phenomena
Metallurgy - Effects
- Rules

Knowledge about Optimal Control

the State of the Performance and
Process Developing Control
- Measurements Applications
- Analyses

Emphasis Dynamic Equipment

on Behaviour Modifications
Process - Models
Dynamics - Effects

Fig. 1. Key elements in the development of the new control strategy.

 20

1.3 Content of the research and development work

Increasing the efficiency of an industrial roasting process requires that many phenomena
and many variables must be studied, as shown in Fig. 2. The main focus has been on
improving roasting by studying furnace behaviour and roasting mechanism. Much
attention has also been paid simultaneously to boiler and mercury removal performance.
These three elements have a great bearing on success. Development of the boiler is
essential, because if the boiler performance is good, then there are fewer constraints in
furnace control. Mercury removal is necessary to produce sulphuric acid of high quality.
Good mercury removal gives more freedom in choosing concentrates, which is essential
when evaluating the whole process.
The development that has been made is based on the results of laboratory
experiments, full-scale plant experiments, calculations, thermodynamic evaluations,
experiments with models and extensive chemical analyses.

Roasting performance

Information Control
- Chemical analyses - Control applications (Fuzzy)
- On-line analyses - Advanced systems:
- Measurements - Water
- Oxygen
- Pelletizing
- Others

Personnel Equipment
- Knowledge - Design
- Skill - Maintenance
- Activity - Automation

Fluidisation Heat Transfer

- Grain size distribution of - Cooling devices
the formed calcine - Fluidisation
- Viscosity

Concentrates Thermodynamics
- Mineralogy - Reactions
- Impurities - Phase diagram etc.
- Grain size distribution - Temperature
- Oxygen coefficient

Fig. 2. High roasting performance can only be reached through broad development. Many
factors must be taken into consideration to reach the targets, as shown in the diagram.

Control loops and algorithms have been improved by studying the dynamics of the
process and using advanced methods like fuzzy systems. By doing this, the process has
been stabilized. Good examples of such are the fuzzy control of the roaster furnace
temperature and the fuzzy control of the mercury removal towers to stabilize the
 21

temperature and acid content (Rauma et al. 2000, Rauma 1999). Both applications work
well and they stabilize the process, i.e. the temperatures and acid content fluctuations are
small. However they do not solve all the problems: for the furnace i.e. how to handle fine
and impure concentrates; for mercury removal how to make good sulphuric acid
consistently, i.e. to keep the mercury level low in the sulphuric acid produced.
New control variables had to be found, as did ways of knowing the right process
conditions for different concentrate mixtures and how to maintain them. Besides more
process knowledge new measurements, new control tools and methods are needed to
improve the control of the process. Control and control aspects are presented in chapters 5
and 6. Measurements and analyses are also presented in chapters 5 and 6. Possible
methods are discussed in chapter 7.

1.3.1 Roasting research and development procedure

It is essential to have a good and stable bed in the roaster furnace. Defluidisation due to a
fine bed is one problem. Another problem is the formation of build-ups due to molten
phases or sulphates, which can lead to sintering of the bed or part of the grate area. Heat
transfer, oxygen need and fluidisation vary due to differences in the concentrate mixture.
The aim of the research and development concerning roaster furnace performance has
been to gain more knowledge about the different mechanisms and to design a control
strategy. The most important research stages are described below and shown in Fig. 3.

Mineralogical Analysing Laboratory Plant

evaluations calcine experiments experi-
samples ments

Applications and
operating rules

Termodynamic Heat balance Active surveillance

evaluations calculations of special situations
in the Roaster

Fig. 3. Roasting research and development procedure.

Mineralogical studies of all concentrates used in Kokkola have been made. Chemical
analysis and microscope analysis were made to get information about the concentrates
and to determine what kind of minerals they contain. The basic results from the studies
were the oxygen requirement and the heat energy of different concentrates.
Evaluations of thermodynamic phase diagrams and Kellogg diagrams have been made
on a large scale. In roaster furnace conditions, impurities (Pb, Cu, Si) form molten phases.
Sulphates are also formed (Pb, Ca). These have a negative impact on roasting and
therefore it is important to study the phase diagrams of the different combinations of
impurities. The aim is to find the best roasting conditions and the limits for impurities.
Different types of molten phases can be formed: sulphide melts (Pb, Cu, Fe, Zn), sulphate
melts (Na, K, Pb) and oxide melts (Pb, Cu, Si, Zn). The formation depends on the
 22

conditions in the furnace. The main variables are temperature, oxygen pressure and
amount of impurities (Appendix 1).
Analysis of calcine samples has also been made. During plant experiments and also
during normal operation, calcine samples have been taken mainly from the furnace but
also from the boiler, cyclones and ESPs. Chemical analyses, particle size distribution and
microscopic analyses have been made (see chapter 6 and Appendix 4). Only by doing
this, can more information about growth mechanisms and what is actually going on in the
furnace be acquired. In particular, analysing samples under the microscope gives valuable
information.
Thermodynamic heat balance calculations have also been made. The effects of
different variables can be estimated by these calculations. Therefore a model using HSC
Software has been made for the furnace boiler system (Roine & Nyberg 2000, Björklund
2001). The model has gradually been improved to be more user-friendly and accurate.
The impacts of different variables can be tested such as temperature, feed composition, air
flow, use of oxygen and water injection to the bed. By doing this kind of testing,
evaluations of the impacts can be made before real changes in the equipment or operating
parameters are made. This has been useful in the case of both the furnace and the boiler.
At Outokumpu Research Centre experiments have been carried out in small laboratory
furnaces (Taskinen et al. 2002, Metsärinta et al. 2003, Metsärinta et al. 2005b) where
tests to study the effects and the limits for impurities have been made. Also, different
roasting conditions were tested, for example roasting with a high oxygen coefficient.
High impurity levels were also tested. These experiments were very often pre-tests made
before performing full-scale plant experiments. During these laboratory experiments,
samples were taken for chemical and X-ray diffraction analysis.
During the research and development period (especially during 1999–2004) many full-
scale roasting experiments were performed (Chapter 6, Lepistö 1999, Nyberg et al. 2000,
Metsärinta et al. 2005a). Full-scale experiments are necessary in order to get information
and knowledge before making decisions on how to increase the performance of the
roaster furnace; otherwise actual knowledge of how the furnace will behave cannot be
gained. Different items were tested such as impurity levels, temperature levels, air
amount, water feed to different spots and oxygen feed. Risks are involved in plant
experiments. If for instance too high impurity levels are used, it can lead to too many
agglomerates and furnace instability. In the worst case the furnace must then be cleaned,
i.e. causing production losses of several days and the ensuing extra costs. Due to this
there are constraints in full-scale plant trials on how high the impurity levels are that can
be tested and therefore it is safer to make experiments first on laboratory scale.
The plant trials lasted from one to several weeks. The experiment plans included
sampling, an analysis plan and variable changing intervals. During the trials a vast
amount of data was collected and active surveillance was made. Measurements and
analyses were collected on the database of the process computer and the plant information
system. On-line analysis of the gas composition in the roaster bed was also made during
several tests (Chapter 6, Parkkinen et al. 2002). Many samples were taken for chemical
and X-ray diffraction analysis. The results from the tests were thoroughly evaluated and
reported.
The emphasis in the full-scale plant experiments has been on the process metallurgy.
By learning more about the particle size growth mechanism and the effects of the
 23

impurities, new means to control the furnace behaviour have been developed and also
new process operation conditions have been chosen.
The dynamics of the process have also been tested to get information about the effects
of different variables on the process. By studying the dynamics, information for
developing and tuning control loops has been gained. The information has also been
invaluable in understanding the behaviour of the furnace. By making step trials, i.e.
changing the air flow, concentrate feed, water addition, oxygen feed etc. stepwise and by
letting the furnace respond to the changes, the dynamics of the furnace have been
identified. These results have been used to make simulators, a state variable model and
tuning control loops (Rauma et al. 2000, Toskala 2000, Toskala et al. 2001, Härkönen
2003, Saxén et al. 2004, Valo 2004).
Every now and then the roaster furnace becomes unstable. Active surveillance of these
special situations has been done. During those periods active measures have been taken to
correct the situation back to normal. During such abnormal situations samples have
normally been taken and analyses of the samples made. Often these situations have been
successfully corrected by control methods, i.e. using oxygen, decreasing the furnace
temperature, using water etc. Sometimes a change of concentrate mixture has been the
only way to get the furnace back in equilibrium. Such periods have been thoroughly
analysed and reported. These special situations have provided excellent opportunities for
testing the new control strategies and process knowledge.
During shutdowns, yearly maintenance shutdowns or boiler cleanings, samples have
been taken from the build-ups and analysed. After analysis, the results have been
evaluated and explanations for the build-ups have been made (Appendix 4).

1.3.2 Boiler research and development procedure

The pattern for boiler development has been similar to that of roasting and is shown in
Fig. 4. The conditions of the furnace influence the boiler. The main goals are to have
separation of the calcine coming from the roaster furnace gas through the upper part of
the furnace, effective gas cooling and a high degree of uptime for the boiler. These are the
prerequisites for good results in roasting performance.
Before major modifications were made in the boiler a flow scale model was built. A
picture of it is shown in Fig. 5 and the model has been presented in a paper (Järvi et al.
2002). The biggest issue that was tested with this flow model was the impact of the baffle
wall. The shape, size and the location of the baffle wall were tested.
 24

Laboratory Cooperation with Developing of

flow tests the manufacturer maintenance

Applications

Mathematical Utilizing of
flowmodel plant operation
calculations experience

Fig. 4. Boiler research and development procedure has also been diverse.

Fig. 5. Experimental apparatus of furnace and boiler (scale 1:20) built for flow model testing.

As a complement to the model, numerical calculations were also made to confirm the
results gained from the laboratory experiments. These calculations showed both the
temperature and the flow gradients of the boiler. The calculations gave similar results as
those with the laboratory model. Two commercial programs were used for calculations.
Outokumpu Research (ORC) used the CFX programme (Järvi et al. 2002) and Foster
Wheeler (the boiler manufacturer) used the Fluent programme (Chapter 6). The results of
the flow model calculations are similar to those in published papers (Peippo et al. 1999,
Yang 1996).
During the last decade there has been intensive and close co-operation between the
roaster department and the boiler manufacturer. Several meetings and planning sessions
have been held where the results have been evaluated and new modifications have been
planned. Changes and additions to the boiler have been considered together before
implementation. Often changes have an impact on the stress factors in the boiler system.
Therefore the risk is that without thorough evaluation new problems can arise. In
addition, follow-up has been done together and based on the evaluation of the progress,
new plans to develop the boiler have been made (Kilju 2004).
Utilisation of plant operation experience has been a part of the boiler development
work. The impact of the changes made can only be evaluated after a long period, several
 25

months or years. Analysis of malfunctions is also a part of development work. By active

monitoring of the boiler over long periods, valid information for further development has
been gained.
Development of maintenance practice is crucial and has a great impact on the
performance of the boiler. Measurements during shutdowns (e.g. X-ray) and monitoring
the boiler during operation by measuring the water flows of the different circulations, are
an area that should not be neglected. During shutdowns, maintenance and above all
proactive maintenance are important. This means replacement in advance of parts that are
not in good condition. The way the boiler is cleaned also influences the result. One
example of an established practise that has increased running time is cleaning the boiler
with water during the yearly shutdowns. This improves the running time of the boiler.

1.3.3 Mercury removal research and development procedure

Likewise, mercury removal research and development has been implemented using the
same pattern. This is shown in Fig. 6.

Material balance Thermodynamic Plant

calculations equilibrium experi-
calculations ments

Applications

Chemical Laboratory
analyses of experiments
process samples

Fig. 6. Thermodynamic equilibrium calculations were essential in the mercury removal

research and development procedure.

Material balance calculations had to be made in order to get a clear picture of the entire
process including the roaster, mercury removal and the sulphuric acid plant. The mass
balance contained important elements (Hg, Se, Cl, F, Si, etc.) and all phases were
included, i.e. solid, liquid and gas. Some new analyses had to be made and every input
and output was calculated. The chemical analysis of every process stage (and every
phase) and the material balance calculations clearly showed the amounts and, above all,
this work resulted in a better picture of the process.
Chemical analyses of process samples were performed in order to get a better picture
of the process. Samples were taken from all process stages. The challenge here was
proper sampling. This is due to the fact that the temperatures are high in some steps and
the content of some elements is very low, both in the liquid and gas phase. If sampling is
not done properly, the analysis is of no value. Due to the low level in some steps the
chemical analysis was also demanding. One example of this is the determination of Hg0
and Hg2+ concentrations in the gas phase. This plays a significant role in the process
 26

chemistry, but due to the low concentration levels in some process stages, analysis is
difficult.
Based on the material balance calculations and chemical analysis, massive
thermodynamic equilibrium calculations for every process step were performed by
personnel from ORC. These calculations were performed using commercial programs
such as HSC, ChemCalc, ThermCalc, etc. The results from the thermodynamic
calculations and the results from the chemical analyses were similar and showed that the
gas phase is in a steady state in the different process stages. This information was vital for
the development of the process.
Based on the above, i.e. material balance calculations, chemical analyses and
thermodynamic calculations, experiments on laboratory scale were performed. Different
chemicals such as Se solution and thiosulphate were successfully tested (Peltola et al.
2000, Berg et al. 2003).
After the laboratory experiments, feeding of Se solution was carried out to different
parts of the process chain, both Hg removal and the acid plant. The most effective
location was found to be feeding Se solution to the acid plant process. The quality of the
sulphuric acid improved and the process became more stable and manageable.

1.4 Contribution of the author

The author of this thesis worked as manager of the Kokkola roaster department during the
research and development process presented in the thesis. As manager of the department,
the author was responsible not only for production but also for the research and
development of the process. The main partner in this research and development process
was Outokumpu Research (ORC). Universities and others have also participated, e.g.
through Master’s theses. The necessity of continuous development is paramount and the
target has been to increase efficiency. In order to achieve good results, a broad
development in many fields has been necessary. The goals are discussed in chapter 4. The
author was the initiator of the research and development projects described in the thesis.
The author has created the control concept presented in this thesis for improving the
control of the process and has also been responsible for carrying out the implementation.
The main contribution of the thesis has been the process characterisation and the
combination of the process knowledge gained with the control system development.
Active participation and contribution in all the projects has been an essential part of
the author’s work. The research and development work consists of both basic and applied
research. Applied research, i.e. full-scale plant trials, has also involved risk-taking. As
manager, the author has been responsible for this risk-taking. Therefore, the author
participated actively in the planning of the plant trials.
The results of the research have led to applications, e.g. equipment modifications, new
control methods, changes in operation practices, new measurements and analyses taken in
use, which have increased efficiency and also improved quality.
Some of the results of the research and development work have been presented in
scientific publications. These publications are referred to in the thesis. The aim has been
to present some of the key elements and achievements of the research and the
 27

developments made. In the papers the procedures of the research and development work
have also been presented. The author has acted as the initiator in the publishing process.
The author of this thesis has been active in creating the structures of the papers and in the
writing process of the presented papers.
As previously mentioned, the research and development work has led to practical
applications. This has also resulted in patents and patent applications have been made.
These patents and patent applications are referred to in the thesis. The author is a
participant in seven patents or patent applications. In the others patents, that are in use at
the Kokkola roaster, the author has played a supportive role and been active in the testing
of these systems.
Master’s theses have also been part of the research and development work. The
Master’s theses are referred to in this thesis. They have been both theoretical and
practical. The theses have been an important part of the research and development
process. They have helped to achieve practical applications and new research results
valuable for continuous development. The contribution of the author of this thesis has
been as the initiator, helping in the process characterisation, giving feedback and
supervisor of the Master’s theses.
 2 Process description
The zinc business is changing all the time. It is a complex network consisting of mines,
zinc plants, zinc market, end users and authorities. The price of zinc is of major importan-
ce. The London Metal Exchange (LME) zinc price and the size of the LME zinc storage
are relevant factors influencing the business. The treatment charge (TC) changes yearly
and is influenced by the zinc price. It is the factor that determines the income and survival
of both mines and zinc plants.
Zinc plants are becoming bigger and more efficient. The major costs, especially in
electrowinning Zn plants, are as follows:
– Zn concentrates
– Electricity costs
– Labour costs
– Maintenance costs
– Chemicals
The major income for zinc plants is received from treating concentrates, i.e. TC pay-
ment. Other incomes are gained from selling zinc plus premium, sulphuric acid and in
some cases steam. The demand for more efficiency has led to an increase in the automa-
tion level and production capacity but also to the development of the process. Develop-
ment work includes all zinc plant departments. Major improvement targets are to increase
the running time and leaching yield, which means better Zn recovery. An important tar-
get is to make a purer solution in purification, because then the electric efficiency
increases in the cellhouse. Challenges in roaster development include new concentrates,
which tend to be finer, impurities in the concentrates, the need to increase running time
and reduce maintenance costs.
The continuous development work being done by the zinc industry has also led to new
process stages such as the direct leaching of concentrates. Environmental aspects have
also been an issue for development with one major issue – how to treat iron residue. For
this reason, great demands have been placed on the entire zinc industry in many countries.
Cooperation between zinc plants, mines and end users is also necessary in order to
meet the demands from society and the authorities.
 29

2.1 Zinc process

There are different types of zinc processes. Among plants treating sulphide zinc concent-
rates, the most common type is the electrowinning zinc plant. There are also ISF plants
operating, though these are diminishing in number. The electrowinning plants differ as to
the kind of leaching process in use and the iron residue precipitated (jarosite, hematite or
goethite) (Brook Hunt 2003). There are also differences in the purification processes. In
the cellhouse the major difference is the size of the cathode.
There are normally four sections in an electrowinning zinc plant. They are: Roaster,
Leaching and Purification, Electrolysis (i.e. the cellhouse) and Foundry. In the roaster the
concentrates are roasted in a fluidised bed furnace. The SO2 gas from the roaster is
cleaned (mercury removal) and then sulphuric acid is produced. In leaching the calcine
from the roaster is leached using sulphuric acid. Iron is precipitated and the solution from
leaching is then purified, i.e. Cu, Co, Ni, Cd, Ge, Sb etc. are precipitated out. The purified
solution is then pumped to electrolysis, where zinc is precipitated on aluminium sheets
using electric power. The Zn is stripped from the aluminium sheets by automatic stripping
machines. The zinc produced is then melted in the foundry.

SO 2
Zn concentrate
ROASTING Hg-Se-PROCESS
Hg, Se
Calcine

ZnSO 4 NEUTRAL SOLUTION Cu, Co, Cd

LEACHING PURIFICATION

Ferrites Spent ZnSO 4

acid
H 2 SO 4
CONVERSION ELECTROLYSIS

Jarosite Zn cathodes

CONCENTRATE
FOUNDRY
LEACHING
Zn concentrate
Zn slabs, alloys

Jarosite S° + FeS 2

Fig. 7. A block diagram of the Kokkola zinc process (Takala 1999). Concentrates are fed both
to the roasting process and concentrate leaching, which increases flexibility. Concentrates more
suitable for roasting are fed to the roaster, while those more suitable for leaching can be fed to
concentrate leaching.

As mentioned in chapter 1, direct leaching of concentrates has become an alternative

or parallel process to roasting. In the Kokkola zinc plant both are in use and this gives
more flexibility to the operations (Takala 1999). The advantage lies in the fact that some
concentrates are more suitable for roasting and others are more suitable for leaching. A
block diagram of the Kokkola plant is shown in Fig. 7. A flow sheet with more details is
presented in Appendix 3.
 30

2.2 Roasting process

In the thesis the furnace type studied is the Lurgi furnace. Fig. 8 shows a schematic diag-
ram of a Lurgi furnace. There are also other types of furnaces used for zinc sulphide roas-
ting and some plants use the Dorr Oliver furnace (Yoneoka et al. 1998). The feed to the
zinc roaster furnaces is normally a mixture of several concentrates. Concentrate composi-
tion is discussed in the mineralogy section of chapter 3. The main phenomena regarding
roasting are also described in chapter 3.
In the roaster the nozzle grate area of the furnace has gradually expanded and today
there are some Lurgi furnaces in operation with a grid area of 123 m2 (Berg & Pape 1978,
San Martin et al. 2000). A typical nozzle grate area for Lurgi furnaces is nowadays about
72–77 m2. The two furnaces in Kokkola that have been the objects tested in this work are
both 72 m2.

Fig. 8. Schematic diagram of a Lurgi type fluid bed roaster furnace (Themelis & Freeman 1983/
1984).

The concentrates are stored in warehouses and the feed mixture is prepared daily and
transported by conveyors to the day bins. Screening and crushing equipment have been
installed ahead of the day bins to take care of lumps. From the day bins the concentrate is
fed to the table feeder and after that high-speed transport belts, i.e. slinger belts, throw the
material into the furnace. Air is fed from the bottom of the furnace to the furnace grate
through nozzles. This air makes the bed in the furnace fluidise. The oxygen in the air
reacts with the concentrate mixture. The reaction is exothermic and the heat is generated
to the calcine and SO2 gas that are formed. The roasting temperature is about 920–960oC.
 31

The cooling coils in the furnace remove some of the generated heat, but the boiler
removes most of the heat. The heat is recovered, both from furnace and boiler, by the
water-steam system of the boiler. The SO2 gas formed in the furnace leaves the furnace
from the upper part and enters the boiler. The inlet temperature is about 850–950oC. The
boiler cools the gas to approximately 320–380oC, which is the inlet temperature to the
cyclones. The majority (60–70 %) of the calcine is also included in the gas from the fur-
nace. The boiler removes part of the calcine from the gas and the rest is removed in
cyclones and in ESPs. Some (about 30–40%) of the calcine leaves the furnace via the
overflow of the furnace. Some plants also have a furnace underflow to remove the calcine
partly from the furnace.
The calcine from the furnace is cooled in a cooler, normally a section cooler but in
Kokkola a fluidised bed cooler is used. The calcine from the furnace and boiler is crushed
in a ball mill. All calcine from the roaster is collected together in an intermediate silo and
transported pneumatically to the calcine silo.
The SO2 blower that controls the pressure in the roaster furnace is situated after the
ESPs. A slight underpressure is kept in the furnace.
A good stable bed and good fluidisation are essential for the performance of the roaster
fluid bed furnace. Many factors determine the optimal temperature value, but the impurity
levels are the crucial parameters. Therefore the chemical analysis of the calcine formed is
important. Major impurities in roasting are Cu, Pb, Si, Ca, Na and K. The sulphide level
of the generated calcine, normally in the range of 0.1–0.3 %, is a major indicator of the
roasting process. Good control and measurements are required to avoid forming of build-
ups, sinters. Issues regarding control and measurements are discussed in chapter 5. In the
furnace there are several temperature measuring devices, pressure and windbox pressure
measurements. There are several control loops such as draft control, air flow control and
concentrate feed control. The key for the behaviour of the furnace is the calculated feed
mixture. The main phenomena regarding the roasting process are discussed in chapter 3.
The Kokkola Roaster process is presented in Appendix 2.

2.3 Gas cleaning and sulphuric acid production

After the electrostatic precipitators, the SO2 gas with an SO2 concentration of 7–9 % is
cleaned. Mercury is the major impurity to take care of. There are different types of gas
cleaning processes and many zinc roasters use the Boliden-Norzink process for mercury
removal (Dyvik 1994). In Kokkola the Outokumpu mercury removal process is in use
(Mukherjee 1999). Besides mercury other important elements to take care of are F, Cl and
Se. The processes used for mercury removal are discussed in chapter 3.
The incoming temperature of the gas to the cleaning section is over 300oC. The gas is
cooled and in Kokkola the outlet temperature of the gas after mercury removal is about
60–65oC. The sulphuric acid plant also has washing towers and the final removal of mer-
cury occurs in this stage. In the mercury removal process the mercury is removed from
the gas and ends up in the slurry. The control of mercury is complex and the balance
between the gas phase, liquid phase and solid phase is influenced by many parameters.
The levels of mercury are very low in some phases and it is quite demanding to measure
 32

them accurately. In order to produce sulphuric acid with low mercury, the whole process,
i.e. mercury removal and the sulphuric acid plant, must be taken into account. The
amount of mercury varies in the concentrates a lot (0.001–0.19 %). The trend is, however,
that the product, sulphuric acid, must be low in impurities (Ludtke 2001). Nowadays the
trend is that the mercury level should be lower than 0.1 mg Hg / kg H2SO4.

2.4 Roasting and direct leaching

Direct leaching of zinc concentrates has gradually become more common during the last
decades as a parallel or alternative process to roasting (De Nys & Terwinghe 1990). The-
re are two types of direct leaching, pressure leaching and atmospheric leaching (Buban et
al. 2000). Pressure leaching (autoclave leaching) has been in use since the 1980s (Ash-
man & Jankola 1990, Collins et al. 1990, Dreisinger et al. 1990, Masters et al. 2002,
Mollison & Moore 1990, Ozberk et al. 1995). There are some plants that have added
pressure leaching as a parallel process to increase the capacity, but there is also a zinc
plant that treats all the concentrates using pressure leaching without any roaster capacity
(Collins et al. 1994, Collins et al. 1995, Krysa 1995). In the 1990s, direct atmospheric
leaching of concentrates has been adopted and increasing interest towards this process
has arisen (Adams et al. 1990, Takala 1999).
The use of direct leaching (pressure or atmospheric) of concentrates, as a parallel pro-
cess to roasting, gives more freedom when choosing concentrates. Some impurities, such
as Cu and Pb, can be higher in leaching while concentrates with high mercury and chlo-
rine are more suitable for feeding to the roaster. The sulphur in the concentrate ends up in
the sulphuric acid in the roasting process and in direct leaching the sulphur ends up in the
sulphur residue. Here the sulphuric acid market and the possibility to store the additional
residue influence the process choice.
 3 Main phenomena of the roasting process
In the roasting process the following issues are of great importance: mineralogy, thermo-
dynamics, heat transfer, fluidisation, gas cooling, dust handling and gas cleaning. In
development work, i.e. when aiming to increase the efficiency of the process, knowledge
about these issues and their effects is essential. In addition, the dynamics of the process
are diverse. The dynamics of some changes are very rapid (pressure, temperature) while
some changes are slow (formation of build-ups). In this chapter an evaluation of these
issues is made.

3.1 Mineralogy
Normally, the feed to the roaster furnace is mainly a mixture of zinc concentrates. Some
secondary materials like oxides are sometimes blended with the feed. Zinc ash from the
casting department is also fed to the furnace. The main variable for the behaviour of the
roasting furnace is the concentrate mixture. Since the feed composition is very signifi-
cant for the behaviour of the furnace it is important to know the composition of the con-
centrates, of which the basic factor is the mineralogy of the concentrates. Most Zn con-
centrates are sulphides but there are also oxides.
The most common Zn minerals are the following:
Sphalerite, zinc sulfide, ZnS, (Zn,Fe)S, cubic, trimorphous with martraite and wurtzite.
Wurtzite, zinc sulfide, ZnS, (Zn,Fe)S, hexagonal and trigonal polytypes, trimorphous
with martraite sphalerite.
Marmatite, (Zn,Fe)S ferroan sphalerite.
Martraite, ZnS, trigonal, trimorphous with sphalerite and wurtzite.
There are also many other zinc minerals (Fleisher & Mandarino 1991, Mandarino
1999).
The chemical analysis and grain size distribution of the concentrate are important.
They influence the behaviour of the roasting and above all the behaviour of the roasting
bed. The Zn content for concentrates is in the range of about 45–60%. The S content is
about 30%. The impurity level has a great impact on roasting and important elements
 34

include Cu, Pb, Si, Ca and Fe (Taskinen et al. 2002, Metsärinta et al. 2003, Metsärinta et
al. 2005b). Other components that have an impact on roasting are the amounts of FeS2
and FeS (Taskinen et al. 2002). The most important elements with regard to gas cleaning
are Hg, Se, Cl, F and C (Yazawa et al. 1980). For the rest of the plant there are many
important elements that must be handled in leaching and purification to avoid problems in
electrolysis and even in the end product. These elements are for instance Co, Ni, Cd, Ge,
Sb and Tl.
Typical analysis ranges of zinc concentrates are as follows:
Zn 45–60% Cd 0.05–0.35%
Fe 1–12% Hg 0.001–0.19%
S 28–33% Ge 0.001–0.09%
Pb 0.2–4% Ca 0.05–1.1%
Cu 0.2–4% Si 0.3–1.5%
Because of the analysis and mineralogy, the heat energy and the oxygen requirement
differ for different concentrates, and the range varies (Taskinen et al. 2002). The values
for sulphidic zinc concentrates lie in the following range:
Heat energy: 980–1430 kWh/t
Oxygen demand: 280–380 Nm3/t

The particle size of the concentrates affects roasting significantly. The particle size dis-
tribution varies for different concentrates as shown in Fig. 9. There is a tendency towards
finer concentrates as the mines crush them more nowadays to increase recovery. The d50-
values (= mass median diameter) for concentrates are in the range of 5–70 µm.

Particle Size Distribution

6.5
6 Antamina

5.5
5 Red Dog
4.5
Volume (%)

Pyhäsalmi
4
Tara
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle Size (µm)
Antamina 04095, 09/23/04 14:45:43 Pyhäsalmi 04065, 08/04/04 10:14:14
Tara 04080, 08/16/04 14:17:51 Red Dog 04092, 09/23/04 13:44:31

Fig. 9. The particle size distribution varies for different concentrates.

Figs 10 and 11 show microscope pictures of two concentrates. From these pictures it
can be seen that the Aznacollar concentrate (Fig. 10) contains more fine particles than the
Trzebionka concentrate, which contains more coarse particles (Fig. 11).
 35

Fig. 10. Microscope picture of Aznacollar concentrate. The pellets contain mostly small
particles.

Fig. 11. Microscope picture of Trzebionka concentrate. The pellets also contain large particles.

3.2 Main reactions and thermodynamics

The product of roasting is called calcine and the reaction is exothermic. The reaction
occurs in the particles through the diffusion of O2 on the surface of the concentrate par-
ticles (Ajersch 2000, Beveridge 1962, Dimitrov et al. 1981, Fukunaka et al. 1976, Hat-
tori et al. 1980). During roasting ferrites are also formed, such as ZnFe2O4, CuFe2O4 etc.
(Graydon & Kirk (1988a, 1988b, 1988c), Richards 1995). Some major reactions are pre-
sented below:
 36

The main reaction in roasting: ZnS + 1.5 O2 –> ZnO + SO2

Other reactions of importance: 2 FeS + 3.5 O2 –> Fe2O3 + 2 SO2
2 FeS2 + 5.5 O2 –> Fe2O3 + 4 SO2
PbS + 2 O2 –> PbSO4
Cu2S + 2 O2 –> 2 CuO + SO2
CaCO3 + SO2 + 0.5 O2 –> CaSO4 + CO2
The ferrite formation reaction: ZnO + Fe2O3 –> ZnO.Fe2O3
CuO + Fe2O3 –> CuO.Fe2O3
Also, agglomeration between particles takes place in the bed, which leads to larger
particles (Benlyamani & Ajersch 1986, Condina et al. 1980, Richards 1995). The growth
mechanism is essential for the behaviour of the bed, but due to its complexity, under-
standing of the mechanism is limited (Constantineau et al. 2002). Control of the bed parti-
cle size distribution is of major importance for stable roasting conditions. Thermal analy-
sis has also been carried out in roasting research (Sarveswara Rao & Ray 1999).
In Fig. 12, a schematic drawing shows how the reaction in a particle occurs. Many
small particles agglomerate together to form a bigger particle and this is shown schemati-
cally in Fig. 13.

ZnO

ZnS ZnS

SO 2
O2 O2

Fig. 12. Schematic drawing of the reaction principle. The sulphide mineral particle reacts with
oxygen. The product is calcine (mostly ZnO). During the reaction SO2 gas is formed.

Formed calcine agglomerate

ZnO ZnO
ZnO ZnO
ZnO ZnO
ZnO
ZnO
ZnO
ZnO ZnO
ZnO ZnO
ZnO ZnO
ZnO
ZnO ZnO
ZnO

Fig. 13. Schematic drawing of a calcine agglomerate formed of many small calcine particles.
Bonds are formed between particles due to molten phases.
 37

Figs 14 and 15 show microscope pictures of agglomerates. The outer layer in the
microscope pictures is ZnO and in the middle there is non-reacted ZnS. Based on micro-
scopic studies of concentrates, the origin of the pellets can be recognized. During the
sample interval, the feed to the furnace was a mixture containing both Polaris and Azna-
collar concentrate. The same structures can be seen in the calcine pellets.

Fig. 14. Agglomerate from the furnace (November 2001) – origin Aznacollar concentrate.

Fig. 15. Agglomerate from the furnace (November 2001) – origin Polaris concentrate.

When the main reaction takes place in the bed and above the furnace bed, calcine is
formed. The calcine formed in the bed is coarser than the concentrate as is shown in Fig.
16. For good fluidised bed furnace performance, it is significant to have a bed with the
right particle size distribution. The bed should not be too fine nor too coarse. If the bed is
too fine, then the furnace becomes unstable due to defluidisation for example. The key
question is: How can the particle size distribution of the bed be controlled?
 38

120 120

100 100

Cumulative pass w-%

Cumulative pass vol-

80 80

Overflow calcine
60 60

Concentrate 15.4.2002,
40 pass vol-%
40
Boiler calcine 15.4.2002,
Concentrate pass vol-%
Cyclone calcine
20 15.4.2002,pass til-% 20
ESP calcine 15.4.2002,
pass vol-%
Overflow calcine
15.4.2002, pass w-%
0 0
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Grain size µm

Fig. 16. Grain size distribution of concentrate versus calcines. The formed calcine is coarser
than the concentrate, especially the overflow calcine from the furnace.

3.2.1 Sulphates and molten phases

If the feed mixture contains many impurities such as Cu, Pb, Si, Ca and Mg, then the for-
mation of sulphates and molten phases occurs more easily (Appendix 1, Freshcorn 1976).
This can lead to the formation of build-ups on the roaster furnace grid and walls. In the
worst case it leads to sintering of the bed and then the feed to the furnace has to be stop-
ped. The furnace must then be emptied, which takes several days. The formation of build-
ups and molten phases is a very complex combination of different elements. Therefore
there are limits in roasting for these elements. There are maximum limits for Cu, for Pb,
for a combination of Cu and Pb, etc. It is not easy to determine precise limits and mostly
they are based on operating experience in zinc roasters. A commonly accepted “rule of
thumb” in roasting is that “Pb + Cu + SiO2 < 5 %” to avoid bed agglomeration and/or a
sticky bed (Grant 1994). When the impurity level in the feed is high, then the right roas-
ting conditions are important. Variables like temperature and oxygen coefficient must be
controlled carefully. Phase diagrams must be studied to know the dangers and to find the
right conditions. There are many important phase diagrams and Kellogg diagrams that
give valuable information for understanding roasting, which should be evaluated (Elvers
& Hawkins 1996, Mäkinen 1972, Appendix 1).
An essential reaction that occurs in the gas phase is SO2 + 0.5 O2 –> SO3. This reac-
tion needs some catalysts, such as Cu. Due to this reaction, sulphates are formed in the
boiler. The formation reaction of ZnSO4 could be ZnO + SO3 –> ZnSO4 (Gales &
Winand 1973). Sulphates are also formed in the furnace due to leakage air on the walls.
The formation of sulphates starts when the temperature is reduced to below about 850 oC.
 39

3.2.2 The sulphide analysis of the formed calcine

The sulphide level of the calcine is normally in the range of 0.2–0.3 %. Increasing the
capacity increases the sulphide level. Some plants keep the calcine sulphide level in the
range of 0.3–0.5 %. Then the danger is that the oxygen coefficient is too low. The oxy-
gen coefficient is defined in chapter 5. The sulphide level of the calcine produced is a
quality indicator of the roasting process. The sulphide level is one of the main variables
in control aspects and is discussed more in chapter 5. Typical analyses of calcines formed
from different process stages are shown in Appendix 4. The level of sulphates in diffe-
rent process stages can be seen from the analyses. Analyses of samples taken during shut-
downs are also shown in Appendix 4.

3.3 Heat transfer

The concentrate mixture is fed to the furnace from the side via slinger belts, and air
comes from the bottom of the furnace through nozzles. The reaction between the concent-
rate and the air generates heat. The normal roasting temperature is between 920–960oC.
There are cooling coils in the furnace that partly take away the heat that is generated.
These elements take about one third of the heat away to the water/steam system. The rest
of the generated heat is in the outgoing gas with some in the calcine. The gas is cooled in
the boiler and in gas scrubbing. The calcine from the bed is also cooled. To increase the
capacity of the furnace, the area of the cooling coils can be extended.
As mentioned above, the roasting reaction occurs both in the bed and also above the
bed. If the concentrate mixture is very fine then more burning takes place above the bed
than when the mixture is coarse. If the bed fluidisation is good then the heat transfer to
the cooling coils is effective.
The temperature gradient of the bed is a good indicator of roasting and bed behaviour.
The temperatures are measured from the bottom and the side of the furnace with several
thermocouples. The more homogenous and stable the bed, the more homogenous the val-
ues from the different temperature measurements, i.e. only small differences between the
values of the readings from the different temperature sensors. The gas temperature in the
upper part of the furnace, that is, the part between the furnace and boiler, also reveals a lot
about the situation in the furnace. If the top temperature rises, then water can be added to
the concentrate feed mixture before it is fed to the furnace to lower the temperature. The
water can be fed both before the concentrate enters the day bins and after the day bins but
before the furnace. The effects of the different locations are somewhat different due to
time delays but also due to how the water is absorbed into the concentrate. To increase the
capacity, water injection to the bed can be used. Compared with cooling coils, this gives
more flexibility to control the feed rate. If oxide materials are in the concentrate mixture,
then the feed increases because oxide materials have a cooling effect on the bed.
After the furnace some of the calcine, about 30–40 %, comes out via the overflow of
the furnace. This calcine is cooled in Kokkola in a fluid bed cooler, but more often in zinc
roasters in a sectional drum cooler (Svens et al. 2003). After this the calcine is transported
 40

by water-cooled redlers to the ball mill. Some zinc roasters remove part of the furnace
calcine by some kind of underflow system.
The gas enters the boiler at a temperature of about 850–950oC and is cooled to about
320–380oC. The heat transfer that occurs in the boiler, cooling the gas and the calcine in
the gas flow, is both radiation and convection.

3.4 Fluidisation
The amount of air and air velocity are very significant for fluidisation behaviour (Kunii &
Levenspiel 1969). The particle size distribution of the bed also affects fluidisation. If the
bed has too many fine particles they tend to go with the gas flow to the boiler. A very
coarse bed also affects fluidisation and the heat transfer to the cooling coils. Impurities in
the feed have an effect on the bed and can make it sticky, in which case the fluidisation
behaviour is poor and the fluidity of the calcine is bad. If the fluidising of the bed is weak
it can lead to channelling, i.e. a pressure drop in the bed because gas flows through the
channels. In that case the bed will also be badly mixed. The particle size, particle size
distribution, the shape and density of the particles all influence fluidisation behaviour.
The Geldart classification is presented in Fig. 17 (Geldart 1986). The density difference
of particles and gas is shown as a function of particle diameter. Fig. 18 presents a fluidi-
sation diagram from the same source.

Fig. 17. The Geldart classification of particles into their fluidisation behaviour in air at ambient
conditions (Geldart 1986). The density of calcine in the fluidised bed gives the working area in
the upper part of B.
 41

Fig. 18. Fluidisation characteristic diagram, velocity versus particle diameter (Geldart 1986).
The diagram shows the working area for a fluidised bed.

3.5 Gas cooling and dust handling

The gas is cooled in the heat recovery boiler from about 850–950oC to about 320–380oC.
The calcine dust is removed from the gas in the boiler, cyclones and hot electrostatic fil-
ters. The walls in the boiler are membrane cooled and there are also bundles, screens and
a baffle wall inside the boiler. Effective spring hammers are installed to remove the calci-
ne dust from the walls and bundles. These spring hammers shake the equipment resulting
in the calcine falling down to the redler transporter (Peippo et al. 1998). The energy goes
to the water and steam system of the membrane boiler. The steam generated goes to the
power plant or is used for heating purposes. Conveyors transport the produced calcine
further. As mentioned previously, a fluid bed cooler cools the calcine from the furnace
overflow. In most plants a sectional drum cooler cools this calcine overflow. The furnace
and boiler calcine is coarse and is therefore ground in a ball mill. All the calcine goes into
a bin and then the calcine is normally transported pneumatically to the calcine storage
bin.

3.6 Gas cleaning

The SO2 gas contains impurities that must be taken care of in order to make pure sulphu-
ric acid at the sulphuric acid plant. In gas cleaning the most important impurity to remo-
 42

ve is mercury. For this purpose there are different processes of which the Boliden-Nor-
zink method is one of the most common (Mukherjee 1999). Another process is the Outo-
kumpu process, which is used in Kokkola. Final mercury cleaning methods are the Dowa
tower and the Se filter (Abe et al. 1980, Mukherjee 1999). Other important elements in
gas cleaning are Cl, F and Se. For Hg removal the important elements are Hg, Se and Cl.
These elements have an impact on Hg removal efficiency. The halogens, Cl and F, must
also be taken care of because they are corrosive elements.
In Kokkola the chain is very long and the gas pipe from the Hg removal towers to the
acid plant is 800 m. The process in Kokkola can use concentrates with a very high Hg
level e.g up to 800 ppm in the concentrate mixture has been used. The normal mercury
level in the concentrate mixture is about 100–400 ppm. The quality of sulphuric acid is
also important and the Hg level should be below 0.1 mg Hg/kg H2SO4. The trend is to
make sulphuric acid with a mercury level of 0.01 to 0.05 mg Hg/kg H2SO4.

3.7 The dynamics of the process

The dynamics of the roasting process are very complex. A slight underpressure is kept in
the furnace. The dynamics of the underpressure are very fast (seconds), i.e. changes in the
air feed and valves connected to the fans change this pressure very quickly. Controlling
the underpressure is therefore a challenge for the operators. Start-up and shutdown situa-
tions are especially demanding. This was the main reason for building a simulator (Toska-
la 2000). The pressure dynamics were studied thoroughly before the simulator for the
operators was built. This simulator enables the operators to practise start-up and shut-
down situations (Toskala 2000, Toskala et al. 2001).
Changes in feed rate, air amount and feed water amount influence the gas temperature
very quickly (seconds) whereas changes in the bed temperature are slower (minutes). The
dynamics of the furnace were studied with the purpose of identifying the process. Based
on this identification a model was built (Härkönen 2003, Saxén et al. 2004). Further
development based on the model has been made with the target of optimising the furnace
control (Valo 2004).
The dynamics that are much slower are more difficult changes to observe and control.
Build-ups in the furnace or instability in the bed due to the fact that the particle size distri-
bution in the bed becomes fine are phenomena where the time delay is very long, i.e. sev-
eral days. The major challenge is to obtain information about phenomena that occur in the
furnace slowly. Formation of build-ups in the boiler is also a slow process.
In mercury removal the time delay is also very long, several days, before anything can
be seen in the end product. Correcting the process also takes several days.
The dynamics of the process are discussed further in chapter 6. Some results are pre-
sented from the step tests, from which it can be seen how quickly the different variables
have an effect e.g. bed and gas temperatures.
 4 Targets for control system development
The overall target of the research and development done has been to improve the econo-
mic result by running the roaster efficiently, including quality, environment and safety
issues (Nyberg 2001, Fugleberg 1999). The main target is to increase flexibility in the use
of concentrates, i.e. increase the treatment charge income, by developing the control stra-
tegy. The sub-targets include running time and feed rate. The sub-targets promote the
main targets, such as the economic result and quality.
One of the main goals for every zinc plant is to achieve a good economic result. The
major income of zinc plants is the treatment charge for treating zinc concentrates. When
selling the zinc ingots they have produced, the plants are paid for the zinc plus they get a
certain premium, which is additional income. The price of zinc is a relevant factor, both
when concentrates are bought and when zinc is sold. The concentrates are a major cost
factor and the purer the concentrates are, i.e. the higher the Zn content, the more expen-
sive they are. Besides concentrates the other main costs of the zinc plant are electricity
costs, personnel costs, maintenance costs and costs of the chemicals used. The treatment
charge (TC) income should be optimised. To achieve this the performance of the roaster is
critical. During the last decade, the TC-value has been in the range of $140–220 /t con-
centrate. The capability of using different kinds of concentrates along with the smooth
running of the process is the key to success. Production of the same amount of zinc using
low-grade zinc concentrates, i.e. compensating for the low grade with a high feed rate,
increases the income. Knowledge and control options are required to increase the feed
rate and to be able to use low-grade concentrates.
The general price functions for zinc concentrates are:
1. When the Zn level of the concentrate = Zn % > 53.3% then
Price of the concentrate = Zn price * 0.85 * Zn level (%) – TC – fines
2. When the Zn level of the concentrate = Zn % < 53.3% then
Price of the concentrate = (Zn level (%) – 8%) * Zn price/100 – TC – fines
In order to reach the economic target the operation of the roaster should be smooth. A
high concentrate feed rate and high uptime are the main sub-targets. There are several
ways of increasing the feed rate to the furnace, such as increasing the temperature, add-
ing more cooling coils to the furnace, water injection to the bed and using oxygen. The
challenge is to know what the optimal conditions are for each concentrate mixture. It is
 44

essential to have a good, stable bed in the furnace. The fluidisation should also be good,
because it has an impact on the heat transfer. It is therefore important to gain knowledge
about how the quality of the bed can be controlled. When coarse concentrates and con-
centrates with a low amount of impurities are used, this is easier to achieve than when the
concentrates are impure and fine. The main impurities that must be taken into account are
Cu and Pb. The feed mixture is the most important control variable and planning the feed
mixture is the key to success, both in short- and long-term planning. The kinds of concen-
trates used influence the roasting performance. The advantage of the zinc plant in
Kokkola is that concentrates more suitable for roasting are used in the roaster and those
more suitable for direct leaching are used in leaching. When concentrates are chosen,
there are many other viewpoints that must be considered besides the main goal, i.e. a
good economic result. In fact, the whole plant must be considered when evaluating the
impacts of the different elements in the concentrates.
The target for the control of the furnace is to optimise both the capacity and the condi-
tions in the furnace. To reach a high degree of uptime, it is essential to maintain optimal
conditions in the furnace. In zinc roasters the specific capacities of the roaster furnaces
are about 6–8.2 t/m2/d (Svens et al. 2003). In the Kokkola zinc roaster the yearly average
is about 7.4 t/m2/d (dry ton). The optimum feed rate depends on the concentrate mixture,
the equipment capacity (furnace, boiler and ESPs) and the possibilities of setting the opti-
mal conditions, i.e. having the necessary control tools. Too high a feed rate can lead to
sinters, bad fluidisation and problems in the boiler, which will influence the uptime. The
target is to optimise the capacity, i.e. the yearly concentrate feed amount, by optimising
the feed rate and running time. Yearly concentrate feed versus feed rate and running time
is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Yearly concentrate feed as a factor of feed rate and running time.
Running Yearly concentrate feed as a factor of feed rate and running time
time Mt / a
%
95.0 0.166 0.171 0.175 0.179 0.183 0.187 0.191 0.196 0.200
94.5 0.166 0.170 0.174 0.178 0.182 0.186 0.190 0.195 0.199
94.0 0.165 0.169 0.173 0.177 0.181 0.185 0.189 0.194 0.198
93.5 0.164 0.168 0.172 0.176 0.180 0.184 0.188 0.192 0.197
93.0 0.163 0.167 0.171 0.175 0.179 0.183 0.187 0.191 0.196
92.5 0.162 0.166 0.170 0.174 0.178 0.182 0.186 0.190 0.194
92.0 0.161 0.165 0.169 0.173 0.177 0.181 0.185 0.189 0.193
91.5 0.160 0.164 0.168 0.172 0.176 0.180 0.184 0.188 0.192
91.0 0.159 0.163 0.167 0.171 0.175 0.179 0.183 0.187 0.191
90.5 0.159 0.163 0.166 0.170 0.174 0.178 0.182 0.186 0.190
90.0 0.158 0.162 0.166 0.170 0.173 0.177 0.181 0.185 0.189
20.0 20.5 21.0 21.5 22.0 22.5 23.0 23.5 24.0

Concentrate feed rate

t/h

In order to achieve a high running time there should be few shutdowns and the yearly
shutdown should be as short as possible. The interval between yearly shutdowns should
also be as long as possible, however without neglecting the required maintenance of
 45

equipment at proper intervals. The stress and the challenge come from keeping the fur-
nace and boiler running without cleaning for long periods. Besides the main equipment,
i.e. furnace and boiler, there is also other equipment that must be taken care of, such as
the big fans and ESPs. Back-up equipment (fans, ESPs etc.) is one means of achieving a
high running time.
Efficient production and minimal process disturbances are the result of process knowl-
edge, good control of the process, good equipment, good maintenance and skilled person-
nel.
The total concentrate feed is the result of the feed rate versus the running time as
shown in Table 1 above. The table shows that increasing the running time from 93% to
94% increases the yearly feed rate by about 0.02 Mt/a, at a feed rate of 21.5 t/h. Increas-
ing the feed rate from 21.5 t/h to 22.5 t/h increases the yearly feed by 0.08 Mt/a, when the
running time is 93%.
The quality of the steam, calcine and sulphuric acid produced should be acceptable. In
particular, the quality of sulphuric acid has lately become more important and the trend is
that the mercury level should be low. To be able to produce sulphuric acid with low mer-
cury and few disturbances has placed extra stress on process development. The need for a
good and manageable process is also important when choosing concentrates. If the pro-
cess can handle concentrates with high mercury without problems then flexibility is
increased.
Nowadays, environmental issues are becoming increasingly important. Therefore run-
ning the roasting lines with as few disturbances as possible is crucial. Again, process
knowledge, maintenance and skilled personnel are essential in reaching this goal. Safety
issues have also become a topic of great importance. Therefore safety issues must be con-
sidered all the time.
In roasting, the target has been to obtain more information about the roasting mecha-
nism, the impacts of impurities, the dynamics of the process and the influences of differ-
ent control variables. More knowledge is needed in order to be able to treat fine and
impure concentrates in the roaster fluid bed furnace. One important target has been to
adopt new measurements and analyses that give more information about the state of the
roasting process. Adding the means to control the process has also been a significant tar-
get. Another goal has been to increase the skill and performance of the operating person-
nel by training and creating new instructions using the knowledge gained.
In boiler development, the target has been to modify the boiler based on research and
development work and operational experiences in order to increase efficiency and uptime.
Reaching this target improves the overall performance and gives more freedom for roast-
ing furnace control.
In mercury removal the target has been to gain more knowledge about the process by
doing research and development work. This has been the platform when creating the
means to control the process.
 5 Measurements and control of the fluidised bed furnace
In this chapter measurements and control of the fluidised bed furnace are discussed. It
was part of this work to establish what kinds of measurements and analyses give valuable
information for the control system development. Based on more knowledge, more
measurements and more analyses, the control strategy, loops and means of control could
be developed. A computer system for monitoring and controlling the process is a
necessity. The need to gather measurements and analyses in a system that contains both
short-term and long-term trends is necessary.
The major goal of the control strategy development is to improve the economic result
and the treatment charge (TC) is the key factor that should be optimised. The target is to
be flexible in the use of concentrates, which is necessary to reach the economic goal.
As discussed in chapter 3, the quality differs between various concentrates which are
generally known to behave differently in the furnace. The major factors are the impurity
levels and the particle size distribution of the concentrates. The concentrate mixture is the
most significant control factor. When no other control tool works, then this control tool
must be used, i.e. the concentrate mixture must be changed.
For example, a broad range of different concentrates is used in the Kokkola roaster.
Calculation of the concentrate mixture is made both in short- and long-term planning.
Long-term planning means that the concentrate mixture for a period of about one year is
calculated. The key in long-term planning is to optimise the economic result, but also to
make a plan that is realistic, i.e. to keep the impurity levels and particle size distribution
within a safe range. A short-time plan made on a weekly basis enables changes to be
made when needed, according to the response of the process and the optimisation of the
use of the concentrates that are actually in the concentrate storage.
Control of the roaster furnace is the essential factor allowing flexibility in the use of
concentrates. There are several limits to the operation of the furnace, as the process is
quite varied and many aspects have to be considered. Having the tools to change roaster
furnace behaviour, i.e. control tools, is essential in order to achieve flexibility.
Developing the boiler and mercury removal process has increased the flexibility in
running the roaster furnace and choosing concentrates. The flexibility in choosing
concentrates is higher when constraints due to these two stages are low. For the boiler this
means long running periods with few shutdowns due to build-ups or leakages in the
 47

boiler. An effective boiler also allows more flexible running of the furnace, i.e. the
operation parameters in the furnace can be chosen so that they are optimal for the furnace,
but not necessarily for the boiler. By making the boiler effective it can cope with a high
dust load and high sulphate load. The target is to make sulphuric acid with low mercury
content, but having a process that allows the use of a concentrate mixture with a high
mercury level is also essential for optimising the concentrate mix, i.e. optimising the TC
income.

5.1 Measurements and analyses of the fluidised bed furnace

Many measurements and analyses are required to know the state of the roasting process
as shown in Fig. 19. Calculated variables give additional information. In this evaluation
mainly those measurements and analyses are discussed that are of importance for
roasting. Basic measurements give a good overview of the state of the process. The basic
measurements are:
– Temperature (many measurements in the furnace bed, in the gas line and in calcine
cooling).
– Pressure (furnace wind-box, furnace, boiler and gas line).
– Flows (air, water, steam, oxygen).

Basic measurements Advanced measurements

and analyses and analyses

Temperatures More temperatures from the bed

(bottom and side) (bottom and side at different
heights)
Furnace
Top temperature On-line oxygen after the boiler

Windbox pressure On-line oxygen from the bed

Furnace pressure Furnace calcine analysis

Air flow Furnace calcine particle size

distribution

Waterflow Calculated oxygen coefficient

Total calcine analysis Calculated overflow calcine amount

Fig. 19. Basic and advanced measurements of the furnace.

Besides measurements many chemical analyses are required. Chemical analyses of the
concentrates form the basis for making the feed mixture calculation. There are maximum
limits for many impurities. The limits set are based on zinc plant operation experience
and also pilot studies (Grant 1994, Constantineau et al. 2002).
Pressure measurements indicate the state of the process. The wind-box pressure is
essential for evaluating furnace behaviour. Many things affect the actual value of the
 48

wind-box pressure. The actual amount of the bed, the particle size distribution
(coarseness), fluidisation and sinters formed in the furnace influence the wind-box
pressure. Thus a change in wind-box pressure can be a result of many factors, and many
times experience and the ability to analyse trends are required in order to draw the right
conclusion. Draft pressure is another pressure measurement that must be monitored.
Pressure measurements in the gas line (boiler, cyclones, ESPs and mercury removal) are
indicators of how clean the equipment is and of when manual cleaning of the equipment
is required. The boiler pressure, along with the level control of the boiler drum, is
necessary for the operation of the water steam system.
Different flow measurements are also among the basic measurements that are needed.
The amount of concentrate fed to the furnace is normally based on X-ray measurement.
Measurements of the airflow to the furnace and water flows to various locations are also
required.
Furnace temperatures are measured both from the bottom and the side of the furnace.
These measurements are very important when evaluating the state of the furnace. The
more temperature measurements installed in the furnace, the more reliable the picture of
the state of the furnace gained. At Kokkola more temperature measurements have been
installed at the bottom of the furnace and also on different levels of the sidewall to get
more information. Temperature measurements in many places are essential because
during long running periods malfunctions due to severe conditions and/or formation of
sinters always cause some of the temperature measurements to stop working.
The calculated overflow calcine amount is in use at Kokkola to give more information
about the calcine flow. The calculated calcine overflow amount is based on a mass and
heat balance calculation of the fluid bed calcine cooler. The calculation is based on
temperature and flow measurements of the calcine, water and air system. Changes in
furnace behaviour can often be seen in a changed overflow amount of the calcine flow.
The chemical analysis of the total calcine, for instance the sulphide sulphur (S2-)
analysis, gives a picture of the roasting conditions. The sulphide level of the calcine is a
major indicator both of the state of roasting and the quality of the product. This was also
discussed in chapter 3. It is important to monitor other analyses like Cu and Pb to avoid
the problems which will arise if their levels are too high. More analyses give more
information and at the Kokkola roaster the analysis of the furnace overflow calcine has
proved crucial when evaluating the state of the furnace. Besides chemical analysis (Cu,
Pb, S2-, Si, Ca, SO4) of the overflow calcine, the analysis of the particle size distribution
also gives a lot of information. The particle size of the calcine is classified into four
different areas and in particular the amount of fine particles corresponds with furnace
behaviour; thus, for example, there are normally problems when the proportion of fine
particles in the bed is high. The importance of monitoring the particle size distribution is
discussed further in chapter 6.
Besides temperature, the second most important factor for roasting conditions is the
oxygen coefficient. The determination and calculation method of the oxygen coefficient
are presented later in this chapter (in the control section). Oxygen pressure is the general
variable, in addition to temperature, when phase diagrams are evaluated and so the
oxygen pressure value is essential.
The on-line oxygen measurement in the off gas line also indicates the oxygen
coefficient. It is normally placed at the end of the waste heat boiler. The value of the
 49

measurement changes according to changes in the oxygen coefficient, and the correlation
is quite good (See chapter 6). However, this requires that the draft control of the furnace
is stable; otherwise the result is disturbed by leakage air.
On-line measurement of the oxygen from the roaster furnace bed has been
implemented at Kokkola during plant trials. Oxygen has been measured both from the
feed side and the overflow side of the furnace (Parkkinen et al. 2002). During
measurement campaigns done during test periods, changes have been detected in the
oxygen content in the bed when making changes in the process variables. The oxygen
content has been lower on the feed side of the furnace compared to the overflow side.
This has also been mentioned in a report (Richards 1995). Chapter 6 includes examples of
these measurements.

5.2 Control specification of the fluidised bed furnace

The control of a fluidised bed furnace and the equipment in connection with the furnace
is quite varied and many aspects have to be considered. One is the necessity for a good
and reliable computer system in order to reach a high level in control aspects. Large fans
and many valves must be controlled. It requires a lot of attention and skill by the
operators to control them, especially during start-ups and shutdowns. This was one reason
why a simulator was built (Toskala 2000, Toskala et al. 2001) – to enable the operators to
train and learn to understand the dynamics of the process. Pressures and temperatures
must be within the correct operating range. There is also a lot of external equipment to
control. There are conveyors in the roaster both for feeding the concentrate mixture to the
furnace and for transporting the formed calcine to the calcine storage bin. The boiler
system also requires a lot of attention. The high pressure and temperature of the boiler
make the dynamics very rapid and there are also many safety aspects that the operators
must be aware of. A failure in boiler control may have fatal consequences. During normal
operating conditions the automation system keeps the system quite stable.
The control of the roaster furnace is a multivariable system. Changing one control
variable has an impact on many variables, as shown in Fig. 20. Both dynamic and
thermodynamic aspects must be considered in the development of the furnace control
strategy.
 50

The control of the furnace is a multivariable system

Concentrate feed amount Bed temperatures

Concentrate feed composition Top temperature

Air feed Oxygen coefficient

Oxygen feed Calcine composition

(S2- , SO4 ,
grain size distribution etc.)

Water feed before the furnace Behaviour of the bed

to the concentrate mixture (wind-box pressure, fluidisation,
temperature gradients etc.)

Water injection into the bed Calcine overflow amount

Fig. 20. The control of the furnace is a multivariable system. Many aspects must be considered.
Knowledge of the dynamics and the thermodynamics of the process is essential.

The control hierarchy of the furnace control can be classified in three categories and is
described as follows (Saxén & Nyberg 2003). Fig. 21 shows the main control inputs of
the different control levels for the furnace.
Conventional Control: When the situation in the furnace is stable and the concentrate
(Standard) mixture is easy to handle, then standard control is enough. Changes
in set points, like temperature and air flow, keep the temperature
gradients stable in the furnace, the quality of the product good and
also the production amount at the proper level.
Advanced Control: To increase the control level of the furnace control in order to in-
crease flexibility a more advanced control level is needed. This re-
quires more measurements and also more control tools, such as the
possibility to add water to different locations and to use oxygen en-
richment to keep the furnace in balance. The challenge is to know
the state of the furnace. Knowing what should be done, i.e. the op-
timum process conditions, and having the tools to do it is part of
this control level. By developing advanced control the chances of
being flexible with concentrates increase. The target is to optimise
the production and the process conditions.
 51

Ultimate Control: When neither standard nor advanced control helps then the only
solution is often to change the mixture of the concentrate feed, oth-
erwise the furnace may remain unstable and lead to formation of
sinters in the furnace. This ultimate control is far more expensive,
because purer concentrates must be used and they are more expen-
sive. Sometimes such concentrates might not be available at short
notice.

Basic control Advanced control

Temperature set point Water feed to different spots

Furnace
Feed amount control Oxygen feed

Air amount Pretreatment of concentrate mixture

Fixed cooling capacity Oxygen coefficient control

Bed height at overflow Underflow system

Draft control of the furnace Grid area with bigger nozzles (fixed)

Calculation of feed mixture Special overflow grid

Ultimate control

Changing the feed mixture to a safe mixture

Fig. 21. Control inputs of the different control levels for the furnace control.

The feed mixture is the most important control input to keep the roasting conditions
stable. The impurity levels and particle size distribution of the concentrate mixture
influence the behaviour of the furnace. It is vital that the mixture is homogenous;
therefore the blending should be done well. Usually the blend is a calculated mixture of
several concentrates and the day bins before the furnace are filled in sequences that make
the content of the bin as homogenous as possible. One possible way to make the feed very
homogenous is to make the concentrate mixture in the concentrate storage (Ek 1999).
Pretreatment of the feed before it is fed to the furnace is essential when the concentrate is
fine and contains impurities. One way to handle the problem and to stabilise the furnace is
to pelletise part of the feed (Brown & Goosen 1996). Some concentrates are oxides and
other materials fed to the furnace are oxides too, for example, the dust from the zinc
foundry. Oxide materials increase capacity because they have a cooling effect on the bed.
Additions of water have a significant impact on roasting (Grant (1993,1994), Lightfoot
1977). Water addition to the concentrate mixture makes the particles larger and stabilises
the furnace. Water injection to the bed increases the concentrate feed. In addition,
spraying water into the furnace above the bed increases the feed (Longton 1998,
Takayama et al. 2000).
The temperature of the furnace is one of the main control variables. When the
temperature is high then the feed increases, but the risk of molten phases also increases
 52

(Nyberg et al. 2000). A normal temperature range for the bed in zinc roasters is between
920oC and 960oC. One possibility to control the temperature in the furnace is to control
the concentrate feeding system, either manually or automatically, in order to keep the
temperature set point at the desired value (Rauma et al. 2000). Another possibility is to
set a fixed value for the feed and to control the temperature in the bed by automatically
controlling the water injection to the bed.
The other main control variable besides the bed temperature is the amount of air fed to
the furnace. At Kokkola the range is normally between 41,000 and 43,000 Nm3/h per
furnace for the furnaces with a grate area of 72 m2. If the concentrate feed controls the
temperature, then the feed increases if the air amount is increased due to the cooling
effect of the air (Nyberg et al. 2000). This can be seen especially during winter when the
air is cold. Changing the amount of air also has other effects; it affects fluidising and
changes the oxygen coefficient.
Calculation of the oxygen coefficient and its active control has been in use at the
Kokkola roaster since 2000. Definition of the oxygen coefficient:
“The oxygen coefficient determines the availability of oxygen for complete roasting of
the concentrate, i.e. the ratio of total oxygen in the process gas to the oxygen requirement
of the feed mixture for the formation of stable oxides and sulphates in the roaster off-gas”
(Anjala et al. 1987, Asteljoki et al. 1989, Asteljoki & Muller 1987, Kytö et al. 1989, Rod-
olff et al. 1986).
At Kokkola the oxygen coefficient is calculated on-line by an automation system
based on data fed to the system and on measurements (Taskinen et al. 2000b). The use of
the calculated oxygen coefficient has proved invaluable; especially when the situation in
the furnace has been critical and also during experiments when new process conditions
and different parameters (impurities) have been tested. Fig. 22 shows how the oxygen
coefficient is calculated. Mineralogical studies provide the basis for the calculations.

Mineralogical Oxygen requirement Calculated oxygen

studies of for different requirement of the
concentrates concentrates concentrate mixture.

Analyses of
concentrates Measured concen- Calculated oxygen
trate feed to the coefficient in
furnace roaster furnace

Measured air feed

to the furnace
Calculated oxygen Control decision
feed to the furnace
Measured oxygen
feed to the furnace

Fig. 22. The calculation scheme for the oxygen coefficient and its use for control. This has been
adopted and is now in use in the control of the furnaces at the Kokkola roaster.

When phase diagrams and Kellogg diagrams are studied there are two significant
variables, namely temperature and oxygen pressure or potential (Mäkinen & Jåfs 1982,
 53

Nermes & Talonen 1982). Especially when concentrates containing impurities like Cu,
Pb, Si, Na and K are used, the importance of keeping both the temperature and the oxygen
coefficient within the right range is highly significant. The oxygen coefficient can be
controlled in many ways, with the key being the feed versus the total oxygen feed.
Variables that changes the oxygen coefficient are the set point temperature of the bed, the
amount of air used, water mixed into the concentrate mixture feed, water injected to the
bed and oxygen added to the air feed. The influence of air for instance, i.e. increasing or
decreasing, is dependent on the control strategy. If, for instance, the feed is fixed, then
increasing the amount of air increases the oxygen coefficient, but if the temperature is
kept fixed by controlling the feed, then increasing the amount decreases the oxygen
coefficient. This is due to the fact that an increase of air cools the bed and increases the
feed proportionally more than the amount of air. The influence of the oxygen coefficient
is presented in chapter 6. It is essential to know what the actual oxygen coefficient is and
to control it. This calculation and control of the oxygen coefficient is one of the most
significant parts of this work (Chapter 6, Taskinen et al. 2000b).
Feeding oxygen can be used in roasting for many purposes. The use of oxygen
increases the capacity without changing the fluidisation as much as the use of additional
air does (Filho et al. 1998, Longton 1998, MacLagan et al. 2000, Saha et al. 1989). The
use of oxygen also increases the oxygen coefficient and thus it changes the operation
parameters of the process. In some cases the possibility of using oxygen can be an
advantage for the control of the roaster furnace. The disadvantage is in many cases the
price of oxygen. Increased cooling capacity (increasing the capacity of the cooling coils
or water injection) is needed when oxygen enrichment is used to increase the capacity,
otherwise the temperature will increase in the furnace.
On the overflow side of the furnace, the height of the bed is controlled by bars.
Depending on the wind-box pressure of the furnace, the height of the bed is adjusted by
adding or removing bars. If the bed is high, then the cooling coils in the furnace are used
more effectively and thus the capacity of the furnace increases.
The cooling coils in the furnace above the grate area cool the bed. By increasing the
cooling area, the capacity of the furnace increases. This capacity is fixed and cannot be
controlled during operation, thus a suitable cooling capacity must be decided when the
furnace is built and can only be changed during long maintenance shutdowns. Water
injection to the bed is a flexible way of controlling the cooling capacity of the furnace.
The draft control must be accurate, and a slight underpressure must be sustained in the
furnace. Overpressure in the furnace leads to SO2 emissions, dust emissions and
insufficient working conditions. The underpressure should be as close to zero as possible;
otherwise leakage air increases, which can lead to build-ups on the furnace wall above the
slinger belt inlets. These build-ups are sulphates formed due to the low temperature in this
part of the furnace. The SO2 blower and the valves connected to it control the draft.
Some plants use the underflow outlet from the grate bottom at the side of the furnace.
This can be an outlet for the very coarse material on the grate surface that does not
fluidise properly. There are different types of underflow mechanisms and the advanced
version that is in use in some roasters is based on an automatically controlled lance
system (Svens et al. 2003). A modified version of this is in use at Kokkola. This system
includes a cooling system with a system that measures the amount of calcine removed and
the ability to control the amount (Siirilä et al. 2003).
 54

The grate area is full of nozzles on the surface. The distance between the nozzles is
about 10 cm and the diameter of the nozzle hole is about 6 mm. To increase the amount of
oxygen at the side where the slinger belts are located, bigger nozzles can be used in this
specific area (Taskinen et al. 2000a). The advantage of this is that because the concentrate
comes into the furnace on this side and reacts here, the oxygen demand is high in this part
of the furnace. If the nozzles are of normal type, it leads to a low oxygen coefficient and
formation of build-ups on the furnace bottom.
In the overflow area there are nozzles on the surface and the pressure is the wind-box
pressure of the furnace. To be able to control the overflow, the nozzles of this specific
area can be connected to a pressurised system (Siirilä 2000). This makes it possible to
increase the pressure and to increase the amount of calcine removed from the furnace via
the overflow.
An advanced furnace control diagram is shown in Fig. 23. It includes water feed to
various points, oxygen feed, a fuzzy control loop for the temperature control of the bed
temperature and a top temperature control loop for the boiler inlet temperature. The
diagram includes also advanced measurements (oxygen at the end of the boiler), analyses
(grain size distribution analysis of the furnace calcine) and calculated variables such as
the oxygen coefficient and calcine overflow amount.

O2
STEAM (BO ILER+
FURNACE)
FEED WATER
H2O P T

H2O
VACUUM
H2O P T T O2

H2O
CONCENTRATE MIX
FURNACE BOILER

DAY DAY
BIN BIN
FUZZY CONTROL

S 2-
m

T USER SPECIFIED
L
SETPOINT S 2-

CALCINE TO
H2O LEACHING
P

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
P
H2O G RAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION
Calculated P

oxygen AIR O2 P

coefficient AIR O2 Calculated calcine

overflow amount

Fig. 23. A furnace control diagram is shown with advanced control and measurements. It
includes among others a fuzzy control loop, the calculated oxygen coefficient, oxygen measuring
from the gasline, calculated calcine overflow amount and grain size distribution analysis of the
furnace calcine. The possibility of feeding water to different spots and oxygen is also available.
 55

5.3 Aspects relating to the boiler and mercury removal

In the heat recovery boiler, the water steam system requires reliable measurements,
because otherwise the control of this high-pressure system can lead to severe
malfunctions. The pressure control and the level control of the drum are the key control
items. The feed water, circulating water and steam produced are the other main control
variables. The goal regarding boiler performance is to have a high degree of uptime
without shutdowns and start-ups due to manual cleaning of the boiler. To achieve this,
rapping or hammering devices must be installed. At Kokkola there are more than 100
spring hammers per boiler, which effectively hammer the bundles and the walls. The
hammering devices are controlled sequentially by an automation system.
There are also several measurements in the boiler gas line of temperature and pressure,
which indicate how clean the boiler is and if the boiler is working properly.
The control of mercury removal requires measurements (temperature, pressure and
flows), analyses of both liquids and slurries (Hg, Se, Cl, and H2SO4) and also control
options (addition of chemicals and cooling). Often the difficulty is that the quantities are
very low, especially in the gas phase, and controlling them is not so easy. The target, i.e.
the quality of the sulphuric acid, is nowadays very high, which means a very low mercury
level.
 6 Results of the control strategy development for the
Kokkola zinc roasting process
In the following the control strategy development for the Kokkola zinc roaster is
described. The main parts of the development are the furnace, the boiler and mercury
removal.

6.1 Furnace development

The target of the furnace control system has been to increase the capability of using
different kinds of concentrates, because flexibility with concentrates is essential and
economically very significant. Low-grade Zn concentrates are less expensive, but treating
them is more difficult due to the fact that they contain more impurities. To reach this
target, the optimal conditions for a certain concentrate mixture have to be determined.
Control means and knowledge of the influence of different variables are other factors of
importance. Knowledge of the state of the furnace has to increase by adding more
measurements and also by taking additional samples for analysis (chemical and particle
size distribution analysis).
The target has also been to run the furnace without the formation of too many build-
ups and to prevent the bed from becoming fine by controlling the particle size growth of
the calcine bed. The research results have led to longer running periods. Formerly the
roaster furnaces were emptied once a year, but now the running period of the furnace has
increased. The target, which now seems attainable, is to run the furnace for two years
without cleaning.
Results from furnace research and development work are presented in the following
text as well as the influence of the various major factors.
 57

6.1.1 Factors correlating to bed instability

Factors correlating to instability have been derived from plant experiments and active
monitoring of the roasting process. By adding more measurement devices to the furnace
and by taking samples for analysis, information of great importance for evaluating the
situation in the furnace has been acquired. Placing numerous thermocouples in the
furnace at different heights has increased knowledge of the state of the furnace. Chemical
analysis of the furnace calcine and above all the grain size distribution of the furnace
calcine have proved to be very informative.
When the fraction of fine calcine increases in the bed, it normally correlates with other
variables and with bed instability. The situation during bed instability is often as follows:
– The percentage of fine grain size of the overflow calcine grows and the fraction < 71
µm in the overflow is over 10 %.
– Bed temperature drops in the furnace due to bad fluidisation. During such situations a
temperature drop can be seen in some parts of the furnace.
– The windbox pressure drops (bad fluidisation).
– The sulphide level analysed from the furnace calcine is very low.
– The overflow calcine amount (calculated variable) decreases.
– The fluidised bed becomes sticky.
Figs 24 and 25 show a situation when the bed was unstable for several days. Fig. 24
shows that the windbox pressure dropped when the amount of fine calcine in the bed, i.e.
the fraction less than 71 µm, increased. At the same time, as shown in Fig. 25, the values
of some bed temperatures dropped.

Windbox pressure and fine material in Furnace no 1

60 270
Pressure mbar
Procentage fine

50 260
material

40
250
30
240
20
10 230
0 220
1-Sep- 6-Sep- 11-Sep- 16-Sep- 21-Sep- 26-Sep-
2002 2002 2002 2002 2002 2002
Days
Fine material Windbox pressure

Fig. 24. The drop in windbox pressure and the increased proportion of fine calcine indicate an
unstable bed.
 58

Windbox pressure and temperatures in Furnace no 1

950 270
265
900

Pressure mbar
Temperature C 260
850 255
250
800 245
240
750
235
700 230
1-Sep- 6-Sep- 11-Sep- 16-Sep- 21-Sep- 26-Sep-
2002 2002 2002 2002 2002 2002
Days
Temp. no 6. Temp. no 7 Temp. no 2 Windbox pressure

Fig. 25. Temperature drop indicates an unstable bed. Temperatures measured from the
sidewall fell while the temperature measured from the bottom remained stable.

6.1.2 Oxygen coefficient control

The importance of the oxygen coefficient has become apparent during this research.
Therefore it is important to have the means to control it, to know how it affects roasting
and to know the value of the oxygen coefficient. As described in chapter 5, the oxygen
coefficient is calculated based on the mineralogical analysis of different concentrates. By
analysing the concentrates, the oxygen requirement is determined for each concentrate
and then the computer system calculates the oxygen coefficient using the available data
(concentrate feed, amount of air and oxygen). Thus, the operator knows the oxygen
coefficient in the furnace at all times.
There are different ways to either increase or decrease the oxygen coefficient.
Different ways of changing the oxygen coefficient include: changing the temperature set
point, changing the amount of air, using oxygen, using water before the furnace, feeding
water to the furnace, using oxides etc. The plant experiments performed have shown the
effects of different variables. Table 2 shows the alternative methods of changing the
oxygen coefficient and their effects. The operators use this information when they make
their control decisions.
(*1 = The control in this case, as is shown in Table 2, is such that the furnace
temperature set point is fixed and controlled and kept stable by the concentrate feed. *2 =
The top temperature is the point between the furnace and the boiler and is controlled by
the amount of water fed to the concentrate feed before the furnace. A top temperature
control loop has been added to the control system. The operator gives the set point and
then the water feed to the concentrate stream before the table feeder controls the top
temperature automatically).
 59

Table 2. The effects of different variables are shown in the table. The operators have seve-
ral ways to control the oxygen coefficient. Fuzzy temperature and top temperature control
loops are in use in the cases shown in the table.
The effects of different variables on the oxygen coefficient (*1)
Operation Results
1 Oxygen feed to the furnace (=ogygen enrichment of the Increases the oxygen coefficient.
process air to the furnace).
2 Lower bed temperature. Increases the oxygen coefficient due to
decreased feed.
3 Water injected into the bed. Decreases the oxygen coefficient due to
increased feed.
4 Water feed before the furnace to the concentrate mixture. Increases the oxygen coefficient due to
decreased feed.
5 Increasing the airflow. Decreases the oxygen coefficient if the feed
increase is proportionally larger than the
increased oxygen amount.
6 Decreasing top temperature. Increases the oxygen coefficient (*2).
7 Feeding oxide material into the feed mixture. Decreases the oxygen coefficient because
the oxide material has a cooling effect and
increases the feed.
8 Increasing the cooling area of the cooling coils in the fur- Decreases the oxygen coefficient because
nace. the feed increases.

Some results from plant trials are presented in Figs 26–28, i.e. how different variables
are affected by the oxygen coefficient.

WHB sulphide S%
Cyclone sulphide S%
0.90
ESP sulphide S%
0.80 Linear (WHB sulphide S%)
0.70 Linear (Cyclone sulphide S%)
Sulphide sulphur %

0.60
Linear (ESP sulphide S%)

0.50

0.40

0.30

0.20

0.10

0.00
0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3 1.35
Oxygen coefficient

Fig. 26. Sulphide level of the calcine (WHB, Cyclone and ESP) decreases when the oxygen
coefficient is high.
 60

WHB calcine sulphide sulphur 4/2002

0.7
WHB calcine sulphide sulphur 11/2001
0.6
WHB calcine sulphide sulphur 5/2002
Sulphide sulphur %

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
Oxygen coefficient

Fig. 27. Sulphide level of the WHB calcine is lower when the oxygen coefficient is high.

11

10

9
Difference SO4 %

7
Difference SO4 of the cyclone calcine
6 4/2002
Difference SO4 of the cyclone calcine
5 11/2001
Difference SO4 of the cyclone calcine
5/2002
4
0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
Oxygen coefficient

Fig. 28. High oxygen coefficient increases the amount of sulphates. Difference SO4 = the amount
of sulphates minus PbSO4 and CaSO4, which are always sulphates in roasting conditions.

The oxygen on-line measurement from the end of the WHB indicates, as is shown by
Fig. 29, that the sulphate amount increases when the oxygen level increases. Fig. 29 also
shows the need to calibrate the measurement device, because there is a difference in the
oxygen level at different times. It is important that the boiler, cyclones and ESPs can
handle the dust and the SO4 load without any trouble, so that the freedom to choose the
process parameters in the furnace and to use concentrates with high impurity levels
increases. Fig. 30 shows that the sulphide level decreases when the oxygen level in the
WHB gas increases.
 61

11

Difference SO4 % 10

7
Difference SO4 of the cyclone
6
calcine 4/2002
Difference SO4 of the cyclone
5 calcine 11/2001
Difference SO4 of the cyclone
4 calcine 5/2002
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Li
5.5
(Diff
6 6.5
SO4 f h
O2-content of the gas after waste heat boiler %

Fig. 29. High oxygen level in the WHB gas increases the sulphate amount.

WHB calcine sulphide sulphur 4/2002

0.8 WHB calcine sulphide sulphur 11/2001
WHB calcine sulphide sulphur 5/2002
0.7 Linear (WHB calcine sulphide sulphur 11/2001)
0.6
Sulphide sulphur %

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
O2-content of the gas after WHB %

Fig. 30. High oxygen level in the WHB gas decreases the sulphide amount.

6.1.3 Oxygen use to control bed quality

Oxygen enrichment, i.e. feeding oxygen to the process air, is used by some plants.
Oxygen can be used to increase capacity (chapter 5), but also in order to increase the
oxygen coefficient. The cost of oxygen is a factor that reduces its use, but if there is this
opportunity, i.e. the oxygen line is installed and oxygen is available, then it is an easy
way to control the oxygen coefficient. It is essential to have a bed with a good grain size
distribution. During operation the bed has often become unstable, i.e. it has become fine,
and by using oxygen the situation has several times been successfully corrected back to
normal (Nyberg et al. 2000). Figs 31 and 32 show that by using oxygen, the oxygen
coefficient has increased and this has led to an increase in the amount of coarse calcine
and a decrease in the amount of fine calcine. The use of oxygen and the increase in
oxygen coefficient value have not always solved the situation and other actions have also
been needed. More examples of controlling instability situations will be presented later in
this chapter.
 62

900.0 60.0

800.0
50.0
700.0

600.0 40.0
Oxygen Nm 3/

Fraction %
500.0
30.0
400.0

300.0 20.0

200.0
O xygen [Nm3/h] 10.0
100.0 Fraction >1.25 m m
Fraction <71 µm
0.0 0.0
17.9.2002 19.9.2002 21.9.2002 23.9.2002 25.9.2002 27.9.2002 29.9.2002 1.10.2002 3.10.2002
0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00

Time

Fig. 31. Oxygen feed versus fine and coarse particles in the bed. During oxygen feeding the
amount of fine particles decreased, while the amount of coarse particles increased.

60.0 1.26

1.24
50.0
1.22

1.20

Oxygen coefficie
40.0
Fraction %

1.18

30.0 1.16

1.14
20.0
1.12

1.10
10.0 Fraction >1.25 mm
Fraction <71 µm 1.08
Oxygen coefficient
0.0 1.06
17.9.2002 19.9.2002 21.9.2002 23.9.2002 25.9.2002 27.9.2002 29.9.2002 1.10.2002 3.10.2002
0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00
Time

Fig. 32. The oxygen coefficient versus fine and coarse calcine in the bed. Higher oxygen
coefficient decreased the amount of fine particles and increased the amount of coarse.

6.1.4 Bigger nozzles and oxygen measurements from the bed

The concentrate feed is fed to the furnace by slinger belts from one side of the furnace
and the outlet of the furnace is on the other side. This calcine amount, i.e. the overflow
calcine from the furnace, is about 30–40 % of the total calcine amount. The majority of
the calcine formed in the furnace is carried by the gas stream to the boiler. In slinger belt
tests, it became evident that the concentrate feed is not spread very far from the feed side.
On many occasions it has been seen during annual maintenance shutdowns, when the
furnace has been cleaned, that there are build-ups on the grate area on the feed side of the
furnace. This can be explained by the fact that most of the concentrate reacts in this part
of the furnace and therefore the oxygen need is greater in this part. Because an equal
amount of oxygen is fed to the whole grate area there is a lack of oxygen in this area, i.e.
the oxygen coefficient is low, which leads to sinters. The lack of oxygen on the feed side
 63

has been mentioned in a paper (Richards 1995). To avoid these build-ups bigger nozzles
have been installed on the feed side of the furnace to keep the oxygen coefficient high
enough (Taskinen et al. 2000a). Also, a special nozzle system has been tried to spread the
concentrate better on this side of the furnace (Nyberg et al. 2001). The need for more
oxygen in this side of the furnace has been confirmed by on-line oxygen measurements
from the bed. Oxygen has been measured during plant experiments from the feed and the
overflow side of the furnace (Parkkinen et al. 2002). Figs 33 and 34 show the very low
oxygen level on the feed side, while there is oxygen present on the overflow side. The
SO2 level in the bed can also be seen from Figs 33 and 34. SO2 measurements have also
been presented in a paper (Dimitrov & Schopov 1985).

3.00 30

SO2-content of the bed gas [ %

O2-content of the bed gas [ %

2.50
24

2.00
18

1.50

12
1.00

6
0.50

0.00 0
8.11.2001 8:23 8.11.2001 10:23 8.11.2001 12:23 8.11.2001 14:23

Input side O2 % Input side SO2 %

Fig. 33. On-line gas measurement from the roaster bed on the feed side. The O2 level in the bed
is very low.

10.00 30

9.00
SO2-content of the bed gas [ %
O2- content of the bed gas [ %

8.00 24

7.00

6.00 18

5.00

4.00 12

3.00

2.00 6

1.00

0.00 0
8.11.2001 8:23 8.11.2001 10:23 8.11.2001 12:23 8.11.2001 14:23

Overflow side O2 % Overflow side SO2 %

Fig. 34. On-line gas measurement from the roaster bed on the overflow side. The O2 level is
higher on the outlet side of the furnace.
 64

6.1.5 Effects of water on the furnace behaviour

As previously mentioned, the addition of water has many effects. The addition of water to
the concentrate stream particularly before the day bins and also before the table feeder
has a pelletising effect. Thus it should be used in cases when the concentrate mixture has
a high impurity level and is fine. Feeding water to the concentrate mixture before the
furnace also reduces the feed and increases the oxygen coefficient. In the cases shown in
Figs 35–39, the furnace temperature set point is given and the concentrate mixture
amount controls the temperature. Water can also be used to control the top temperature by
feeding it to the concentrate mixture. By injecting water to the bed the feed can be
increased. The water feed cools the bed and for this reason the control application
increases the feed in order to keep the temperature at the set point. Some effects of water
are described in the following text and can be seen in the following figures. Similar
results have also been presented in a published paper (Nyberg et al. 2000).
Water fed to the concentrate mixture has the following effects:
– Stabilises sulphide combustion in a fluidised bed. This has been seen during experi-
ments. The oxygen on-line measurements have shown that the oxygen level is stabi-
lised when water has been fed. Other experiments have shown that the temperature
differences between the different furnace temperature measurements have been dec-
reased.
– Decreases the feed when the concentrate feed controls the temperature. This is the
case when water is fed before the day bins, as shown in Fig. 35, or is fed after the day
bins, as shown in Fig. 36.
– Transfers the combustion of the concentrate mixture more to the bed, i.e. less com-
bustion over the bed, which decreases the capacity.
– Increases the total oxygen coefficient.
– Decreases the sulphide content of the boiler and cyclone calcine as shown in Fig. 38.
– Decreases the temperature of the upper part of the roaster furnace.
– Increases the fraction of overflow calcine (= the calcine furnace overflow).
Test 2000
28 Test 11/2001
27
Linear (Test 2000)
Linear (Test 11/2001)
26
Wet feed t/h

25

24

23

22

21

20
7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12
Moisture %

Fig. 35. High moisture of the concentrate mixture decreases the feed. The water makes
agglomerates and transfers the burning more to the bed. The feed is reduced because otherwise
the temperature would rise in the furnace, due to the furnace temperature control application.
 65

Water sprayed into the fluidised bed has the following effects:
• Cools the calcine bed in the furnace.
• Increases the concentrate feed as shown in Fig. 37.
• Decreases the total oxygen coefficient.

Air 44 000 Nm3/h

29

28

27 Air flow 44 000 Nm3/h;

26
Water feed into furnace
Feed t/h

25

24

23

22

21

20
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Water into concentrate l/h

Fig. 36. Water fed to the concentrate before the furnace decreases the concentrate feed. In this
case too, water makes agglomerates and transfers the burning more to the bed. The feed is
reduced because otherwise the temperature would rise in the furnace, due to the furnace
temperature control application.

28.0
Water feed
27.0

26.0
Feed rate t/h

25.0

24.0
No water feed
23.0

22.0
16.11.2001 16.11.2001 17.11.2001 17.11.2001 17.11.2001 17.11.2001 17.11.2001 17.11.2001
21:36 22:48 00:00 01:12 02:24 03:36 04:48 06:00

Time

Fig. 37. Water injection into the bed increases the feed. Water sprayed (500 l/h) into the furnace
bed cools the bed and more concentrate has to be fed to keep the temperature in the furnace at
the set point value due to the furnace temperature control application.

Fig. 37 shows that the concentrate feed is high when water (500 l/h) is injected into the
furnace bed. When the water injection is stopped, then the feed drops.
 66

0.8 Sulphide sulphur of the boiler

Sulphide sulphur content of the calcine % 0.7
calcine %
Sulphide sulphur of the cyclone
0.6 calcine %
Linear (Sulphide sulphur of the
0.5 boiler calcine %)
Li (S l hid l h f th
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Moistening water of the concentrate l/h

Fig. 38. Water fed into the concentrate before the furnace decreases the sulphide level of the
boiler and cyclone calcine. The feed decreases due to the water feed and this increases the
oxygen coefficient.

The decrease in the sulphide level of the boiler and cyclone calcine, as shown in Fig.
38, is due to the fact that a low feed increases the oxygen coefficient. Fig. 39 shows how
water fed before the furnace increases the SO4 content. The reason for this is that the
oxygen coefficient increases with the result that the SO4 level of the furnace calcine rises.

4.45
SO4-content of the overflow calcin

4.4

4.35

4.3

4.25

4.2

4.15

4.1

4.05

3.95
0 1 2 3 4 5
Water feed before day bins m3/h

Fig. 39. Increasing the water feed (*1) before the day bins increases the sulphate amount in the
bed. (*1 = The concentrate feed rate to the day bins is about 350 t/h and water is fed to this
stream).

6.1.6 Control of the furnace when Pb and/or Cu is high

The major impurities that should be emphasised in roasting are Cu and Pb. Many
concentrates have a high Pb content, some have a high Cu content. The danger of these
elements is that they can easily form molten phases as described in chapter 3. Besides Cu
 67

and Pb, other elements also form molten phases. The molten phases lead to build-ups in
the furnace and even to sintering of the bed in the worst case. The challenge in the control
of the furnace is to avoid molten phases when the impurity levels of the concentrate
mixture are high.
In plant experiments where the Pb level has been high in the concentrate mixture and
especially when the mixture has also been fine, the need to feed water before the day bins
has been obvious. Oxygen measurements from the bed have shown that the water feed
has stabilized the bed. In addition, feeding water after the day bins before the table feeder
stabilizes the bed, as can be seen from the fact that the temperature gradient is smaller.
This will be shown later in this chapter when the dynamics is discussed. In plant
experiments where there has been 3.3% Pb in the concentrate mixture and more than 5%
in the bed for some time, the bed has been kept stable successfully without major
difficulties. The crucial keys in keeping the bed stable have been the water feed to the
concentrate mixture before the day bins, keeping the oxygen coefficient over 1.1 and
running the furnace at a low temperature.
During plant experiments, numerous samples have been taken and analysed, both
chemical and microscopic analyses. Microscopic analyses are important in order to get
more information about what is going on in the bed. Fig. 40 shows how lead behaves in
agglomerates. The coating around the particle is mostly PbSO4 while the inner part is
mostly ZnO.

Fig. 40. SEM picture (left) of an overflow calcine 10.4.2002 (40 x). The coating around the inner
part (=ZnO) is PbSO4. The other picture (right) shows that copper behaves differently to lead.
A Cu2S core is formed in a copper rich concentrate pellet in a laboratory roasting experiment
at 950°C. The coating around the Cu2S core is ZnO.

Copper is a critical component in roasting. Copper behaves differently compared with

lead. Copper tends to migrate in the agglomerated zinc sulphide concentrates and enrich
as the least easily oxidising element in the centre of the agglomerate, as shown in Fig. 40.
The Cu2S cores formed, with very high copper concentrations, require long oxidation
times and a high oxygen coefficient (Taskinen et al. 2002, Metsärinta et al. 2003,
Metsärinta et al. 2005b).
During laboratory experiments the copper level in the feed has been up to about 0.9 %.
In laboratory experiments with a high Cu content, the need for a very high oxygen
coefficient proved essential. With a high oxygen coefficient, over 1.3, the bed remained
stable, i.e. no sintering of the bed occurred, even with a high copper content. Based on the
 68

laboratory tests, plant trials were performed with a Cu level of about 0.9 %. From plant
experiments, as shown in Figs 41 and 42, it can be seen that the copper level and oxygen
coefficient have an effect on the bed, i.e. the percentage of calcine from the overflow
depends on these variables. Later, based on the good experience from the plant trials with
high Pb in the feed (about 3.3 %) a plant test with a very high Cu in the feed was planned
and carried out. The test run with a very high Cu level in the feed mixture, which lasted
about two weeks, was performed successfully. The Cu level was about 0.9 –1.5 % in the
feed mixture. The oxygen coefficient must be high and the bed temperature low, when the
copper level of the concentrate feed is high (Metsärinta et al. (2003, 2005a, 2005b)). The
danger of a high temperature in the bed can be seen when phase diagrams are studied
(Appendix 1). In the plant experiments (both in the case with high Pb and in the case with
high Cu) the furnace bed temperature was kept at the level of about 900oC, which proved
to be good, i.e. formation of build-ups on the furnace grate was avoided.
Proportion of the overflow calcine of the feed

32.50

32.00

31.50
%

31.00

30.50

30.00
0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1
Cu-content of the feed-mix %

Fig. 41. The Cu level of the feed versus the amount of calcine overflow of the concentrate feed.
The proportion of the overflow calcine has decreased when the Cu level has increased.
Proportion of the overflow calcine of the feed

33.50

33.00
32.50

32.00
31.50

31.00
%

30.50

30.00
29.50 Water onto
29.00 the feed belt

28.50

28.00
1.18 1.20 1.22 1.24 1.26 1.28 1.30 1.32 1.34
Oxygen coefficient

Fig. 42. Oxygen coefficient versus the amount of calcine overflow of the concentrate feed. The
proportion of the overflow calcine has increased when the oxygen coefficient has been
increased.
 69

Plant experiments are necessary to gain reliable information on how the furnace
behaves when the impurity levels of the concentrate mixture are high. There is always a
risk that such experiments can lead to build-ups in the furnace and to other problems.
Therefore, such experiments must be well planned and performed. There are also limits
on how high impurity levels can be tested in full-scale furnaces.

6.1.7 Controlling unstable situations

When there is instability in the bed, control actions must be taken to rectify the situation,
i.e. to stabilise bed behaviour. Examples of different situations are presented in Figs 43–
51 and in an article (Nyberg et al. 2000). In these cases active control based on
knowledge gained has been used to correct the situations. Knowledge of the roasting
mechanism and also knowledge of how the particle size distribution of the bed can be
controlled is essential for successful control. It can be seen from the figures that control
of the oxygen coefficient has brought the bed back to a stable situation. In some cases,
control and increasing the oxygen coefficient have not helped. Feeding water to the
concentrate mixture has also stabilised the bed in some cases. The figures show the
importance and effects of the oxygen coefficient and the water feed. Other aspects to be
considered are bed temperature and impurity levels.
The fluidised bed was made stable, as shown in Fig. 43, by decreasing the bed
temperature and process airflow and by increasing the oxygen coefficient of the roasting
furnace by feeding oxygen. The bed temperatures rose back to normal during the period
(August 2002).
[°C] Roaster 2 - Bed temperatures and oxygen coefficient
950 1.45
1.40
900 1.35
1.30
850 1.25
1.20
800 1.15
1.10
750 1.05
1.00
700 0.95
04.08. 04:00
03.08. 04:00
03.08. 16:00

04.08. 16:00
05.08. 04:00
05.08. 16:00

06.08. 16:00
07.08. 04:00
07.08. 16:00

08.08. 16:00
09.08. 04:00
09.08. 16:00
10.08. 04:00
10.08. 16:00

12.08. 04:00
12.08. 16:00

13.08. 16:00
06.08. 04:00

08.08. 04:00

11.08. 04:00

13.08. 04:00
11.08. 16:00

Temperature measurement 1 [°C] Temperature measurement 5 [°C]

Temperature measurement 2 [°C] Oxygen coefficient

Fig. 43. Bed temperatures and oxygen coefficient of roaster furnace No. 2 in August, showing
the effect of oxygen coefficient alterations on stabilisation. By increasing the oxygen coefficient,
the stabilisation of the bed temperatures can be seen.

The fluidised bed also became unstable in September–October 2002. The wind-box
pressure decreased, although the oxygen coefficient was relatively high as shown in Fig.
44. In this case the moistening water feed to the concentrate feed before the day bins was
 70

decreased at the same time as the wind-box pressure dropped. By increasing the water
feed, as shown in Fig. 45, the wind-box pressure returned back to normal, thus showing
the importance of the water feed. During this period the grain size of the concentrate
mixture was fine. Increasing the oxygen coefficient failed to help in this case, but the
water feed solved the situation.

285 1.24

280
1.22
275
Windbox pressure mbar

270 1.20

Oxygen coefficient
265
1.18
260

255
1.16
250

245 1.14

240
Windbox pressure [mbar] 1.12
235
Oxygen coefficient
230 1.10
25.09.2002 27.09.2002 29.09.2002 01.10.2002 03.10.2002 05.10.2002 07.10.2002
00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00
Time

Fig. 44. Oxygen coefficient and wind-box pressure in furnace No. 2 (September–October 2002).
When the wind-box started to drop, the oxygen coefficient was increased in order to raise the
wind-box pressure back to the normal level.

285 0.7

280
0.6
275

270
Windbox pressure mbar

0.5

265
Water t/h

0.4
260

255
0.3
250

245 0.2

240
Windbox pressure [mbar] 0.1
235
Total moistening t/h
230 0
25.09.2002 00:00 27.09.2002 00:00 29.09.2002 00:00 01.10.2002 00:00 03.10.2002 00:00 05.10.2002 00:00 07.10.2002 00:00

Time

Fig. 45. Wind-box pressure and the total moistening water feed in roaster furnace No. 2
(September–October 2002). Water feed correlates with bed pressure, thus the wind-box
pressure is low, i.e. unstable bed, when the water feed is low.

Figs 46 and 47 show that during this period a stable bed, i.e. stable bed temperatures,
correlates more with the water feed and so the water feed is more essential than the
oxygen coefficient in this case. The bed temperatures remain quite stable although the
oxygen coefficient drops.
 71

Temperature measurement 4 [°C]

950 1.16
Temperature measurement 5 [°C]
940 Oxygen coefficient
1.14
930

920 1.12
Bed temperatures °C

Oxygen coefficient
910
1.10

900

1.08
890

880 1.06

870
1.04
860

850 1.02
25.07.2002 27.07.2002 29.07.2002 31.07.2002 02.08.2002 04.08.2002 06.08.2002
00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00
Time

Fig. 46. Oxygen coefficient and bed temperatures (# 4 & 5) of roaster No. 1 (July–August 2002).
The correlation is not so good, i.e. the temperatures stay stable even if the oxygen coefficient
drops.

950 0.25

940

930 0.2

920
Bed temperatures °C

910 0.15
Water t/h

900

890 0.1

880
Temperature measurement 4 [°C]
870 0.05
Temperature measurement 5 [°C]
860
Moistening before day bins [t/h]
850 0
25.07.2002 00:00 27.07.2002 00:00 29.07.2002 00:00 31.07.2002 00:00 02.08.2002 00:00 04.08.2002 00:00 06.08.2002 00:00

Time

Fig. 47. Water feed before the day bins and bed temperatures of roaster No. 1 (July–August
2002). The temperature drops (Thermocouple element No. 5) after the water feed is stopped.
After the water is again fed to the concentrate mixture, the temperature value returns back to
the normal level.

Fig. 48 shows that increasing the oxygen coefficient had a stabilising effect on the bed
temperatures, i.e. the values of the measurements stopped falling and rose towards the
normal level. The increase in the oxygen coefficient was achieved by decreasing the feed.
The feed was decreased by lowering the temperature set point of the fuzzy controller for
the furnace, as shown in Fig. 49. Increasing the oxygen coefficient can also be seen in the
bed pressure (wind-box pressure), the low level on 8.8.2002 moves towards the normal
level when the oxygen coefficient increases, as shown in Fig. 50.
 72

1000.0 1.40

1.35
900.0
1.30
Bed temperatures °C

Oxygen coefficient
800.0 1.25

1.20
700.0
1.15

600.0 1.10

1.05
500.0
1.00

400.0 0.95
02.08.2002 04.08.2002 06.08.2002 08.08.2002 10.08.2002 12.08.2002 14.08.2002 16.08.2002 18.08.2002
00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00

Temperature point 1 [°C] Time Temperature point 2 [°C]

Temperature point 3 [°C] Temperature point 4 [°C]
Temperature point 5 [°C] Oxygen coefficient

Fig. 48. Increasing the oxygen coefficient stabilized the bed temperatures (the negative trend
stopped).

30 1.40

1.35
28
1.30

Oxygen coefficient
26 1.25
Wet feed t/h

1.20
24
1.15

22 1.10

1.05
20
Feed [t/h] 1.00
Oxygen coefficient
18 0.95
02.08.2002 04.08.2002 06.08.2002 08.08.2002 10.08.2002 12.08.2002 14.08.2002 16.08.2002 18.08.2002
00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00

Time

Fig. 49. Changes of the oxygen coefficient were made by changing the feed rate. This was done
by changing the set point value of the furnace temperature. The fuzzy controller then decreased
or increased the feed rate.
 73

290.0 1.40

280.0 1.35

270.0 1.30
Bed pressure mbar

Oxygen coefficient
260.0 1.25

250.0 1.20

240.0 1.15

230.0 1.10

220.0 1.05

210.0 Bed pressure [mbar] 1.00

Oxygen coefficient
200.0 0.95
02.08.2002 04.08.2002 06.08.2002 08.08.2002 10.08.2002 12.08.2002 14.08.2002 16.08.2002 18.08.2002
00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00

Time

Fig. 50. Increasing the oxygen coefficient stabilized the bed pressure. The drop in bed pressure
was stopped and a slight increase back to the normal level can be seen. The period is the same
as in Fig. 49.

Fig. 51 shows that the situation in the furnace was such that increasing the oxygen
coefficient had a positive impact on the bed pressure. This resulted in a more stable bed.
280.0 1.25

270.0
1.20

260.0
Bed pressure mbar

Oxygen Coefficient
1.15
250.0

240.0 1.10

230.0
1.05

220.0

1.00
210.0
Bed pressure [mbar]
Oxygen coefficient
200.0 0.95
25.07.2002 26.07.2002 27.07.2002 28.07.2002 29.07.2002 30.07.2002 31.07.2002 01.08.2002 02.08.2002 03.08.2002
00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00
Time

Fig. 51. Increasing the oxygen coefficient brought the bed pressure back to normal.

During the period described in Figs 43–51, the feed was fine, i.e. the d50-value (= mass
median diameter) was in the range of about 20–22 µm. The furnace bed became
somewhat unstable occasionally during the period. The furnaces were brought back to
normal by active control of the process without changing the concentrate mixture to a safe
mixture, i.e. coarse and fewer impurities. The plant experiments performed have
increased knowledge of the roasting mechanism. Active surveillance and control in
difficult situations have also increased knowledge. Based on this, new instructions have
been adopted and the operators make their control decisions accordingly.
Means of controlling difficult situations have also been increased. Thus the operators
have more options to adjust the roasting conditions so that they are suitable for the
concentrate feed mixture. Often it is very complicated to know what is actually taking
place in the furnace. The same kind of indications can have different backgrounds and
 74

causes. Automation systems that show both short- and long-term trends have made
evaluation more effective. Monitoring and analysing the bed thoroughly is of great
importance in order to get more information about developments in the furnace. Both
chemical analysis (Cu, Pb, Si etc.) and the particle size distribution analysis of the calcine
bed give a lot of information about the situation in the bed together with other
measurements. Additional measurements are required to get a more accurate picture of
the roasting furnace behaviour.
Developing systems that visualise the situation, for instance a self-organizing map
(SOM) application, and then advise the operators, i.e. expert systems, are possible tools to
improve performance. An on-line application of an SOM has been developed for the
Kokkola roaster for detecting and predicting instability of the fluidised bed furnaces
(Saxén & Nyberg 2003).

6.1.8 The dynamics of the roaster furnace

The dynamics of the roaster furnace have been studied thoroughly. The dynamics are
rapid, especially the gas phase, but there are also slower processes where the response is
not so fast. The time delay of the bed is much slower than the time delay for the gas
phase. Information about the dynamics has been necessary for developing the furnace
control. The fuzzy control of the furnace temperature and development of the simulator
are cases where the dynamics have been studied before implementation (Rauma et al.
2000, Toskala et al. 2001). The fuzzy control system that was developed reduced the
general deviation of the temperature from 10oC to 3oC 95% of the time (Rauma et al.
2000). The structure of the fuzzy control system is shown in Fig. 52.

User Interface

RULE 1
RULE 2
...RULE N

Governed
Recovery Speed
Recovery Information of
Scaling Factor
control actions

Metrics
RULE 1
RULE 2
...RULE N

Basic Controller + x
Additional feeding
module
RULE 1 Zinc
RULE 2
...RULE N
Roaster
Furnace
Measurements

Fig. 52. The structure of the installed fuzzy control system (Rauma et al. 2000).

In the simulator case the very rapid pressure dynamics, i.e. changes in the pressure of
the furnace and boiler system, were studied by collecting data from the process during
 75

tests. The reason for building the simulator was to give the operators a tool for practising
the demanding start-up and shutdown situations. The simulator can also be used to see the
effects on the furnace pressure when valves and blowers are regulated. The simulator is
integrated in the automation system that is used for the actual control of the process. Fig.
53 shows the scope of the simulator.

Stack
By-pass valve SO2-
Air blower Stack valve
Furnace + boiler blower
+ cyclones +
Vane Air Exit gas pipe
precipitators
valve valve
Vane

H 2SO4-plant
Yfa

U fav Dynamic model U sbv

of the furnace
U bpv pressure U sv

U abv U ev
Furnace pressure, Y p Disturbance

Control variables: - air blower’s vane position Uabv

- by-pass valve position U bpv
- fluidising air valve U fav
- SOi 2i blower’s vane
2 position U sbv
- stack valve position U sv
- exit gas pipes valve position U ev
- fluidising air flow Yfa

Fig. 53. The scope of the simulator made for training start-up and shutdown situations. A
dynamic model for the furnace pressure was made (Toskala et al. 2001).

The dynamics of the process have been studied further. Dynamic models were
identified for input-output relations in the fluidised bed furnace. Based on these
experiments, a state-space model of the process has been built (Härkönen 2003, Saxén et
al. 2004). In this study, step trials were performed where the influence of different
variables was tested. During the tests the control loops that control the temperature of the
furnace, i.e. the fuzzy control of the bed temperature and the top temperature control loop,
were disconnected. The concentrate feed and air amount were fixed during the tests. In
cases where the effect of the concentrate feed or of the air amount were tested, they were
of course changed. The main variables that were tested are as follows:
– Water feed to the concentrate mixture before the table feeder.
– Water injection to the furnace bed.
– Air amount.
– Concentrate feed rate.
– Oxygen feed.
The aim of the tests was to collect data on how the different variables react in order to
build a model, but also to develop a control system to improve the control of the furnace.
Some results are presented below in Figs 54–57, which show the dynamics of the furnace
behaviour. There are both rapid and slow responses.
 76

Feeding water to the concentrate mixture increases the bed temperature (slowly) and
decreases the top temperature of the furnace (rapid response). At the beginning there is an
inverse response of the bed temperature before the temperature starts to rise. Feeding
water to the concentrate mixture stabilises the bed and this can be seen from the fact that
the bed temperatures start to converge as is shown in Fig. 54, i.e. the differences between
the different measurements become smaller. The same thing can be seen in Fig. 55, where
the difference between different bed temperatures is smaller when more water is used.
Water injection cools the bed when water is injected into the bed, as shown in Fig. 56.

600
Load conveyor water feed
500
400
L/h

300
200
100
0
18/8/03 12:00 18/8/03 15:00 18/8/03 18:00 18/8/03 21:00 19/8/03 00:00

980 Furnace temp. 6 Furnace temp. 7

960 Furnace temp. 12 Furnace temp. 14

°C

940

920

900
18/8/03 12:00 18/8/03 15:00 18/8/03 18:00 18/8/03 21:00 19/8/03 00:00

930 Boiler inlet temp. (left)

920
Boiler inlet temp. (right)
910
900
°C

890
880
870
860
850
18/8/03 12:00 18/8/03 15:00 18/8/03 18:00 18/8/03 21:00 19/8/03 00:00

Fig. 54. Responses of gas temperature and bed temperatures, when water is fed to the
concentrate mixture before the table feeder. The temperature rises in the bed when water is fed
to the concentrate mixture. At the beginning there is a slightly inverse reaction in the bed
temperatures. The top temperature decreases when water is fed to the concentrate mixture.
 77

30

max-min temp. (2,5,6,7,12,14) ('C)

Furnace 1
25
7.-28.6.03

20

15

10

0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Load conveyor water (L/h)

Fig. 55. Water feed before the table feeder stabilises the bed, which can be seen from the fact
that the temperature measurements in the furnace are closer to each other when more water is
fed.

700.0
600.0 Furnace water feed
500.0
400.0
L/h

300.0
200.0
100.0
0.0
21/8/03 12:00 21/8/03 15:00 21/8/03 18:00 21/8/03 21:00 22/8/03 00:00

980
Furnace temp. 6 Furnace temp. 7
960 Furnace temp. 12 Furnace temp. 14
°C

940

920

900
21/8/03 12:00 21/8/03 15:00 21/8/03 18:00 21/8/03 21:00 22/8/03 00:00

930
Boiler inlet temp. (left)
920
Boiler inlet temp. (right)
910
°C

900
890
880
870
21/8/03 12:00 21/8/03 15:00 21/8/03 18:00 21/8/03 21:00 22/8/03 00:00

Fig. 56. Response of water injection into the bed. The furnace temperature decreases due to the
cooling effect of the water injection.

Fig. 57 shows that when the oxygen feed is started, it has a divergent effect on the bed
temperatures.
 78

2000 Oxygen feed

1500
L/h
1000

500

0
9/6/03 18:00 9/6/03 21:00 10/6/03 00:00 10/6/03 03:00 10/6/03 06:00

980 Furnace temp. 6 60.0

Furnace temp. 7
960 55.0
°C

940 50.0

920 45.0

900 40.0
9/6/03 18:00 9/6/03 21:00 10/6/03 00:00 10/6/03 03:00 10/6/03 06:00

890 Boiler inlet temp. (left)

880 Boiler inlet temp. (right)
870
°C

860
850
840
830
9/6/03 18:00 9/6/03 21:00 10/6/03 00:00 10/6/03 03:00 10/6/03 06:00

Fig. 57. Divergent effect of oxygen on bed temperature measurements. The oxygen seems to
have a divergent effect on the temperatures, which could be explained by an increase of the
reaction rate in some parts of the furnace. Where there is a temperature drop, the reaction rate
decreases.

By doing these tests a lot of information was gathered on how different variables
respond when a variable is changed. The bed behaviour, fluctuation of the temperature
measurements when oxygen feed was started to the concentrate mixture and the
convergent effect of the bed temperatures, also provided information about the roasting
mechanism and information about the advantage of using water. This research resulted in
more knowledge of process dynamics and also more process know-how.
Tracer tests were made by adding Ti-oxide to the concentrate mixture to determine the
residence times (Saxén et al. 2004). The tracer was fed as an impulse to the concentrate
feed. The tests showed that the furnace bed behaved something like an ideally stirred
reactor, i.e. a first order system. The time constant for the furnace bed was about 20 h. For
the gas line the residence time was very short. The peak concentration in the cyclone was
measured about one minute after the impulse in the furnace feed. Figs 58 and Fig. 59
show the results from the tracer tests.
 79

Furnace overflow

0.25 2.9.2003 Furnace calcine Ti %

0.2 22.9.2003 Furnace calcine Ti %
0.15 First order model, T= 20h
Ti (%)

0.1

0.05

0
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time (h)

Fig. 58. Tracer content in the furnace overflow calcine for two experiments. The Ti-oxide tracer
was fed as an impulse at time 0 h. A first order model with a time constant of 20 h is shown for
comparison (Saxén et al. 2004).

Gas line
0.25

0.2 1.9.2003 Cyclone Ti %

0.15 4.9.2003 Cyclone Ti %

Ti (%)

0.1

0.05

0
-10 0 10 20 30
Time (min)

Fig. 59. The tracer tests shows that the time constant in the gas line is very short, i.e. the Ti-oxide
tracer fed as an impulse to the furnace is almost immediately detected in the calcine from the
cyclone after the boiler.

6.2 Boiler development

The work done and changes made to the boilers have been successful (Nyberg et al.
2000, Järvi et al. 2002). The running time between manual cleanings has increased from
about 3–5 months to more than 9 months. Running periods of up to over 1 year have been
 80

achieved (Kilju 2004). The baffle in the radiation section has been a success, but the long
running periods are also a consequence of other development work (Peippo et al. 1999).
The new type of bundles with effective hammering, section walls with hammering and
installation of more hammering devices have also proved to be good solutions. In
addition, effective cleaning during yearly shutdowns, i.e. cleaning the walls and bundles
not only mechanically but also using water, prevents build-ups in the boiler from forming
so easily. This is due to the fact that build-ups, in this case sulphates, do not stick so
easily to the boiler walls and bundles when they are metallically clean. The conditions in
the roasting furnace have an impact on the boiler performance. When there are more
sulphates in the calcine going to the boiler more stress is exerted on the boiler.
The aim of the boiler improvements has been to reduce the constraints in roasting by
having a boiler that can handle the calcine and gas load coming from the furnace. The
other aim has been to increase the running time of the boiler. The targets have been
reached, so the bottleneck is now more in the roaster furnace performance.
The effects of the baffle wall on the behaviour of the boiler were calculated in advance
and the resulting Fluent model calculations are shown in Figs 60 and 61.

Fig. 60. The effect of the baffle wall on the boiler behaviour (radiation section of the boiler) is
shown here. The velocity vectors are shown. The Fluent model calculation was made by Foster
Wheeler (= the boiler manufacturer).
 81

Fig. 61. The effect of the baffle wall on the boiler behaviour (radiation section of the boiler) is
shown in this figure. The temperature gradients are shown. The Fluent model calculation was
made by Foster Wheeler (= the boiler manufacturer).

6.3 Mercury removal development

The quality of H2SO4 has improved significantly due to the results of the research carried
out (Nyberg et al 2000). The mercury level in the sulphuric acid can be kept at about
0.02–0.06 mg Hg/kg H2SO4. Also, stability has improved and there are seldom high
mercury levels in the sulphuric acid and if there are, the operators now have better means
to control the quality. The main factor is to feed selenite solution to different process
stages and above all to the sulphuric acid process.
Based on material balance calculations and chemical analyses from different process
stages, extensive thermodynamic equilibrium calculations were performed. The chemical
analyses made were very demanding because of the difficulty of making a proper analysis
and the fact that the low quantities also complicated the analysis. The equilibrium
calculations correlated well with the chemical analyses. Therefore, new factors of
importance were learned, i.e. the role of the temperature and H2SO4 were not so critical
as the role of selenium.
In addition, by studying the slurry in the sulphuric acid process it could be detected
that the mercury was removed as HgSe and the need for Se was critical. Precipitation of
mercury with Se solution was carried out with success in the laboratory. After that, the
same was done at the plant (Peltola et al. 2000). Further research has been done and the
use of thiosulphate is another possible solution (Berg et al. 2003).
Better process know-how and new means of controlling the process are the basic
results of the research. The approach of carrying out both basic and applied research also
proved in this case to be the right way to improve the control of the process.
 7 Discussion
The research and development presented in this study includes and is based on both
laboratory and full-scale plant experiments, various studies, benchmarking, chemical
analyses and calculations. Doing research and development in this way has resulted in
better understanding of the process and in applications that have improved the
performance.
The research must be long-term because the process phenomena are so complicated
that otherwise good results cannot be achieved. Only by thorough and broad research can
new knowledge be gained. The effects of the applications also often need long-term
evaluation before their benefits and effects can be determined. Especially in furnace
research, full-scale plant experiments are necessary to gain reliable results. Only by doing
these full-scale experiments can the effects of different control variables and impurities be
seen. The performance of these plant experiments must be well planned, because they
involve risks. Their evaluation must also be made carefully in order to draw the right
conclusions. The research must be broad in the sense that both detailed and overall
research must be done. Details must be investigated to get knowledge of the roasting
mechanism, boiler behaviour and mercury behaviour. Research must be overall in the
sense that the whole process chain must be considered in order to reach the final targets,
i.e. enhanced performance. A change in one part of the process has effects on other parts
of the process and therefore a holistic view is a necessary. By improving the performance
in many areas, i.e. more measurements, new control variables, new instructions for the
operators and equipment modifications, performance is bound to improve. The target has
been to eliminate bottlenecks and make changes that do not lead to trouble in other parts
of the process.
The research and development carried out has resulted in the implementation of a new
overall control strategy for the roasting process. The control strategy has proved effective
and is presented later in this chapter. The control strategy will be further developed and
the aim is to raise the level of automation.
 83

7.1 Summary of the results

The research carried out has resulted in improved roaster performance in many ways. The
running time of the furnace and boiler has improved, i.e. there are less shutdowns and
longer periods between cleaning. The quality of the sulphuric acid is better and easier to
control. The flexibility in using different kinds of concentrates has increased. This
flexibility is important because the treatment charge is the major source of income.
The work done to understand the roasting mechanism has been successful in many
ways. More knowledge about instability situations has been gained and more
measurements showing the development of instability have been added. Thus the
operators know at an early stage when the bed starts to become unstable. Many times
instability in the bed has been successfully corrected by active control operations based
on the knowledge gained.
The target of reaching a running time greater than 95 % due to better furnace practice
now seems within reach. About two years’ running time (i.e. the interval between
cleaning of the furnace) has been achieved and the furnace grate has remained in good
shape, i.e. with only minor build-ups in the grate area. Earlier the normal running time
was one year between cleaning.
More measurements, more analyses and calculated variables have increased the
knowledge of the state of the furnace. Above all two things have proved to be of great
importance, i.e. the calculated oxygen coefficient and the grain size distribution of the
furnace overflow calcine. The calculation of the oxygen coefficient (the oxygen
coefficient is defined in chapter 5) and the control of the process based on this are two of
the major improvements in the control of the roaster furnace. Oxygen coefficient control
has led to more stable conditions in the furnace and increased running time. The
calculated oxygen coefficient is one of the main control variables for keeping the furnace
stable. Other key variables are the temperature and fluidisation rate. The oxygen
coefficient has been an important variable both in plant experiments and in the daily
control of the furnace. The grain size distribution analysis of the furnace overflow calcine
and above all the amount of fine material are good indicators of the bed quality and bed
instability. Along with others, i.e. wind-box pressure, bed temperatures and calculated
calcine overflow amount, it indicates changes in the fluidised bed. The grain size
distribution is also important when evaluating factors that influence grain size growth.
Besides knowing the state of the furnace through measurements, analyses and
calculated variables, one should also have the capability of controlling the furnace. By
increasing the control options, the chances of keeping the furnace stable are increased. In
this research the importance has been shown of having different means and tools to
control the process and also the effects they have. Feeding water to different spots
influences the furnace behaviour in many ways as described earlier. In addition, the
chance to use oxygen gives more freedom. Other means such as fixed bigger nozzles in
some parts of the furnace are advantageous in order to keep the oxygen coefficient at the
proper level, thus decreasing the formation of build-ups. One of the key results of the
plant experiments and active surveillance of the process has been new instructions for the
operators on how to control the furnace in different situations. As well as calculating the
oxygen coefficient, instructions have been made also on how the oxygen coefficient can
be controlled by different control variables.
 84

Better knowledge of the state of the furnace and more control options, along with
knowledge of their effect, have led to longer running time of the furnace. Too much build-
up in the furnace can be avoided thanks to better control. However, the formation of
build-ups also depends on the impurity levels of the concentrate mixture, as too high
impurity levels lead inevitably to formation of build-ups.

7.1.1 Summary of roasting development

Step by step more knowledge about zinc roasting has been gained through research. The
efficiency of the roaster has gradually increased. The results of the focused research and
development program of the roaster furnace can be summarized as follows:
– There is now more knowledge about the state of the process. By adding more
temperature measurements to the furnace more information about the bed behaviour has
been gained. Calculated variables like the oxygen coefficient and the amount of overflow
calcine from the furnace have increased the on-line information about the state of the
furnace. Analyses have been also added. The grain size distribution analysis of the
furnace calcine is a valuable indicator of changes in the state of the fluidised bed. The
new measurements (additional temperature measurements) and analyses (grain size
distribution) show at an early stage when the bed starts to become unstable.
– There are now more control variables in use, which increases flexibility. There are
now more opportunities to arrange the conditions in the furnace proactively: Water feed to
different areas. Water agglomerates fine concentrates and thus the top temperature of the
furnace can be controlled. Water injected to the bed increases the feed and thus makes it
possible to control the cooling capacity of the furnace. There is the possibility of using
oxygen enrichment. More oxygen is fed to the feed side of the furnace through bigger
nozzles.
– More knowledge about the dynamics of the furnace has been gained. Information
necessary for building simulators, models and designing control applications has been
gained through the experiments performed during this work (Rauma et al. 2000,
Härkönen 2003, Saxén et al. 2004, Valo 2004).
– A simulator has also been developed which operators use to keep up their skills, i.e.
to practise start-ups and shutdowns. The simulator can also be used to test the process
dynamics, i.e. the impacts of control variables on the furnace pressure (Toskala 2000,
Toskala et al. 2001).
– There is now more knowledge about the effects of different variables on the process.
This information has been gained from the experiments performed. There is now more
knowledge regarding both metallurgy and dynamics (Lepistö 1999, Nyberg et al. 2000,
chapter 6, Metsärinta et al. 2005a).
– There is now more knowledge about the optimum conditions for different
concentrate mixtures. Full-scale plant tests with the roaster furnaces have resulted in more
knowledge about the effects of different variables, such as the impact and the size of the
impact on process behaviour. During experiments with impurities such as Pb and Cu in
the feed mixture, new operation conditions have been tested successfully. In cases with
 85

high impurity levels (Pb, Cu etc.), it has been found that a low bed temperature (about
900 oC) might be necessary.
– A heat balance model has been developed which has been in use to estimate the
effects of different control variables such as water feed, oxygen feed and changes in the
air flow (Roine & Nyberg 2000, Björklund 2001). It has also been used to evaluate effects
of changes in equipment, before modifications of equipment have been made.
– The importance of the calculated oxygen coefficient has become apparent and its
active control is now in use. By doing this, formation of build-ups in the furnace can be
minimized or even avoided completely. As a result, a higher on-line availability of the
roaster has been achieved. Even up to about two years’ running time of the furnace has
been achieved and the furnace has remained in good condition, i.e. with only minor build-
ups on the furnace grate.
– Opportunities for using fine concentrates have improved. Water is being used to
make agglomerates in the bins and conveying systems and to control the top temperature
of the furnace.
– There is now more knowledge about the effects of impurities and the optimal process
conditions that are possible (Taskinen et al. 2002, Metsärinta et al. (2003, 2005a, 2005b)).
Lower temperatures are necessary when the impurity levels of the feed mixture are high.
The oxygen coefficient should not be too low in these cases. The limits for impurities,
however, are difficult to determine exactly and they vary from one combination to
another. When the levels are too high there are no optimum conditions.
– Some new tools providing data about the state of the roasting furnace process have
been implemented, of which SOM is one example (Saxén & Nyberg 2003).

7.1.2 Summary of boiler development

The modifications made in the boilers have proved to be effective. The running time for
the boiler was previously about 3 to 5 months between manual cleaning. Now the running
time is 9 months or more. Over one year of running time without manual cleaning of the
boiler has been achieved (Kilju 2004). The baffle wall in the radiation section has proved
effective both for cooling the gas stream and also for removing calcine from the gas flow.
In addition, other equipment modifications have contributed to the success, such as new
effective bundles with effective hammering, hammering of the section walls in the lower
part of the boiler, and installation of screens in the radiation section. Cleaning of the
boiler from the inside with water during maintenance shutdowns also delays the
formation of build-ups.
Longer running times and a more effective boiler reduce the constraints caused by the
boiler, thus freedom in the control of furnace conditions increases, which in many cases is
an advantage.
 86

7.1.3 Summary of mercury removal development

The extensive thermodynamic calculations along with mass balance calculations,
sampling and analyses, laboratory experiments and finally full-scale implementation have
increased our knowledge of mercury removal. Sampling and analysis of mercury and
other elements from the gas phase, where the levels of mercury and selenium are very
low, was a demanding task. The thermodynamic calculations and analyses of samples
corresponded well with each other. Both showed that gas phase of the process had
reached a steady state. The result of the research and development was a new control
method, i.e. the feeding of selenium to the process in liquid form. This selenium feed
improved the quality of the sulphuric acid, i.e. the mercury level can be kept low and in
the range of 0.02–0.06 mg Hg/kg H2SO4.

7.2 Control strategies and further research and development

Further research and development is necessary to gain more knowledge. The challenges
lie in furnace behaviour, i.e. the roasting mechanism and particle size growth mechanism
certainly need more investigation. The necessity for plant experiments has been obvious.
Two types of plant experiments have been done. In some experiments the emphasis has
been on studying the process metallurgy and in others on studying the dynamics. Both are
needed for developing the control of the furnace. In future the emphasis will be on doing
more experiments to study the process metallurgy. New measurements that show the state
of the furnace and development of new means of control are some targets for further
research and development. The research and development must be wide-ranging and not
focus only on the control of the furnace, but also take other aspects into consideration.
Pretreatment of concentrates is one example of this, which is perhaps in some cases a
necessity (Brown & Goosen 1996). The challenge in furnace control is knowing the
limits of the impurities, and predicting the behaviour of different concentrates is not easy.
Installing devices that prevent formation of build-ups and removing build-ups is also
included in the development program (Siirilä et al. 2004). The equipment can keep the
area of the slinger belt clean and prevent build-ups on the wall above the slinger belt inlet.
Cleaning the furnace wall of build-ups during maintenance shutdowns can sometimes be
time-consuming. Manual cleaning of the area at the top of the furnace between the
furnace and the boiler during operation is a safety issue and should therefore be
automated (Saarinen & Hugg 2000). Another challenge is to sustain reliable temperature
measurements in the furnace during long running periods and to develop systems to
replace malfunctioning devices during operation.
 87

7.2.1 Increasing the capacity of the furnace

There are several ways to increase the capacity of the furnace (Nyberg et al. 2000). If the
bed temperature in the furnace is increased, then the feed will increase. Higher bed
temperature also increases the sulphide level of the produced calcine, as is shown in Fig.
62. This is partly due to formation of bigger particles at higher temperatures. An
additional explanation for the higher sulphide level is that the oxygen coefficient is low
due to the high feed. However, the danger of high temperatures is that molten phases are
formed. This can lead to formation of build-ups, especially if the impurity levels in the
feed mixture are high (Appendix 1). Another way to increase the feed is to add more air,
but the limits are set by the fluidisation behaviour of the bed. More air increases the
capacity, but the sulphide level of the calcine also increases in this case due to the lower
oxygen coefficient, as the diagrams in Fig. 63 illustrate. Increasing the cooling capacity
of the furnace is one possibility. This can be done by increasing the cooling capacity of
cooling coils (fixed) and/or by water injection to the bed (flexible control of the heat
balance). Feeding oxide Zn materials also increases the feed due to their cooling effect.
Oxygen enrichment is used by some plants to increase the feed (Filho et al. 1998,
Longton 1998, MacLagan et al. 2000, Saha et al. 1989). The increase of feed using
oxygen enrichment is shown in Fig. 64. The costs of using oxygen is, however, a
disadvantage. Flexible cooling capacity is advantageous when oxygen enrichment is
used.

0.9
Sulphide in Calcine wt-%

0.8
0.7
0.6 Sulphide in Furnace Calcine
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
925 930 935 940 945 950 955 960 965
Bed Temperature °C
Fig. 62. The feed increases when the temperature is higher in the furnace. The increased feed
decreases the oxygen coefficient and the result is that the sulphide level of the formed calcine is
higher, as shown here (Nyberg et al. 2000).

0.6 30
Sulphide in Calcine wt-%

Sulphide in Boiler Calcine 30

Concentrate and Steam t/h

0.5
29
0.4 Steam Production t/h
29

0.3 28

28
0.2
27
0.1
Sulphide in Furnace Calcine Concentrate Feed t/h
27

0.0 26
39000 40000 41000 42000 43000 44000 45000 39000 40000 41000 42000 43000 44000 45000

Process Air Flow Rate Nm3/h Process Air Flow Rate Nm3/h

Fig. 63. By increasing the amount of air, the feed increases due to the cooling effect of the air
(graph on right). Due to the lower oxygen coefficient the sulphide level of the calcine increases
(graph on left). The furnace temperature in the experiments was 950°C (Nyberg et al. 2000).
 88

31

Concentrate Feed t/h 30 Mixture D & Cooling

29
Mixture B
28
Mixture C & Cooling
27
Mixture A
26

25
20.5 21 21.5 22 22.5 23 23.5 24
Ozygen Enrichment vol-%

Fig. 64. By using oxygen the feed increases, due to the cooling effect of the oxygen. In the expe-
riments with additional cooling (C and D), more cooling coils had been added to the furnace.
The furnace temperature in the experiments was 950°C (Nyberg et al. 2000).

By keeping the top temperature of the furnace high, the feed increases and therefore
the oxygen coefficient decreases. The result is that the sulphate level of the formed
calcine going to WHB decreases, as shown in Fig. 65. As mentioned in chapter 4 the
target is to have both optimal feed and optimal process conditions.

Cyclone SO4 %
WHB SO4 %
14 Li (WHB SO4 %) 11

13 10
Cyclone SO4 %

12 9
WHB SO4 %

11 8

10 7

9 6

8 5

7 4
780 800 820 840 860 880 900 920 940

WHB inlet temperature °C

Fig. 65. Higher top temperature increases the feed and due to the lower oxygen coefficient the
sulphate level of the formed calcine is lower, thus the sulphate load on the WHB decreases.

7.2.2 Example of flexible control

As mentioned earlier, the opportunities to arrange conditions in the furnace have been
increased. Fig. 66 shows a situation when this flexibility can be used. For a certain
concentrate mixture, it might be better if the temperature is lower in the furnace. Case 1
shows that the feed is A t/h, the air feed is B Nm3/h, the temperature is CoC and the
oxygen coefficient is D. Case 2 shows that the same feeds and oxygen coefficient can be
kept in the furnace if water (E l/h) is injected into the furnace bed. The desired
temperature (C-X) oC can be achieved without decreasing the feed.
 89

Flexible arrangement of the process conditions in the furnace

Case 1:
Concentrate feed ( A t/h)
Temperature of the furnace
o
C C
Air feed ( B Nm3/h)
Oxygen coefficient
D

Case 2:
Concentrate feed ( A t/h)
Temperature of the furnace
o
(C - X) C
Air feed ( B Nm3/h)
Oxygen coefficient
Water injection into the bed D
E l/h

Fig. 66. In both cases the feeds and the oxygen coefficient are the same. By injecting water, the
temperature can be lowered in the furnace, without decreasing the concentrate feed. In cases
with high impurity levels, a temperature level of about 900°C might be necessary.

7.2.3 Operation conditions for different feed mixtures

For a good economic result it is important to be able to use different kinds of
concentrates. Concentrates with lower Zn content are more viable economically, but their
use is more demanding as is shown in Fig. 67. The operating range is narrower when
concentrate mixtures with a high degree of impurities are used.
When the impurity levels of the concentrate mixture are very high then there are no
operation ranges, i.e. the furnace will inevitably become unstable. This will lead to the
formation of build-ups. The difficulty is to know what are the upper limits for different
impurities. The more impurities there are in the concentrate mixture, the more difficult it
is to estimate the best operating conditions.
 90

Control of the furnace bed temperature and the oxygen coefficient

Different types of Safe operating conditions

concentrate mixture

Temperature range is wide 900 – 970 oC.

Clean and coarse
concentrate mixture.
Oxygen coefficient range is wide 1 - 1.35.

Temperature range is narrow, too high

temperatures can lead to forming of
Impure and fine molten phases.
concentrate mixture.
Oxygen coefficient range is narrow,
forming of molten phases is a danger. The
optimal oxygen coefficient level depends
on the impurity types (Pb, Cu) and amount.

Fig. 67. The operating range in the furnace is narrower if the concentrate mixture contains high
impurity levels. The temperature and the oxygen coefficient are the main control variables.

7.2.4 The developed furnace control strategy

The study of the dynamics of the furnace and the construction of a state space model have
given results that can be used for developing furnace control (Härkönen 2003, Saxén et
al. 2004). The aim has been to build a control system that optimises the feed without
neglecting the results of the metallurgical experiments. The structure of the furnace
control strategy that is in use is shown in Fig. 68. The target is to further raise the
automation level. The aim is to build a control application that both optimises the feed
and creates optimal process conditions for the concentrate mixture based on the
developed control strategy (Valo 2004). The basis is to give a range both for the furnace
temperature and the oxygen coefficient. The optimal values for these (temperature and
oxygen coefficient) are estimated based on the knowledge gained during this
development process. The control application then maximizes the feed. Measurements,
analyses and knowledge about the state of the process and knowledge about the dynamics
of the furnace along with control variables are parts of the application.
 91

Concentrate mixture

Metallurgical
knowledge

Set point range for the Set point range for the
furnace temperature oxygen coefficient
Max temperature Max oxygen coefficient
Min temperature Min oxygen coefficient

Knowledge about
Measurements the dynamics of Control
and analyses the process and variables and
dynamic model limits

State of the Control application

furnace
Target: - maximising the feed
- optimising the conditions

Fig. 68. The figure shows the developed control strategy. The target is to build a control appli-
cation that maximizes the feed based on this control strategy. The aim is to optimise the feed
and the process conditions (temperature and oxygen coefficient), based on metallurgical know-
ledge and knowledge of the dynamics. Measurements, analyses, the dynamic model and control
variables are also key elements in the control application.

Many aspects must be considered in order to achieve the best result in roaster control.
The entire process must be taken into account, thus in the control of the furnace boiler
efficiency is also important. The control strategy could be the following:
– Optimal process conditions for a certain concentrate mixture should be chosen on the
basis of metallurgical knowledge.
– The aim should be to reach long running times for the furnace-boiler system, thus
minimising the number and time of the shutdowns. Therefore it is better not to over-
feed, if it leads to trouble and an unstable process. By reducing the number of shut-
downs the impacts on the environment are less, and the maintenance costs are also
reduced.
– The state of the process must always be monitored with care (measurements and ana-
lyses) in order to make the corrections in advance.
– Control applications must be developed to maximise the feed rate, as shown in Fig.
68.
– If control actions fail to keep the furnace stable, then the concentrate mixture must be
changed.
Some possible ways to further increase performance are mentioned below. Developing
fuzzy control systems and/or expert systems based on the knowledge acquired is a
possible development path (Ikonen 1996, Isomursu 1995, Viljamaa 2000). Optimisation
 92

of fluid bed control has been carried out in energy-producing fluidised bed reactors
(Leppäkoski et al. 1999, Leppäkoski & Kortela 1999). It could be useful to adopt their
ideas, for example Combustion Power Control, or to use Learning Automata in the
development (Leppäkoski et al 2000, Ikonen & Najim 1997, Najim & Ikonen 2002). The
aim is to use the rules learnt from metallurgical experiments and to use the control tools
available, e.g. water feed to different spots and using oxygen.
 8 Conclusions
The research and development presented in this study has had the target of improving the
performance of the roaster. The main aim is to improve the economic result. To achieve
this goal, the capability of being flexible in using different kinds of concentrates is the
main sub-target. Other sub-targets are to decrease the amount of disturbances, keep the
furnace stable, increase the running time between maintenance shutdowns, and improve
the quality of the products. To achieve these sub-targets, equipment modifications, new
control variables, new measurements and new analyses have been adopted. New
instructions for the operators, development of maintenance and also improvement of the
performance of the personnel have been the means employed to achieve these targets.
The implemented development concept, i.e. doing an extensive characterisation of the
process has proved to be an effective way to increase the efficiency of the roasting
process. The results of the process characterisation have led to the implementation of a
new and effective control strategy.
The approach of the thesis has been to carry out extensive and intensive research in
order to learn more about the entire process and process phenomena, i.e. process
characterisation. Process knowledge is the necessary base for making improvements in
process control. New applications have been developed through gaining more knowledge.
The tools used to reach the targets are the development of control methods and
improvement of the process, both by equipment modifications and by adding new control
variables. This improvement can be made by enhancing control, equipment and the
process based on existing knowledge. Examples of such improvements are the fuzzy
systems developed for the control of the furnace temperature and the control of mercury
removal. These applications stabilise the processes, but are not always optimal in all cases
and cannot solve all the process problems. Therefore these kinds of improvements are not
enough and in this thesis the emphasis and the approach have been on improving
performance based on increased knowledge. This is certainly the right approach if better
performance, i.e. the optimal level, is desired.
There are several challenges for further development. More knowledge is still required
about the roasting mechanism. The use of concentrate mixtures with high levels of
impurities needs further research. The difficulty is to know the limits and how these limits
 94

can be tested safely, i.e. without jeopardising the stability of the furnace. Plant
experiments are necessary but they involve risks and are also expensive to perform.
Therefore, they must be well planned and analysis of the results must be done with care.
When high impurity levels are tested, the safest way to do these experiments is to do them
just before a shutdown. Then the risk of economic and production losses are smaller. The
challenge is also to determine the optimal conditions. The optimal conditions must be
such that they enable long-term running of the roaster furnace, i.e. minimise the formation
of build-ups. More measurements showing the state of the furnace should also be
developed and more control variables should be considered. In addition, laboratory
studies are needed in order to gain further knowledge about the roasting mechanism.
The impacts on the boiler system should not be neglected. Therefore, it is important to
study what the impacts of the different control strategies and conditions in the furnace are
on the boiler system. The need to have a better performing boiler may be required, if high
impurity levels in concentrate mixture are used.

Automation Process
Equipment

Maintenance Process knowledge Human

(Metallurgy, Resources
Thermodynamics
etc.)

Safety Quality

Environment

Fig. 69. In order to achieve sustainable results, the issues shown in the diagram must be consi-
dered in the development process.

There are also other issues that should not be neglected. Fig. 69 shows the issues that
must be considered when the target is to increase the performance. Human resources
(HR) should always be borne in mind during development work. Good performance can
only be achieved if the personnel are skilful. Maintenance must also be of high standard
and the work done during shutdowns is of great importance (Cunningham & Connock
2003). Longer running time also puts more pressure on maintenance work. Safety issues
are nowadays very important and this factor must also be considered. Environment issues
along with quality systems are also issues that need more and more attention. Overall, to
achieve sustainable results there are many issues that must be considered in the
development process.
Benchmarking, visiting other zinc plants and participating in international conferences
should also be part of development work, because valuable information can be obtained
from these kinds of activities (Brook Hunt 2003). In this development work, ideas and
 95

knowledge gained from these sources have been one source for the R&D work and have
in some cases led to implementation.
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Appendices
 104

Appendix 1: Phase and Kellogg diagrams

In this work an evaluation of the phase and Kellogg diagrams has been done in order to
gain a picture of the phases that are stable or molten phases that can be formed during
zinc roasting conditions. It is essential to be aware of the dangers if the impurity levels
increase and to seek optimal conditions from the study of these diagrams.
From the phase diagrams it can be seen that different kinds of melts (sulfide melts,
oxide melts, sulfate and silicate melts) are formed in conditions typical of a zinc roaster.
The probability of melts increases as the impurity levels increase. From the Kellogg
diagrams the stable phases for different elements can be seen. In these diagrams the
variables are temperature, SO2 pressure and O2 pressure.
Some of the basic diagrams are shown below. The data sources for the diagrams are
given in the reference list at the end of this appendix.

log pSO2(g) Zn-S -O Phase Stability Diagram at 940.000 C

2
ZnS ZnSO4
1 ZnO*2ZnSO4

Zinc Roasting
-1 SO2 ~ 10 %
O2 ~ 5 %

-2 ZnO

-3

-4

-5
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
File: C:\HSC5\Lpp\ZnSO940.ips log pO2(g)

Fig. 1. Zn-S-O phase stability diagram made using the HSC program at fixed temperature. In
typical roasting conditions ZnO is stable (Roine 2002).
 105

log pSO2(g) Predominance Diagram for Zn-O-S System

2

ZnSO4
0

-1

ZnO*2ZnSO4
-2

-3
ZnO
-4

-5
600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Constant value: T / °C
pO2(g) = 5.00E-02

Fig. 2. Predominance diagram for Zn-O-S at fixed oxygen pressure made using HSC (Roine
2002). The oval area marks the typical operation conditions for the furnace. Decreasing the
temperature (boiler operation conditions) will result in formation of ZnSO4.

log pSO2(g) Cu-O -S Phase Stability Diagram at 940.000 C

2
CuSO4
CuO*CuSO4
1 Cu2S

Zinc Roasting
-1 SO2 ~ 10 %
O2 ~5 %

-2

Cu Cu2O CuO
-3

-4

-5
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
File: C:\HSC5\Lpp\CuOS940.ips log pO2(g)

Fig. 3. Cu-S-O phase stability diagram made using the HSC program at fixed temperature. In
typical roasting conditions CuO and Cu2O are stable (Roine 2002).
 106

log pSO2(g) Predominance Diagram for Cu-O-S System

2

CuSO4
0

CuO*CuSO4
-1

-2

CuO Cu2O
-3

-4

-5
600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Constant value: T / °C
pO2(g) = 5.00E-02

Fig. 4. Predominance diagram for Cu-O-S at fixed oxygen pressure made using HSC. The oval
area marks the typical operation conditions for the furnace. Decreasing the temperature
(boiler operation conditions) will result in formation of CuSO4 (Roine 2002).

log pSO2(g) Pb-O -S Phase Stability Diagram at 940.000 C

2
PbSO4
PbS
1

PbO*PbSO4
0
Zinc Roasting
*2PbO*PbSO4 SO2 ~10 %
-1 O2 ~ 5 %

*3PbO*PbSO4
-2

Pb
-3

PbO
-4

-5
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
File: C:\HSC5\Lpp\PbOS940.ips log pO2(g)

Fig. 5. Pb-S-O phase stability diagram made using HSC program at fixed temperature. In
typical roasting conditions PbSO4 is stable (Roine 2002).
 107

log pSO2(g) Predominance Diagram for Pb-O-S System

2

PbSO4
-1

-2

-3 PbO*PbSO4

*2PbO*PbSO4
-4
*3PbO*PbSO4
PbO
-5
600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Constant value: T / °C
pO2(g) = 5.00E-02

Fig. 6. Predominance diagram for Pb-O-S at fixed oxygen pressure made using HSC (Roine
2002). The oval area marks the typical operation conditions for the furnace. PbSO4 remains
stable also when the temperature decreases (boiler operation conditions).

Fig. 7. Cu2O-PbO phase diagram (Gebhart & Obrowski 1964). The danger is that molten
phases are formed even if the temperature is low when there are high concentrations of Cu
and Pb present.
 108

Fig. 8. PbSO4-PbO phase diagram (Margulis & Kopylov 1969). The danger of molten phases
increases when the temperature is high and the concentration of Pb is high.

Fig. 9. Zn 2 SiO4 and PbZnSiO 4 liquids (Jak et al. 1999). The danger of molten phases is
present when there are high concentrations of silica present.
 109

Fig. 10. Na2O-SiO2 system (PED Database 1999). High concentrations of Na and Si form mol-
ten phases.

Fig. 11. PbO-ZnO-Fe-O system (Fe 1 %, pO2 =1 %) (Davies et al 2002).

 110

Reference list for the sources of the diagrams:

Gebhardt E & Obrowski W (1964) In:Phase Diagrams for Ceramists. Ohio, The American Ceramic
Society, p.86.
Margulis E V & Kopylov N I (1969) In:Phase Diagrams for Ceramists 1969 Supplement. Ohio: The
American Ceramic Society, p.261.
Jak E, Detegterov S A, Wu P, Hayes P C & Pelton A (1999) Thermodynamic Optimization of the
Systems PbO-SiO2, PbO-ZnO, ZnO-SiO2 and PbO-ZnO-SiO2”, Met Trans B, vol 28 B, pp.1011-
1018.
Davies R H, Dinsdale A T, JA Gisby J A, Robinson J A J & Martin S M (2002) MTDATA - thermo-
dynamic and phase equilibrium software from the national physical laboratory, Calphad Vol. 26,
Issue 2, pp. 229-271.
PED Database (1998) vers. 2.1. Columbus, Ohio (USA): The American Ceramic Society.
Roine A (2002) Outokumpu HSC Chemistry for Windows-Chemical Reaction and Equi-
librium Software with Extensive Thermochemical Database, User’s Guide, Version
5.0”, (Pori, Finland: Outokumpu Research Oy).
 111

Appendix 2: The zinc roaster of Kokkola zinc plant (The equipment of

one line)
 112

Appendix 3: Flowsheet of the Kokkola zinc plant

 113

Appendix 4: Analyses of samples from the process

To better understand the process it is necessary to take samples for chemical analysis.
Besides the daily samples, extra samples have also been taken in order to get a better
picture of the process. Extra samples have been taken in particular during the plant trials
and when the process has been unstable. During shutdowns samples have been taken
from the build-ups in the furnaces and the boilers. Besides chemical analysis, it is
sometimes necessary to do X-ray analysis too. In order to draw the right conclusions
about what is going on in the process or what has happened, it is necessary to collect data
over a longer period of time. Gradually more and more knowledge is built up.
Analyses from samples taken during operation and shutdowns are shown in the
following tables, i.e. in Tables 3-5. It can be seen that are some differences. Table 3, taken
during normal operation, shows that the sulphate level is lower in the furnace than later in
the process chain. The highest sulphate levels are in the ESP. From the samples taken
during shutdowns, as shown in Tables 4-5, the sulphate levels are very high. This shows
that the build-ups that were formed gradually develop to sulphates.
Date Zn S Fe Pb Cu Si K Na Ca As H2O Sulphide SO4
sulphur
% % % % % % % % % % % % %

10.4.2002 Concentrate 54.3 30.2 5.5 2.8 0.12 0.60 0.06 0.03 0.72 0.10 11.9
15.4.2002 Concentrate 53.7 30.5 5.5 2.8 0.11 0.58 0.09 0.03 0.70 0.10 9.4
9.9.2003 Concentrate L1 54.5 32.7 8.8 0.7 0.50 0.13 0.06 0.32 0.16 8.1
9.9.2003 Concentrate L2 55.9 32.7 7.8 0.8 0.62 0.11 0.05 0.40 0.07 8.1
10.4.2002 Furnace ovf. 64.4 1.8 6.4 3.6 0.11 0.84 0.07 0.04 0.72 0.08 0.84 3.9
calcine
15.4.2002 Furnace ovf. 64.0 1.9 6.1 4.1 0.10 0.71 0.07 0.05 0.90 0.10 0.41 4.4
calcine
9.9.2003 Furnace ovf. 61.0 1.2 9.2 1.4 0.63 0.13 0.06 0.68 0.07 0.28 3.0
calcine L1
9.9.2003 Furnace ovf. 62.1 1.1 9.1 1.2 0.65 0.13 0.06 0.61 0.05 0.22 2.8
calcine L2
10.4.2002 Boiler 64.2 3.4 6.0 3.4 0.16 0.76 0.08 0.04 0.86 0.11 0.54 8.6
calcine
15.4.2002 Boiler 62.9 3.5 5.1 3.0 0.13 0.71 0.10 0.05 1.10 0.15 0.15 10.0
calcine
9.9.2003 Boiler 60.6 3.0 8.2 1.0 0.69 0.07 0.04 0.50 0.08 0.35 8.1
calcine L1
9.9.2003 Boiler 60.3 3.5 8.1 0.9 0.69 0.12 0.06 0.49 0.07 0.09 10.5
calcine L2
10.4.2002 Cyclone 60.3 3.6 6.1 3.4 0.17 0.67 0.08 0.05 0.83 0.19 0.54 9.4
calcine
15.4.2002 Cyclone 60.7 4.3 5.4 3.0 0.15 0.62 0.10 0.05 0.94 0.18 0.18 12.5
calcine
9.9.2003 Cyclone 60.3 3.2 8.5 1.0 0.71 0.13 0.06 0.46 0.08 0.29 9.0
calcine L1
9.9.2003 Cyclone 61.0 3.1 8.3 0.9 0.72 0.11 0.05 0.46 0.07 0.09 9.3
calcine L2
10.4.2002 ESP calcine 61.2 4.3 6.1 3.1 0.16 0.67 0.10 0.05 0.72 0.14 0.42 11.6
15.4.2002 ESP calcine 57.6 6.1 6.4 2.5 0.17 0.68 0.10 0.05 0.48 0.18 0.22 17.5
9.9.2003 ESP calcine L1 57.9 4.5 8.2 1.0 0.67 0.14 0.06 0.47 0.08 0.19 13.2
9.9.2003 ESP calcine L2 58.2 4.1 8.5 1.0 0.67 0.09 0.04 0.45 0.08 0.11 12.3

L1 = Roasting line no. 1

L2 = Roasting line no. 2
ovf. = Overflow

Table 3. Analyses taken from daily operation show that the sulphate level of the formed
calcine is lower in the furnace than in the boiler, cyclone and ESP. The Pb level has also
been quite high in the furnace calcine during some periods.
 114

Date Zn Cu Pb Cd Fe SO4 S2- Ca Mg Al Si As Na K

% % % % % % % % % % % % % %

19.3.2000 Furnace 1 55 1.1 0.54 0.29 8.7 21.3 0.01 0.12 0.06 0.13 0.5 0.06 0.07 0.28
19.3.2000 Furnace 1 41 1.5 19 3 9.1 15.6 0.01 0.22 0.07 0.13 0.09 0.21 0.05 0.18
20.3.2000 Furnace 2 43 0.69 1.5 0.15 6.4 40.5 0.01 0.32 0.11 0.14 0.84 0.14 0.04 0.17
20.3.2000 Furnace 2 44 0.65 1.6 0.17 6.6 39 0.01 0.34 0.11 0.11 0.59 0.12 0.07 0.26

1998 WHB 1 41 0.43 1.9 0.27 4.4 39 0.02 0.6 0.2 0.15 0.5 0.1 0.07
1998 WHB 1 32 2.8 2.4 0.27 3.6 50.7 0.02 0.5 0.2 0.15 0.2 0.2 0.1
1998 WHB 2 38 0.6 1.6 0.21 3.5 49.8 0.02 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.31 0.2 0.1
1998 WHB 2 46 0.6 1.4 0.21 7 34.2 0.13 0.4 0.2 0.09 0.22 0.15 0.1

Table 4. Samples taken during a shutdown from the furnace and boiler build-ups show
that the sulphate levels are very high, i.e. the build-ups develop gradually into sulphates.
One build-up sample from the furnace (19.3.2000/second sample) shows, however, a very
high Pb level, while the sulphate level is lower.

1999 2000 2001

Zn % 33 - 34 41 - 69 45 - 70
Cu % 0.33 - 0.35 0.62 - 1.5 0.24 - 0.58
Pb % 1.2 0.54 - 19 1.5 - 2.8
Cd % 0.11 - 0.14 0.17 - 6.8 0.08 - 0.25
Fe % 4.4 - 4.9 7.1 - 11.8 4.1 - 8.2
SO4 % 54 1.1 - 21 3.6 - 36
Ca % 0.34 - 0.44 0.12- 0.56 0.45 - 0.84
Mg % 0.15 - 0.16 0.04 - 0.12 0.09 - 0.15
Al % 0.12 - 0.19 0.14 - 0.18
Si % 0.43 0.01 - 0.68 0.41 - 0.74
Na % 0.01 0.05 - 0.1 0.07 - 0.09
K% 0.01- 0.02 0.18 - 0.33 0.06 - 0.14

Table 5. The table shows the analyses of furnace shutdown samples taken during the
yearly shutdowns. The values for the different years show how wide the range of analysis
results has been.

The difficulty, in shutdown samples, is that the equipment (furnace and boiler) is large,
the build-ups might be large and the build-ups have been generated during a long period.
It is often difficult to take a proper sample. It might be difficult to know from what period
it is. It is often difficult to find the right explanation. However it is essential to take
samples and to analyse them in order to get more information. The result of the intensive
collection of samples at the Kokkola roaster has been that gradually more and more
process knowledge has been gained. Whenever there is instability in the process, samples
are taken and analysed. Then the results are compared with similar situations in the past.
Step by step more knowledge has been gained and the control actions to correct the
process have been taken based on this knowledge. Over the last few years, as the result of
improved furnace control, the amount of build-ups in the furnace grate area has
decreased. In the shutdown of spring 2004 there were almost no build-ups in the grate
areas of the two furnaces.